This document discusses bandwidth utilization techniques like multiplexing. It begins by defining multiplexing as techniques that allow simultaneous transmission of multiple signals across a single data link. It then describes various multiplexing techniques including frequency-division multiplexing (FDM), wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM), and time-division multiplexing (TDM). For each technique, it provides examples to illustrate how they work and calculates key parameters like data rates, frame rates, and time slot durations. It also discusses challenges like data rate mismatches and solutions like multilevel, multislot, and pulse stuffing multiplexing. Finally, it covers applications of these techniques in digital signal hierarchies.
This document discusses multiplexing techniques for bandwidth utilization including frequency-division multiplexing (FDM), wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM), time-division multiplexing (TDM), and statistical time-division multiplexing. It provides examples of combining multiple analog or digital signals into a single transmission medium and discusses frame rates, bit rates, and slot durations. Synchronization and data rate management techniques are also covered to efficiently allocate bandwidth when input link speeds are mismatched.
This document discusses multiplexing techniques for bandwidth utilization including frequency-division multiplexing (FDM), wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM), synchronous time-division multiplexing (TDM), and statistical time-division multiplexing. It provides examples of combining multiple analog or digital signals into a single transmission medium and discusses frame rates, bit rates, and slot durations. Diagrams illustrate concepts like FDM configuration, TDM frame structure, and the digital telephone hierarchy using T1 and E1 lines. The document also covers data rate management, synchronization, and potential bandwidth inefficiency when input links are unused.
Ch6 1 Data communication and networking by neha g. kuraleNeha Kurale
This document discusses bandwidth utilization and multiplexing techniques. It begins by defining bandwidth utilization and how efficiency can be achieved through multiplexing, which is the set of techniques that allows simultaneous transmission of multiple signals across a single data link. The document then provides details on various multiplexing techniques including frequency-division multiplexing, wavelength-division multiplexing, synchronous time-division multiplexing, and statistical time-division multiplexing. It also discusses bandwidth matching strategies like multilevel, multislot, and pulse stuffing multiplexing and includes examples of applying these concepts.
This document discusses multiplexing techniques including frequency division multiplexing (FDM), wavelength division multiplexing (WDM), and time division multiplexing (TDM). FDM combines analog signals by modulating each signal to a different frequency band. WDM combines optical signals by using different wavelengths of light. TDM is a digital technique that divides a high-speed data stream into slower channels, transmitting a time slot from each channel in sequence to efficiently share the bandwidth among users. Synchronous TDM transmits at fixed intervals while asynchronous TDM allocates slots dynamically based on demand.
This document provides information on bandwidth utilization techniques like multiplexing and spreading. It discusses different types of multiplexing including frequency-division multiplexing (FDM), wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM), synchronous time-division multiplexing (TDM), and statistical TDM. Examples are provided to illustrate how these techniques work and how to calculate key parameters like bandwidth, data rate, and duration when multiplexing multiple channels into a single link.
Chapter 6 bandwidth utilization -multiplexing and spreading_computer_networkDhairya Joshi
This document discusses bandwidth utilization techniques including multiplexing and spreading. It begins by defining bandwidth utilization and describing how efficiency can be achieved through multiplexing while privacy and anti-jamming can be achieved through spreading. The document then focuses on multiplexing techniques including frequency-division multiplexing, wavelength-division multiplexing, synchronous time-division multiplexing, and statistical time-division multiplexing. It provides examples and diagrams to illustrate these techniques. The document also covers spread spectrum techniques such as frequency hopping spread spectrum and direct sequence spread spectrum.
This document discusses bandwidth utilization techniques including multiplexing and spreading. It begins by defining bandwidth utilization and explaining that efficiency can be achieved through multiplexing while privacy and anti-jamming can be achieved through spreading. The document then focuses on multiplexing techniques including frequency-division multiplexing, wavelength-division multiplexing, synchronous time-division multiplexing, and statistical time-division multiplexing. It provides examples and diagrams to illustrate these techniques. The document also covers spread spectrum techniques such as frequency hopping spread spectrum and direct sequence spread spectrum.
This document discusses bandwidth utilization techniques like multiplexing and spreading. It defines multiplexing as a set of techniques that allows the simultaneous transmission of multiple signals across a single data link. The document provides examples and explanations of different multiplexing techniques including frequency-division multiplexing, wavelength-division multiplexing, synchronous time-division multiplexing, and statistical time-division multiplexing. It also discusses how these techniques can be used to efficiently utilize available bandwidth.
This document discusses multiplexing techniques for bandwidth utilization including frequency-division multiplexing (FDM), wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM), time-division multiplexing (TDM), and statistical time-division multiplexing. It provides examples of combining multiple analog or digital signals into a single transmission medium and discusses frame rates, bit rates, and slot durations. Synchronization and data rate management techniques are also covered to efficiently allocate bandwidth when input link speeds are mismatched.
This document discusses multiplexing techniques for bandwidth utilization including frequency-division multiplexing (FDM), wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM), synchronous time-division multiplexing (TDM), and statistical time-division multiplexing. It provides examples of combining multiple analog or digital signals into a single transmission medium and discusses frame rates, bit rates, and slot durations. Diagrams illustrate concepts like FDM configuration, TDM frame structure, and the digital telephone hierarchy using T1 and E1 lines. The document also covers data rate management, synchronization, and potential bandwidth inefficiency when input links are unused.
Ch6 1 Data communication and networking by neha g. kuraleNeha Kurale
This document discusses bandwidth utilization and multiplexing techniques. It begins by defining bandwidth utilization and how efficiency can be achieved through multiplexing, which is the set of techniques that allows simultaneous transmission of multiple signals across a single data link. The document then provides details on various multiplexing techniques including frequency-division multiplexing, wavelength-division multiplexing, synchronous time-division multiplexing, and statistical time-division multiplexing. It also discusses bandwidth matching strategies like multilevel, multislot, and pulse stuffing multiplexing and includes examples of applying these concepts.
This document discusses multiplexing techniques including frequency division multiplexing (FDM), wavelength division multiplexing (WDM), and time division multiplexing (TDM). FDM combines analog signals by modulating each signal to a different frequency band. WDM combines optical signals by using different wavelengths of light. TDM is a digital technique that divides a high-speed data stream into slower channels, transmitting a time slot from each channel in sequence to efficiently share the bandwidth among users. Synchronous TDM transmits at fixed intervals while asynchronous TDM allocates slots dynamically based on demand.
This document provides information on bandwidth utilization techniques like multiplexing and spreading. It discusses different types of multiplexing including frequency-division multiplexing (FDM), wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM), synchronous time-division multiplexing (TDM), and statistical TDM. Examples are provided to illustrate how these techniques work and how to calculate key parameters like bandwidth, data rate, and duration when multiplexing multiple channels into a single link.
Chapter 6 bandwidth utilization -multiplexing and spreading_computer_networkDhairya Joshi
This document discusses bandwidth utilization techniques including multiplexing and spreading. It begins by defining bandwidth utilization and describing how efficiency can be achieved through multiplexing while privacy and anti-jamming can be achieved through spreading. The document then focuses on multiplexing techniques including frequency-division multiplexing, wavelength-division multiplexing, synchronous time-division multiplexing, and statistical time-division multiplexing. It provides examples and diagrams to illustrate these techniques. The document also covers spread spectrum techniques such as frequency hopping spread spectrum and direct sequence spread spectrum.
This document discusses bandwidth utilization techniques including multiplexing and spreading. It begins by defining bandwidth utilization and explaining that efficiency can be achieved through multiplexing while privacy and anti-jamming can be achieved through spreading. The document then focuses on multiplexing techniques including frequency-division multiplexing, wavelength-division multiplexing, synchronous time-division multiplexing, and statistical time-division multiplexing. It provides examples and diagrams to illustrate these techniques. The document also covers spread spectrum techniques such as frequency hopping spread spectrum and direct sequence spread spectrum.
This document discusses bandwidth utilization techniques like multiplexing and spreading. It defines multiplexing as a set of techniques that allows the simultaneous transmission of multiple signals across a single data link. The document provides examples and explanations of different multiplexing techniques including frequency-division multiplexing, wavelength-division multiplexing, synchronous time-division multiplexing, and statistical time-division multiplexing. It also discusses how these techniques can be used to efficiently utilize available bandwidth.
This document discusses bandwidth utilization techniques including multiplexing and spreading. It describes multiplexing as a way to share bandwidth across a link when the bandwidth of the medium is greater than what is needed by a single device. Specific multiplexing techniques covered include frequency-division multiplexing, wavelength-division multiplexing, synchronous time-division multiplexing, and statistical time-division multiplexing. The document also discusses spreading techniques including frequency hopping spread spectrum and direct sequence spread spectrum as ways to prevent eavesdropping and jamming by adding redundancy. It provides examples and diagrams to illustrate key concepts.
The document discusses bandwidth utilization techniques including multiplexing and spreading. Multiplexing allows simultaneous transmission of multiple signals across a single data link by dividing the bandwidth into channels. Efficiency is achieved through multiplexing while privacy and anti-jamming is achieved through spreading techniques that add redundancy such as frequency hopping spread spectrum and direct sequence spread spectrum. The document provides examples and figures to illustrate concepts such as frequency-division multiplexing, time-division multiplexing, and digital signal hierarchies.
The document discusses bandwidth utilization techniques including multiplexing and spreading. Multiplexing allows simultaneous transmission of multiple signals across a single data link by dividing the bandwidth into channels. Efficiency is achieved through multiplexing while privacy and anti-jamming is achieved through spreading techniques that add redundancy such as frequency hopping spread spectrum and direct sequence spread spectrum. The document provides examples and diagrams to illustrate concepts such as frequency-division multiplexing, time-division multiplexing, and digital signal hierarchies.
This document discusses multiplexing techniques for sharing bandwidth between multiple users. It describes how multiplexing allows simultaneous transmission of multiple signals across a single data link. The key multiplexing techniques covered are frequency-division multiplexing (FDM), wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM), time-division multiplexing (TDM), and statistical time-division multiplexing. Examples are provided to illustrate concepts like FDM configuration, guard bands, bandwidth calculation, data rate matching through multilevel, multislot and pulse stuffing techniques, and frame synchronization.
Bandwidth utilization techniques like multiplexing and spreading can achieve efficient use of available bandwidth. Multiplexing allows simultaneous transmission of multiple signals over a single data link by combining or dividing the signals. It includes techniques like frequency-division multiplexing, wavelength-division multiplexing, and synchronous time-division multiplexing. Efficiency is improved by sharing bandwidth between devices when the link bandwidth exceeds needs, while privacy and anti-jamming are achieved through spreading techniques.
This document discusses bandwidth utilization techniques including multiplexing and spreading. It begins by defining bandwidth utilization and explaining how efficiency can be achieved through multiplexing while privacy and anti-jamming can be achieved through spreading. It then discusses various multiplexing techniques like frequency-division multiplexing, wavelength-division multiplexing, and synchronous time-division multiplexing. Finally, it covers spread spectrum techniques including frequency hopping spread spectrum and direct sequence spread spectrum that allow signals to fit into a larger bandwidth for purposes of preventing eavesdropping and jamming.
This document discusses bandwidth utilization techniques like multiplexing and spreading. It begins by defining multiplexing as a way to efficiently share bandwidth across a link when the bandwidth of the medium is greater than what is needed. There are different types of multiplexing discussed like frequency-division multiplexing (FDM), wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM), and synchronous time-division multiplexing (TDM). The document provides examples and diagrams to illustrate these concepts. It also briefly mentions spreading techniques for privacy and anti-jamming purposes.
This document discusses bandwidth utilization techniques including multiplexing and spreading. It begins by defining multiplexing as techniques that allow simultaneous transmission of multiple signals across a single data link. Specific multiplexing techniques discussed include frequency-division multiplexing, wavelength-division multiplexing, synchronous time-division multiplexing, and statistical time-division multiplexing. Spread spectrum techniques like frequency hopping spread spectrum and direct sequence spread spectrum are also covered as ways to combine signals from different sources to prevent eavesdropping and jamming. Examples are provided to illustrate how these different bandwidth utilization techniques work.
Multiplexing combines information streams from multiple sources for transmission over a shared medium. It allows for the simultaneous transmission of multiple signals across a single data link when the bandwidth of the medium is greater than the bandwidth needs of the individual devices. Multiplexing techniques include frequency-division multiplexing, wavelength-division multiplexing, time-division multiplexing, and space-division multiplexing. The main purpose of multiplexing in networks is efficient sharing of the available bandwidth between multiple users.
Bandwidth utilization techniques like multiplexing and spreading can improve efficiency and security of communications. Multiplexing allows simultaneous transmission of multiple signals across a single data link by techniques such as frequency-division, wavelength-division, and time-division multiplexing. Spreading techniques like frequency hopping spread spectrum and direct sequence spread spectrum add redundancy to prevent eavesdropping and jamming while fitting signals into a larger bandwidth. Efficiency is achieved through multiplexing while privacy and anti-jamming are achieved through spreading techniques.
This document discusses multiplexing techniques including frequency division multiplexing (FDM), wavelength division multiplexing (WDM), and time division multiplexing (TDM). FDM combines signals by allocating different frequency bands to different channels. WDM combines optical signals using different wavelengths of light. TDM combines data by dividing the transmission time into intervals and allocating each time slot to a different data channel in sequence. The document provides examples of applying these multiplexing techniques and calculating data rates and time intervals.
This document discusses multiplexing techniques for combining multiple signals into a single transmission medium. It describes frequency-division multiplexing, which divides the bandwidth of a transmission link into channels, with each signal modulated to a different frequency band without overlap. It also covers time-division multiplexing, which allows several connections to rapidly switch between time slots to share the bandwidth of a high-speed link. Synchronous time-division multiplexing transmits a frame of data from each connection in sequence. The document also discusses wavelength-division multiplexing used with fiber-optic networks and spread spectrum techniques used for wireless networks to improve security and prevent interference.
Bandwidth utilization aims to efficiently use available bandwidth to achieve goals like multiplexing, privacy, and anti-jamming. Multiplexing allows simultaneous transmission of multiple signals over a single data link by techniques like frequency-division multiplexing (FDM), which combines analog signals into different bandwidths. Spread spectrum aims to prevent eavesdropping and jamming by adding redundancy using techniques like frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) and direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS).
Bandwidth utilization techniques like multiplexing and spreading can improve efficiency and achieve goals like privacy. Multiplexing involves combining multiple signals into one transmission by separating them in frequency (FDM), wavelength (WDM), or time (TDM). TDM is commonly used and divides bandwidth into time slots that sources can access in a synchronized or statistical manner. Frames contain one unit of data from each source to efficiently transmit data across a shared link.
This document discusses multiplexing techniques, including frequency-division multiplexing (FDM), wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM), and time-division multiplexing (TDM). FDM combines analog signals by modulating them to different carrier frequencies. WDM is conceptually similar but applies to optical signals transmitted through fiber. TDM is a digital process that divides bandwidth into time slots and allows connections to sequentially transmit portions of signals to share bandwidth. The document provides examples and explanations of each technique.
These slides cover a topic on Wave Division Multiplexing in Data Communication. All the slides are explained in a very simple manner. It is useful for engineering students & also for the candidates who want to master data communication & computer networking.
This document discusses multiplexing techniques used to efficiently utilize bandwidth when transmitting data over communication channels. It describes three strategies for multiplexing data with different data rates: multilevel multiplexing, multiple-slot allocation, and pulse stuffing. Multilevel multiplexing allows data from lower rate channels to be multiplexed together to match the rate of higher speed channels. Multiple-slot allocation assigns multiple time slots in a frame to a single high-speed channel. Pulse stuffing adds dummy bits to lower rate channels to increase their rates and allow synchronization. The document also discusses how telephone companies implement time-division multiplexing using a digital signal hierarchy of DS-0 through DS-4 services and corresponding T transmission lines.
This document discusses different techniques for bandwidth utilization, including multiplexing and spreading. It describes multiplexing techniques such as frequency division multiplexing (FDM), time division multiplexing (TDM), and statistical TDM. FDM combines analog signals by modulating them to different carrier frequencies. TDM combines digital channels by assigning each a time slot in a frame. Statistical TDM improves efficiency over synchronous TDM by removing empty slots. The document also discusses applications of these techniques such as telephone line multiplexing using T-1 and E-1 lines.
Applications of artificial Intelligence in Mechanical Engineering.pdfAtif Razi
Historically, mechanical engineering has relied heavily on human expertise and empirical methods to solve complex problems. With the introduction of computer-aided design (CAD) and finite element analysis (FEA), the field took its first steps towards digitization. These tools allowed engineers to simulate and analyze mechanical systems with greater accuracy and efficiency. However, the sheer volume of data generated by modern engineering systems and the increasing complexity of these systems have necessitated more advanced analytical tools, paving the way for AI.
AI offers the capability to process vast amounts of data, identify patterns, and make predictions with a level of speed and accuracy unattainable by traditional methods. This has profound implications for mechanical engineering, enabling more efficient design processes, predictive maintenance strategies, and optimized manufacturing operations. AI-driven tools can learn from historical data, adapt to new information, and continuously improve their performance, making them invaluable in tackling the multifaceted challenges of modern mechanical engineering.
This document discusses bandwidth utilization techniques including multiplexing and spreading. It describes multiplexing as a way to share bandwidth across a link when the bandwidth of the medium is greater than what is needed by a single device. Specific multiplexing techniques covered include frequency-division multiplexing, wavelength-division multiplexing, synchronous time-division multiplexing, and statistical time-division multiplexing. The document also discusses spreading techniques including frequency hopping spread spectrum and direct sequence spread spectrum as ways to prevent eavesdropping and jamming by adding redundancy. It provides examples and diagrams to illustrate key concepts.
The document discusses bandwidth utilization techniques including multiplexing and spreading. Multiplexing allows simultaneous transmission of multiple signals across a single data link by dividing the bandwidth into channels. Efficiency is achieved through multiplexing while privacy and anti-jamming is achieved through spreading techniques that add redundancy such as frequency hopping spread spectrum and direct sequence spread spectrum. The document provides examples and figures to illustrate concepts such as frequency-division multiplexing, time-division multiplexing, and digital signal hierarchies.
The document discusses bandwidth utilization techniques including multiplexing and spreading. Multiplexing allows simultaneous transmission of multiple signals across a single data link by dividing the bandwidth into channels. Efficiency is achieved through multiplexing while privacy and anti-jamming is achieved through spreading techniques that add redundancy such as frequency hopping spread spectrum and direct sequence spread spectrum. The document provides examples and diagrams to illustrate concepts such as frequency-division multiplexing, time-division multiplexing, and digital signal hierarchies.
This document discusses multiplexing techniques for sharing bandwidth between multiple users. It describes how multiplexing allows simultaneous transmission of multiple signals across a single data link. The key multiplexing techniques covered are frequency-division multiplexing (FDM), wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM), time-division multiplexing (TDM), and statistical time-division multiplexing. Examples are provided to illustrate concepts like FDM configuration, guard bands, bandwidth calculation, data rate matching through multilevel, multislot and pulse stuffing techniques, and frame synchronization.
Bandwidth utilization techniques like multiplexing and spreading can achieve efficient use of available bandwidth. Multiplexing allows simultaneous transmission of multiple signals over a single data link by combining or dividing the signals. It includes techniques like frequency-division multiplexing, wavelength-division multiplexing, and synchronous time-division multiplexing. Efficiency is improved by sharing bandwidth between devices when the link bandwidth exceeds needs, while privacy and anti-jamming are achieved through spreading techniques.
This document discusses bandwidth utilization techniques including multiplexing and spreading. It begins by defining bandwidth utilization and explaining how efficiency can be achieved through multiplexing while privacy and anti-jamming can be achieved through spreading. It then discusses various multiplexing techniques like frequency-division multiplexing, wavelength-division multiplexing, and synchronous time-division multiplexing. Finally, it covers spread spectrum techniques including frequency hopping spread spectrum and direct sequence spread spectrum that allow signals to fit into a larger bandwidth for purposes of preventing eavesdropping and jamming.
This document discusses bandwidth utilization techniques like multiplexing and spreading. It begins by defining multiplexing as a way to efficiently share bandwidth across a link when the bandwidth of the medium is greater than what is needed. There are different types of multiplexing discussed like frequency-division multiplexing (FDM), wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM), and synchronous time-division multiplexing (TDM). The document provides examples and diagrams to illustrate these concepts. It also briefly mentions spreading techniques for privacy and anti-jamming purposes.
This document discusses bandwidth utilization techniques including multiplexing and spreading. It begins by defining multiplexing as techniques that allow simultaneous transmission of multiple signals across a single data link. Specific multiplexing techniques discussed include frequency-division multiplexing, wavelength-division multiplexing, synchronous time-division multiplexing, and statistical time-division multiplexing. Spread spectrum techniques like frequency hopping spread spectrum and direct sequence spread spectrum are also covered as ways to combine signals from different sources to prevent eavesdropping and jamming. Examples are provided to illustrate how these different bandwidth utilization techniques work.
Multiplexing combines information streams from multiple sources for transmission over a shared medium. It allows for the simultaneous transmission of multiple signals across a single data link when the bandwidth of the medium is greater than the bandwidth needs of the individual devices. Multiplexing techniques include frequency-division multiplexing, wavelength-division multiplexing, time-division multiplexing, and space-division multiplexing. The main purpose of multiplexing in networks is efficient sharing of the available bandwidth between multiple users.
Bandwidth utilization techniques like multiplexing and spreading can improve efficiency and security of communications. Multiplexing allows simultaneous transmission of multiple signals across a single data link by techniques such as frequency-division, wavelength-division, and time-division multiplexing. Spreading techniques like frequency hopping spread spectrum and direct sequence spread spectrum add redundancy to prevent eavesdropping and jamming while fitting signals into a larger bandwidth. Efficiency is achieved through multiplexing while privacy and anti-jamming are achieved through spreading techniques.
This document discusses multiplexing techniques including frequency division multiplexing (FDM), wavelength division multiplexing (WDM), and time division multiplexing (TDM). FDM combines signals by allocating different frequency bands to different channels. WDM combines optical signals using different wavelengths of light. TDM combines data by dividing the transmission time into intervals and allocating each time slot to a different data channel in sequence. The document provides examples of applying these multiplexing techniques and calculating data rates and time intervals.
This document discusses multiplexing techniques for combining multiple signals into a single transmission medium. It describes frequency-division multiplexing, which divides the bandwidth of a transmission link into channels, with each signal modulated to a different frequency band without overlap. It also covers time-division multiplexing, which allows several connections to rapidly switch between time slots to share the bandwidth of a high-speed link. Synchronous time-division multiplexing transmits a frame of data from each connection in sequence. The document also discusses wavelength-division multiplexing used with fiber-optic networks and spread spectrum techniques used for wireless networks to improve security and prevent interference.
Bandwidth utilization aims to efficiently use available bandwidth to achieve goals like multiplexing, privacy, and anti-jamming. Multiplexing allows simultaneous transmission of multiple signals over a single data link by techniques like frequency-division multiplexing (FDM), which combines analog signals into different bandwidths. Spread spectrum aims to prevent eavesdropping and jamming by adding redundancy using techniques like frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) and direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS).
Bandwidth utilization techniques like multiplexing and spreading can improve efficiency and achieve goals like privacy. Multiplexing involves combining multiple signals into one transmission by separating them in frequency (FDM), wavelength (WDM), or time (TDM). TDM is commonly used and divides bandwidth into time slots that sources can access in a synchronized or statistical manner. Frames contain one unit of data from each source to efficiently transmit data across a shared link.
This document discusses multiplexing techniques, including frequency-division multiplexing (FDM), wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM), and time-division multiplexing (TDM). FDM combines analog signals by modulating them to different carrier frequencies. WDM is conceptually similar but applies to optical signals transmitted through fiber. TDM is a digital process that divides bandwidth into time slots and allows connections to sequentially transmit portions of signals to share bandwidth. The document provides examples and explanations of each technique.
These slides cover a topic on Wave Division Multiplexing in Data Communication. All the slides are explained in a very simple manner. It is useful for engineering students & also for the candidates who want to master data communication & computer networking.
This document discusses multiplexing techniques used to efficiently utilize bandwidth when transmitting data over communication channels. It describes three strategies for multiplexing data with different data rates: multilevel multiplexing, multiple-slot allocation, and pulse stuffing. Multilevel multiplexing allows data from lower rate channels to be multiplexed together to match the rate of higher speed channels. Multiple-slot allocation assigns multiple time slots in a frame to a single high-speed channel. Pulse stuffing adds dummy bits to lower rate channels to increase their rates and allow synchronization. The document also discusses how telephone companies implement time-division multiplexing using a digital signal hierarchy of DS-0 through DS-4 services and corresponding T transmission lines.
This document discusses different techniques for bandwidth utilization, including multiplexing and spreading. It describes multiplexing techniques such as frequency division multiplexing (FDM), time division multiplexing (TDM), and statistical TDM. FDM combines analog signals by modulating them to different carrier frequencies. TDM combines digital channels by assigning each a time slot in a frame. Statistical TDM improves efficiency over synchronous TDM by removing empty slots. The document also discusses applications of these techniques such as telephone line multiplexing using T-1 and E-1 lines.
Applications of artificial Intelligence in Mechanical Engineering.pdfAtif Razi
Historically, mechanical engineering has relied heavily on human expertise and empirical methods to solve complex problems. With the introduction of computer-aided design (CAD) and finite element analysis (FEA), the field took its first steps towards digitization. These tools allowed engineers to simulate and analyze mechanical systems with greater accuracy and efficiency. However, the sheer volume of data generated by modern engineering systems and the increasing complexity of these systems have necessitated more advanced analytical tools, paving the way for AI.
AI offers the capability to process vast amounts of data, identify patterns, and make predictions with a level of speed and accuracy unattainable by traditional methods. This has profound implications for mechanical engineering, enabling more efficient design processes, predictive maintenance strategies, and optimized manufacturing operations. AI-driven tools can learn from historical data, adapt to new information, and continuously improve their performance, making them invaluable in tackling the multifaceted challenges of modern mechanical engineering.
Tools & Techniques for Commissioning and Maintaining PV Systems W-Animations ...Transcat
Join us for this solutions-based webinar on the tools and techniques for commissioning and maintaining PV Systems. In this session, we'll review the process of building and maintaining a solar array, starting with installation and commissioning, then reviewing operations and maintenance of the system. This course will review insulation resistance testing, I-V curve testing, earth-bond continuity, ground resistance testing, performance tests, visual inspections, ground and arc fault testing procedures, and power quality analysis.
Fluke Solar Application Specialist Will White is presenting on this engaging topic:
Will has worked in the renewable energy industry since 2005, first as an installer for a small east coast solar integrator before adding sales, design, and project management to his skillset. In 2022, Will joined Fluke as a solar application specialist, where he supports their renewable energy testing equipment like IV-curve tracers, electrical meters, and thermal imaging cameras. Experienced in wind power, solar thermal, energy storage, and all scales of PV, Will has primarily focused on residential and small commercial systems. He is passionate about implementing high-quality, code-compliant installation techniques.
This presentation is about Food Delivery Systems and how they are developed using the Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC) and other methods. It explains the steps involved in creating a food delivery app, from planning and designing to testing and launching. The slide also covers different tools and technologies used to make these systems work efficiently.
Levelised Cost of Hydrogen (LCOH) Calculator ManualMassimo Talia
The aim of this manual is to explain the
methodology behind the Levelized Cost of
Hydrogen (LCOH) calculator. Moreover, this
manual also demonstrates how the calculator
can be used for estimating the expenses associated with hydrogen production in Europe
using low-temperature electrolysis considering different sources of electricity
Height and depth gauge linear metrology.pdfq30122000
Height gauges may also be used to measure the height of an object by using the underside of the scriber as the datum. The datum may be permanently fixed or the height gauge may have provision to adjust the scale, this is done by sliding the scale vertically along the body of the height gauge by turning a fine feed screw at the top of the gauge; then with the scriber set to the same level as the base, the scale can be matched to it. This adjustment allows different scribers or probes to be used, as well as adjusting for any errors in a damaged or resharpened probe.
Open Channel Flow: fluid flow with a free surfaceIndrajeet sahu
Open Channel Flow: This topic focuses on fluid flow with a free surface, such as in rivers, canals, and drainage ditches. Key concepts include the classification of flow types (steady vs. unsteady, uniform vs. non-uniform), hydraulic radius, flow resistance, Manning's equation, critical flow conditions, and energy and momentum principles. It also covers flow measurement techniques, gradually varied flow analysis, and the design of open channels. Understanding these principles is vital for effective water resource management and engineering applications.
A high-Speed Communication System is based on the Design of a Bi-NoC Router, ...DharmaBanothu
The Network on Chip (NoC) has emerged as an effective
solution for intercommunication infrastructure within System on
Chip (SoC) designs, overcoming the limitations of traditional
methods that face significant bottlenecks. However, the complexity
of NoC design presents numerous challenges related to
performance metrics such as scalability, latency, power
consumption, and signal integrity. This project addresses the
issues within the router's memory unit and proposes an enhanced
memory structure. To achieve efficient data transfer, FIFO buffers
are implemented in distributed RAM and virtual channels for
FPGA-based NoC. The project introduces advanced FIFO-based
memory units within the NoC router, assessing their performance
in a Bi-directional NoC (Bi-NoC) configuration. The primary
objective is to reduce the router's workload while enhancing the
FIFO internal structure. To further improve data transfer speed,
a Bi-NoC with a self-configurable intercommunication channel is
suggested. Simulation and synthesis results demonstrate
guaranteed throughput, predictable latency, and equitable
network access, showing significant improvement over previous
designs
2. 6.2
Bandwidth utilization is the wise use of
available bandwidth to achieve
specific goals.
Efficiency can be achieved by
multiplexing; i.e., sharing of the
bandwidth between multiple users.
Note
3. 6.3
6-1 MULTIPLEXING
Whenever the bandwidth of a medium linking two
devices is greater than the bandwidth needs of the
devices, the link can be shared. Multiplexing is the set
of techniques that allows the (simultaneous)
transmission of multiple signals across a single data
link. As data and telecommunications use increases, so
does traffic.
Frequency-Division Multiplexing
Wavelength-Division Multiplexing
Synchronous Time-Division Multiplexing
Statistical Time-Division Multiplexing
Topics discussed in this section:
11. 6.11
Assume that a voice channel occupies a bandwidth of 4
kHz. We need to combine three voice channels into a link
with a bandwidth of 12 kHz, from 20 to 32 kHz. Show the
configuration, using the frequency domain. Assume there
are no guard bands.
Solution
We shift (modulate) each of the three voice channels to a
different bandwidth, as shown in Figure 6.6. We use the
20- to 24-kHz bandwidth for the first channel, the 24- to
28-kHz bandwidth for the second channel, and the 28- to
32-kHz bandwidth for the third one. Then we combine
them as shown in Figure 6.6.
Example 6.1
13. 6.13
Five channels, each with a 100-kHz bandwidth, are to be
multiplexed together. What is the minimum bandwidth of
the link if there is a need for a guard band of 10 kHz
between the channels to prevent interference?
Solution
For five channels, we need at least four guard bands.
This means that the required bandwidth is at least
5 × 100 + 4 × 10 = 540 kHz,
as shown in Figure 6.7.
Example 6.2
15. 6.15
Four data channels (digital), each transmitting at 1
Mbps, use a satellite channel of 1 MHz. Design an
appropriate configuration, using FDM.
Solution
The satellite channel is analog. We divide it into four
channels, each channel having 1M/4=250-kHz
bandwidth.
Each digital channel of 1 Mbps must be transmitted over
a 250KHz channel. Assuming no noise we can use
Nyquist to get:
C = 1Mbps = 2x250K x log2 L -> L = 4 or n = 2 bits/signal
element.
One solution is 4-QAM modulation. In Figure 6.8 we
show a possible configuration with L = 16.
Example 6.3
18. 6.18
The Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS) uses two
bands. The first band of 824 to 849 MHz is used for
sending, and 869 to 894 MHz is used for receiving.
Each user has a bandwidth of 30 kHz in each direction.
How many people can use their cellular phones
simultaneously?
Solution
Each band is 25 MHz. If we divide 25 MHz by 30 kHz, we
get 833.33. In reality, the band is divided into 832
channels. Of these, 42 channels are used for control,
which means only 790 channels are available for cellular
phone users.
Example 6.4
25. 6.25
In synchronous TDM, the data rate
of the link is n times faster, and the unit
duration is n times shorter.
Note
26. 6.26
In Figure 6.13, the data rate for each one of the 3 input
connection is 1 kbps. If 1 bit at a time is multiplexed (a
unit is 1 bit), what is the duration of (a) each input slot,
(b) each output slot, and (c) each frame?
Solution
We can answer the questions as follows:
a. The data rate of each input connection is 1 kbps. This
means that the bit duration is 1/1000 s or 1 ms. The
duration of the input time slot is 1 ms (same as bit
duration).
Example 6.5
27. 6.27
b. The duration of each output time slot is one-third of
the input time slot. This means that the duration of the
output time slot is 1/3 ms.
c. Each frame carries three output time slots. So the
duration of a frame is 3 × 1/3 ms, or 1 ms.
Note: The duration of a frame is the same as the duration
of an input unit.
Example 6.5 (continued)
28. 6.28
Figure 6.14 shows synchronous TDM with 4 1Mbps data
stream inputs and one data stream for the output. The
unit of data is 1 bit. Find (a) the input bit duration, (b)
the output bit duration, (c) the output bit rate, and (d) the
output frame rate.
Solution
We can answer the questions as follows:
a. The input bit duration is the inverse of the bit rate:
1/1 Mbps = 1 μs.
b. The output bit duration is one-fourth of the input bit
duration, or ¼ μs.
Example 6.6
29. 6.29
c. The output bit rate is the inverse of the output bit
duration or 1/(4μs) or 4 Mbps. This can also be
deduced from the fact that the output rate is 4 times as
fast as any input rate; so the output rate = 4 × 1 Mbps
= 4 Mbps.
d. The frame rate is always the same as any input rate. So
the frame rate is 1,000,000 frames per second.
Because we are sending 4 bits in each frame, we can
verify the result of the previous question by
multiplying the frame rate by the number of bits per
frame.
Example 6.6 (continued)
31. 6.31
Four 1-kbps connections are multiplexed together. A unit
is 1 bit. Find (a) the duration of 1 bit before multiplexing,
(b) the transmission rate of the link, (c) the duration of a
time slot, and (d) the duration of a frame.
Solution
We can answer the questions as follows:
a. The duration of 1 bit before multiplexing is 1 / 1 kbps,
or 0.001 s (1 ms).
b. The rate of the link is 4 times the rate of a connection,
or 4 kbps.
Example 6.7
32. 6.32
c. The duration of each time slot is one-fourth of the
duration of each bit before multiplexing, or 1/4 ms or
250 μs. Note that we can also calculate this from the
data rate of the link, 4 kbps. The bit duration is the
inverse of the data rate, or 1/4 kbps or 250 μs.
d. The duration of a frame is always the same as the
duration of a unit before multiplexing, or 1 ms. We
can also calculate this in another way. Each frame in
this case has four time slots. So the duration of a
frame is 4 times 250 μs, or 1 ms.
Example 6.7 (continued)
33. 6.33
Interleaving
The process of taking a group of bits
from each input line for multiplexing is
called interleaving.
We interleave bits (1 - n) from each
input onto one output.
35. 6.35
Four channels are multiplexed using TDM. If each
channel sends 100 bytes /s and we multiplex 1 byte per
channel, show the frame traveling on the link, the size of
the frame, the duration of a frame, the frame rate, and
the bit rate for the link.
Solution
The multiplexer is shown in Figure 6.16. Each frame
carries 1 byte from each channel; the size of each frame,
therefore, is 4 bytes, or 32 bits. Because each channel is
sending 100 bytes/s and a frame carries 1 byte from each
channel, the frame rate must be 100 frames per second.
The bit rate is 100 × 32, or 3200 bps.
Example 6.8
37. 6.37
A multiplexer combines four 100-kbps channels using a
time slot of 2 bits. Show the output with four arbitrary
inputs. What is the frame rate? What is the frame
duration? What is the bit rate? What is the bit duration?
Solution
Figure 6.17 shows the output (4x100kbps) for four
arbitrary inputs. The link carries 400K/(2x4)=50,000
2x4=8bit frames per second. The frame duration is
therefore 1/50,000 s or 20 μs. The bit duration on the
output link is 1/400,000 s, or 2.5 μs.
Example 6.9
39. 6.39
Data Rate Management
Not all input links maybe have the same
data rate.
Some links maybe slower. There maybe
several different input link speeds
There are three strategies that can be
used to overcome the data rate
mismatch: multilevel, multislot and
pulse stuffing
40. 6.40
Data rate matching
Multilevel: used when the data rate of the
input links are multiples of each other.
Multislot: used when there is a GCD between
the data rates. The higher bit rate channels
are allocated more slots per frame, and the
output frame rate is a multiple of each input
link.
Pulse Stuffing: used when there is no GCD
between the links. The slowest speed link will
be brought up to the speed of the other links
by bit insertion, this is called pulse stuffing.
44. 6.44
Synchronization
To ensure that the receiver correctly reads
the incoming bits, i.e., knows the incoming bit
boundaries to interpret a “1” and a “0”, a
known bit pattern is used between the
frames.
The receiver looks for the anticipated bit and
starts counting bits till the end of the frame.
Then it starts over again with the reception of
another known bit.
These bits (or bit patterns) are called
synchronization bit(s).
They are part of the overhead of
transmission.
46. 6.46
We have four sources, each creating 250 8-bit characters
per second. If the interleaved unit is a character and 1
synchronizing bit is added to each frame, find (a) the data
rate of each source, (b) the duration of each character in
each source, (c) the frame rate, (d) the duration of each
frame, (e) the number of bits in each frame, and (f) the
data rate of the link.
Solution
We can answer the questions as follows:
a. The data rate of each source is 250 × 8 = 2000 bps = 2
kbps.
Example 6.10
47. 6.47
b. Each source sends 250 characters per second;
therefore, the duration of a character is 1/250 s, or
4 ms.
c. Each frame has one character from each source,
which means the link needs to send 250 frames per
second to keep the transmission rate of each source.
d. The duration of each frame is 1/250 s, or 4 ms. Note
that the duration of each frame is the same as the
duration of each character coming from each source.
e. Each frame carries 4 characters and 1 extra
synchronizing bit. This means that each frame is
4 × 8 + 1 = 33 bits.
Example 6.10 (continued)
48. 6.48
Two channels, one with a bit rate of 100 kbps and
another with a bit rate of 200 kbps, are to be multiplexed.
How this can be achieved? What is the frame rate? What
is the frame duration? What is the bit rate of the link?
Solution
We can allocate one slot to the first channel and two slots
to the second channel. Each frame carries 3 bits. The
frame rate is 100,000 frames per second because it carries
1 bit from the first channel. The bit rate is 100,000
frames/s × 3 bits per frame, or 300 kbps.
Example 6.11
54. 6.54
Inefficient use of Bandwidth
Sometimes an input link may have no
data to transmit.
When that happens, one or more slots
on the output link will go unused.
That is wasteful of bandwidth.