CEPC16 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING INTRODUCTION COURSE

COURSE PLAN AND CONTENT
COURSE : CEPC16 GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING – I
Faculty Coordinator:
Dr. K. Muthukkumaran
Department of Civil Engineering
National Institute of Technology
Tiruchirappalli
Email : kmk@nitt.edu
Telephone : 91-431-2503168
Mobile: 9443651836

Objective of the course
 To explain what Geotechnical Engineering is
and how it is important to civil engineering
 To explain how three phase system is used in
soil and how soil properties are estimated using
three phase system
 To explain role of water in soil behaviour and
how soil stresses, permeability and quantity of
seepage including flow net are estimated
 To determine shear parameters and stress
changes in soil due to foundation loads
 To estimate the magnitude and time-rate of
settlement due to consolidation

Outcome of the course
 Understand the importance of geotechnical
engineering in civil engineering
 Do proper soil classification and three phase
system to solve the problems
 Solve any practice problems related to soil
stresses estimation, permeability, seepage
including flow net diagram.
 Do proper stress estimation under any system of
foundation loads
 Solve any practical problems related to
consolidation like consolidation settlement, time
rate of settlement

SOIL MECHANICS
Soil mechanics is a branch of mechanics which
deals with the action of forces on soil and with the
flow of water in soil

1. INTRODUCTION TO SOIL MECHANICS (9 lectures)
1.1 Brief Historical development of Soil Engineering
pre-classical period (1700 to 1776)
classical soil mechanics phase-I (1776 to 1856)
classical soil mechanics phase-II (1856 to 1910)
modern soil mechanics (1910 to 1927)
after 1926 ……father of soil mechanics KARL TERZAGHI- consolidation theory ….followed by
Ralph Peck and etc……
1.2 Soil Problems in Engineering
foundation design and construction
pavement design
design of underground and earth retaining structures
design of embankments and excavations
design of earth dams
1.3 Origin and General Types of Soils
Soil formation – geological cycle (Igneous, metamorphic & sedimentary rocks ……gravel, sand,
mud and other sediments due to weathering….)
soil types: (1) Residual soils (2) transported soils (3)Desiccated soils
T.S…water transported soil….alluvial deposit, marine deposit,
T.S…wind transported soil…aeolian deposits, Gravity deposits….Talus,
Swamp and march deposits
Major soil deposits in India
Marine deposits, Black cotton soils, laterItes soils Lateritic soils (residual soils), Alluvial deposits
and Desert soils
1.4 Soil Structure
Components of Soils: Solid phase, liquid phase and gaseous phase
Particle Size: Cobbles or Pebbles, Gravel, sand, silt and clay
Granular soil: Angular, sub angular, sub rounded, rounded, well rounded
Soil-Structure: Single grained, Honeycomb, flocculent and dispersed

1.5 Clay Minerals
Inter-particle forces: attractive forces & repulsive forces
Clay mineral structures: Tetrahedral & Octahedral (silica sheet & Alumina…Gibbsite sheet or
magnesium Brucite Sheet)
Clay mineral: Kaolinite, Montmorillonite and illite
1.6 Weight Volume Relationship
Volume relationships: Void ratio(e); Porosity(n); Degree of saturation(S)
Weight relationship: Moisture content or Water content(w); Unit weight(γ)
Relative density: based on void ratio & densities
Consistancy of soil: LL, PL, PI, SL, LI, A & plasticity chat
1.7 Identification and Classification of Soil
Field identification of soils: Coarse grained & fine grained soils
gravel & sand silt & clay (organic/inorganic)
Engineering Classifications: Unified soil classification system
Indian soil classification system
AASHTO soil classification system
Textural soil classification system
References
1. Gopal Ranjan and Rao, P. Basic and Applied Soil Mechanics, New Age International Pvt.
Limited, New Delhi, 2002.
2. Murthy, V.N.S., A text book of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, UBS
Publishers Distributors Ltd., New Delhi, 1999
3. Punmia, B.C. Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Laxmi Publications Pvt. Ltd.,
New Delhi, 1995.
4. Braja M. Das, Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering, Thomson Asia Pvt. Ltd.,
Singapore, 2005.

2. SOIL WATER (8 lectures)
2.1 Capillary Phenomena
Surface tension
Capillary phenomena in soils: hcr=c/eD10 c=0.01x10-3 to 0.05x10-3 m2
2.2 Concept of Effective and Neutral Stresses
Stress conditions in soil: effective & neutral stress
Different cases: submerged soil; soil mass with surcharge; saturated soil with capillary raise
2.3 Permeability
Darcy’s law q=kia
Laboratory permeability tests: Constant head (q=Ak(h/l)) &
falling head k=2.303(al/At)log10(h1/h2)
Field permeability test
Factors affecting permeability: soil characteristics & pore fluid characteristics
2.4 Seepage Flow
Seepage force: Quick sand; upward flow
Two dimensional flow: Laplace equation
2.5 Flow Net
Properties of flow net
Applications of flow net
Construction of flow net: boundary conditions
Construction methods:
References
1. Gopal Ranjan and Rao, P. Basic and Applied Soil Mechanics, New Age International Pvt.
Limited, New Delhi, 2002.
2. Murthy, V.N.S., A text book of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, UBS, Publishers Distributors Ltd., New Delhi, 1999
3. Punmia, B.C. Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Laxmi Publications Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 1995.
4. Braja M. Das, Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering, Thomson Asia Pvt. Ltd., Singapore, 2005.

3. STRESS DISTRIBUTION AND COMPACTION (8 lectures)
3.1 Vertical Stress Distribution
Stress at a point
Mohr’s circle
Stress path
Effective stress concept
elastic properties of soil
3.2 Boussinesq and Westergaard’s Equations
Boussinesq theory: pressure distribution diagrams
Westergaard’s equation: types of surface loads
3.3 Newmark’s Influence Chart - Principle, Construction and Use
3.4 Equivalent Point Load and other Approximate Methods
3.5 Pressure Bulb
3.6 Compaction
principles of compaction
compactive effort
laboratory compaction: standard proctor test; modified proctor test
field compaction equipment
factor affecting compaction
effect of compaction on soil structure

4. SHEAR STRENGTH (9 lectures)
4.1 Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion
stress-strain curve
Mohr-Coulomb failure criteria
4.2 Shear Strength Test
direct shear test
triaxial shear test
UCC test
vane shear test
4.3 Different Drainage Conditions
Drainage conditions (UU, CU, CD)
4.4 Shear Properties of Cohesionless and Cohesive Soils
c & φ
Sensitivity & Thixotrophy of clay
4.5 Use of Mohr’s Circle
4.6 Relationship between Principal Stresses and Shear Parameters

5. COMPRESSIBILITY AND CONSOLIDATION (7 lectures)
5.1 Terzaghi’s One Dimensional Consolidation Theory
piston & Spring analogy
Consolidation of laterally confined soil
5.2 Pressure Void Ratio Relationships
Laboratory consolidation test:
void ratio vs coefficient of volume change
Compression index
coefficient of consolidation & k
degree of consolidation
type of clay deposit (NCC, OCC & UCC)
5.3 Pre-Consolidation Pressure
5.4 Total Settlement and Time Rate of Settlement
Rate of consolidation
immediate settlement
consolidation settlement: primary compression & secondary compression
5.5 Coefficient of Consolidation
determination of cv by square root method and logarithm of time fitting method
5.6 Curve Fitting Methods
5.7 Correction for Construction Time
Construction period correction
acceleration of consolidation by sand drains

For engineering purposes, soil is defined as the
uncemented aggregate of mineral grains and
decayed organic matter with liquid and gas in the
empty spaces between the solid particles.
Prior to 18th century
Nile (Egypt)
Tigris and Euphrates (mesopotamia)
Huang Ho (yellow river, China)
Indus (India)
- Leaning Tower of Pisa in Italy (1173)
- Bologna Tower in Italy 12th century

pre-classical period (1700 to 1776)
-Gautier (1717), French Royal Engineer, studied the natural slopes of soils
classical soil mechanics phase-I (1776 to 1856)
-Coulomb (1776), French Scientist, used the principles of maxima & minima to
determine the possible position of the sliding surface
-Poncelet (1788-1867) studied “sand internal friction”
-Collin (1808-1890) studied “clay slopes”
-Rankine (1820-1872) earth pressure theory
classical soil mechanics phase-II (1856 to 1910)
-Darcy (1803-1858) permeability study
-Boussinesq (1842-1929) stress distribution
modern soil mechanics (1910 to 1927)
-Atterberg (1991) LL, PL, PI, SL
-Fellenius (1918& 1926) slip circle & critical slip surface
-KARL TERZAGHI (1925)- consolidation theory…..FATHER OF SOIL MECH.
after 1926 ……father of soil mechanics
- Terzaghi, Peck……
Brief Historical development of Soil Engineering

Soil problems in Civil Engineering
 Foundations
 Retaining structures
 Stability of slope
 Underground structure
 Pavement design
 Earth dam

Foundations:
To transmit the load of the structures to soil safely and
efficiently.
Deep Foundation Shallow Foundation

Retaining structures:
– To retain the soil at different levels on its either side.
– Soil Engineering gives the theories of earth pressure on
retaining structures

Stability of slopes:
Provides the methods for checking the stability
of slopes

Underground structures:
Evaluates the forces exerted by the soil on
tunnel, conduits etc.,

Pavement design:
To study the behaviour of sub grade under various
conditions of loadings and environmental changes in
soil.

Rock Forming Minerals
Minerals are naturally formed elements or
compounds with specific structures and
chemical compositions.
More then 2000 different minerals are
present in the earth’s crust

COMMON MINERALS
Feldspar
– Contain sodium, calcium or both
– Colour range from white to gray to black
– Moderate hardness
Quartz
– Silicate
– Milky white colour
– Very hard
Ferromagnesiam
– Contain both iron and magnesium
– Dark colour
– Moderate hardness
Iron oxides
– Contain iron oxide
– Rusty colour
– Act as cementing agents
Calcite
– Calcium carbonate
– White, pink or gray
– Soluble in water
– Act as cementing agents
Dolomite
– Similar to calcite with magnesium added
Mica
– Translucent thin sheet or flakes
– Muscovite has silvery flakes, white biotite is dark gray or black
– Low friction, lead to shear failure
Gypsum
– Soft mineral, precipitate in sedimentary rocks
– Colourless to white
– Water soluble

Origin and General Types of Soils
Soil formation – geological cycle (Igneous, metamorphic & sedimentary
rocks ……gravel, sand, mud and other sediments due to
weathering….)
1-heat, pressure & solution
2-melting of deeply buried rocks
3-weathering, deposition and
consolidation
4-weathering
5-erosion and weathering
6-compaction & consolidation
Igneous Rock Sedimentary
Rock
Metamorphic
Gravel, Sand,
Mud and other
sediments
1
5
5
4
3
2
1
6
7-Possible of melting of deep rock

Weathering processes
The erosive action of water, ice and wind
Chemical reaction induced by exposure to
oxygen, water, and chemicals
Loosening through the growth of plant roots
Freezing of water
Growth of minerals in the cracks
Thermal expansion and contraction
Landslides and rock falls

Sinkhole in Winter Park, Florida May 8, 1981,
75m in diameter

SOIL TYPES
SOIL TYPES:
(1) Residual soils
(2) Transported soils
Residual soils: when rock weathering process is
faster then the transport processes induced by
water, wind and gravity, much of the resulting
soil remains in place is known as residual soils.
Sandy residual soil: decomposed granite-high
quality
Laterite: residual soil found in tropical region

Transported soils
Glacial soils
Alluvial soils
Lacustrine and marine soils
Aeolian soils
Colluvial soils

Glacial soil
Till – is soil deposited directly by the glacier
Soil caught beneath the glacier-lodgement till-
highly consolidated under the weight of ice-
provide very good support for structures
When the glaciers melted, they generated large
quantities of runoff. This water eroded much of
the till and deposited it downstream, forming
glaciofluvial soils.
The fine soils of the till often remained
suspended inn the runoff water until reaching a
lake or ocean, where it finally settled to the
bottom- glaciolacustrine / glaciomarine soils

Alluvial soils ( fluvial / alluvium)
Transported to the present position by rivers and
streams
Alluvial fans- water flow will be slow when the
stream reaches the foot of a canyon, and tends
to deposit much of its soil load there
Rivers in relatively flat terrain move much more
slow and often change course, creating complex
alluvial deposits. – braided stream deposits
meander belt deposits
Cementing agent – calcium carbonate, calcium
sulfate – form hard materials called caliche

Lacustrine and marine soils
Lacustrine soils are those deposited beneath
lakes
Mostly silt and clay
Suitability for foundation support ranges from
poor to average
Marine soils also were deposited underwater,
except they formed in the ocean
Deeper marine deposits are uniform and often
contain organic material from marine organisms

Aeolian soils
Aeolian soils are those deposited by wind
Produces very poorly graded soils (
uniform size, narrow range)
Mode of wind induced soil transport
– Suspension (silt and clay, high altitudes,
create large dust storms)
– Saltation (particles temporarily airborne)
– Creep (rolling and sliding)

Major soil deposits of India
The soil deposits of India can be broadly classified
into the following five types
1. Block cotton soils, occurring in maharashtra,
Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, karnataka, part of
Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
2. Marine Soils, occurring in a narrow belt all along
the coast, especially in the Rann of Kutch.
3. Desert soils, occurring in Rajasthan.
4. Alluvial soils, occurring in the Indo-Gangetic
plain, north of the Vindhyachal ranges.
5. Lateritic soils, occurring in kerala, south
Maharashtra, karnataka, Orissa and West
Bengal.

Soil Structure
Components of Soils:
Solid phase, liquid phase and gaseous phase
Particle Size: Cobbles or Pebbles, Gravel,
sand, silt and clay
Granular soil: Angular, sub angular, sub
rounded, rounded, well rounded
Soil-Structure: Single grained, Honeycomb,
flocculent and dispersed

Single-grained soil
Characteristic of coarse-grained soils, with a
particle size greater than 0.02mm.
Gravitational forces predominate the surface
forces and hence grain to grain contact results.
The deposition may occur in a loose state, with
large voids or in a dense state, with less of voids.

Honey-comp structure
This structure can occur only in fine-grained soils,
especially in silt and rock flour.
Gravitational forces, inter-particle surface forces
also play an important role in the process of settling
down.
Miniature arches are formed, which bridge over
relatively large void spaces.
Honey-comb being made up of numerous
individual soil grains.
The structure has a large void space and may
carry high loads.
 The structure can be broken down by external
disturbances.

Flocculent structure
This structure is characteristic of fine-grained soils,
such as clays.
Inter-particle surface forces play a predominant
role in the deposition.
Mutual repulsion of the particles may be eliminated
by means of an appropriate chemical; this will result
in grains coming closer together to form a ‘floc’.
The formation of flocs is ‘flocculation’.
Flaky particles of clay minerals tend to form a card
house structure, when flocculated.
 In practice, mixed structures occur, especially in
typical marine soils.

Flocculent structure
Card-house structure
of flaky particles
Dispersed structure

Soil Texture
Texture indicates the relative content of particles
of various sizes, such as sand, silt and clay in the
soil.
Texture influences the ease with which soil can
be worked, the amount of water and air it holds,
and the rate at which water can enter and move
through soil.
To find the texture of a soil sample, first separate
the fine earth, all particles less than 2 mm, from
larger particles such as gravel and stones. Fine
earth is a mixture of sand, silt and clay.

Quick field tests to determine soil texture
(Throw-the-ball test)
•Take a handful of moist soil and
squeeze it into a ball;
•Throw the ball into the air about
50 cm and then catch it ...

•If the ball falls apart, it is poor soil
with too much sand;
•If the ball sticks together, it is
probably good soil with enough
clay in it.

Particle shape
Particle shape is an important property in detrital sediments.
The initial shape of weathered particles is affected by
mineralogy: mica tend to platy, feldspars are often tabular, quartz
tends to be equant. Ellipsoidal, cylindrical and spherical particles
are generated by abrasion.
With increased transport distances, particles become abraded
and rounded.
Water is the most effective transport medium for rounding
particles.
Wind abrasion can also generate near spherical particles.
Ice transport can sometimes carry particles over large distance
with little or no abrasion.

Clay Minerals
Inter-particle forces:
– attractive forces & repulsive forces
Clay mineral structures:
– Tetrahedral & Octahedral (silica sheet & Alumina…Gibbsite sheet or
magnesium Brucite Sheet)
Clay mineral:
Montmorillonite
Kaolinite
illite
Exchangeable ions
Non-exchangeable ions

Weight Volume Relationship
Volume relationships:
– Void ratio(e);
– Porosity(n);
– Degree of saturation(S)
Weight relationship:
– Moisture content or Water content(w);
– Unit weight(γ)
Relative density:
– based on void ratio & densities
Consistancy of soil:
– LL, PL, PI, SL, LI, A & plasticity chat

PROPERTIES OF SOIL(CONTD…)
Index properties: Three Phase system

Water content: (w)
Ratio of weight of water(Ww) to weight of solids (Wd) in a given
mass of soil
W = ( Ww / Wd ) X 100
Voids ratio: (e)
Ratio of volume of voids to volume of soil solids
e = Vv / Vs
Porosity: (n)
Ratio of volume of voids to total volume of given soil mass
n = Vv / V
Index properties

Index properties
Specific gravity: (G)
Ratio of unit weight of soil solids to that of water
Specific Gravity G = s / w

Density: ()
– Mass of soil per unit total volume
– Mass density  = M / V
– Measurements taken in the field are mostly to
determine density/unit weight
Methods:
– Core Cutter Method
– Sand-Pouring Cylinder Method
Index properties

Degree of saturation: (Sr)
– Ratio of volume of water present in a given soil mass to the total
volume of voids in it.
Sr = Vw / Vv
Relative density: (ID)
– Loosest and densest states of soil is expressed in terms of relative
density.
Dr = ( max / n) X (n - min) / ( max – min)
Dr =( emax-e)/(emax-emin)
- Expressed in terms of percentage
Index properties

Index properties
Consistency:
Ease with which soil can be deformed.
Consistency Limits or Atterberg Limits:
Liquid limit (WL)
Plastic limit (WP)
Shrinkage limit (WS)

Liquid Limit: (WL)
Minimum water content at which soil
is still in liquid state.
Measured by using Casagrande’s
Apparatus
Plastic limit: (WP)
Water content below which soil stops
behaving as a plastic material
Shrinkage limit: (WS)
Smallest water content at which soil
is saturated.
Index properties

Sieve analysis (IS-2720-PART-4-1985)
Consists of shaking the soil sample
through a set of sieves that have
progressively smaller openings.
U.S. standard sieve numbers and the
sizes of openings are given :

To conduct a sieve analysis, one must first oven-dry the soil and then break
all lumps into small particles.
The soil then is shaken through a stack of sieves with openings of
decreasing size from top to bottom (a pan is placed below the stack)

Particle-size distribution curve—
sieve analysis and hydrometer
analysis

A particle-size distribution curve
used to determine the following four
parameters for soil
Parameter Descriptions
Effective size
(D10)
curve corresponding to 10% finer. The effective size
of a granular
soil is a good measure to estimate the hydraulic
conductivity and drainage
through soil.
Uniformity coefficient
(Cu)
Cu = D60 / D10
Coefficient of gradation
(Cc)
Cc =
D30^ 2 / D60 D10
Sorting coefficient
(So)
This parameter is another measure of uniformity and
is generally encountered in geologic works

Different types of particle-size distribution curves

Relative density
used to indicate the in situ denseness or
looseness of granular soil. It is defined as
Relative density ( % ) Description of Sample
deposit
0-15 Very loose
15-50 Loose
50-70 Medium
70-85 Dense
85-100 Very dense

Atterberg limit :
Clay minerals are present  fine-grained
soil remolded presence of some moisture
 without crumbling.
Cohesive nature is caused  adsorbed
water surrounding  clay particles.
In the early 1900s, a Swedish scientist
named Atterberg developed  method to
describe the consistency of fine-grained
soils  varying moisture contents

four basic states—solid, semisolid, plastic, and liquid
moisture content soil behavior
very low like a solid
Very high may flow like a liquid

Atterberg
Stated that depending on the water
content, soil may appear in four states:
Solid (no water)
semi-solid (brittle, some water)
plastic (moldable)
liquid (fluid)
In each state the consistency and
behavior of a soil is different and thus
so are its engineering properties.
The boundary between each state can
be defined based on a change in the
soils behavior.

Atterberg Limits
(Non-Plastic )
Wpl wll
Plastic Limit Liquid Limit
Water Content
w%=0
Solid Liquid
Plastic
Brittle

Atterberg limit Descriptions
Plastic limit Moisture content that defines where the soil
changes from a semi-solid to a plastic
(flexible) state.
The plastic limit is the
lower limit of the plastic stage of soil.
(thread of approximately 3mm in dia)
Lowest w/c where the
clay is still plastic (Wp or
PL)
Liquid limit Moisture content @ 25th blow Clay flows like liquid
w>LL
Shrinkage limit Soil shrinks as moisture is gradually lost from
it. With continuing loss of moisture, a stage of
equilibrium is reached at which more loss of
moisture will result in no further volume
Change. The moisture content, in percent, at
which the volume of the soil mass ceases to
change is defined as the shrinkage limit.
At w<SL,
No volume reduction on
drying

Plasticity index :
Difference in moisture content of soils
between the liquid and plastic limits
expressed in percentage

Use of Plasticity Index
The PI is the difference between the liquid
limit and the plastic limit (PI = LL-PL).
The plasticity index is the size of the range of
water contents where the soil exhibits plastic
properties.
Meaning:
– High PI tend to be clay
– Low PI tend to be silt
– PI of 0 tend to have little or no silt or clay.

Identification and Classification of Soil
Field identification of soils:
– Coarse grained & fine grained soils
– gravel & sand silt & clay (organic/inorganic)
Engineering Classifications:
– Unified soil classification system
– Indian soil classification system
– AASHTO soil classification system
– Textural soil classification system

General Particle Size
Soil Particle Size
Gravel > 4.75 mm
Sand between 75µ to 4.75mm
Silt between 2µ to 75µ
Clay < 2µ

2. SOIL WATER (8 lectures)
2.1 Capillary Phenomena
Surface tension
Capillary phenomena in soils: hcr=c/eD10 c=0.01x10-3 to 0.05x10-3 m2
2.2 Concept of Effective and Neutral Stresses
Stress conditions in soil: effective & neutral stress
Different cases: submerged soil; soil mass with surcharge; saturated soil with capillary raise
2.3 Permeability
Darcy’s law q=kia
Laboratory permeability tests: Constant head (q=Ak(h/l)) &
falling head k=2.303(al/At)log10(h1/h2)
Field permeability test
Factors affecting permeability: soil characteristics & pore fluid characteristics
2.4 Seepage Flow
Seepage force: Quick sand; upward flow
Two dimensional flow: Laplace equation
2.5 Flow Net
Properties of flow net
Applications of flow net
Construction of flow net: boundary conditions
Construction methods:

Permeability:
The property of soil
which permits flow
of water
Engineering properties

Effect of permeability
on soil:
 Settlement of buildings
 Yield of wells
 Seepage through and
below the earth
structures.

Coefficient of permeability: (k)
K = v / i
v – velocity of flow
i – hydraulic gradient

Determination of co-efficient of
permeability
1. Constant head permeability test
- Conducted for more permeable soil
2. Falling head permeability test
- Conducted for relatively less permeable soil

Consolidation:
Compression of saturated
soil under a steady static
pressure
Compaction:
Process by which soil
particles are artificially
rearranged and packed
together into a closer state of
contact by mechanical means.

Tests used to measure the shear strength:
Direct Shear Test
Triaxial Test
Unconfined Compressive Strength Test
Vane Shear Test

Shear strength:
Maximum resistance of
soil to shear stresses
just before the failure
The shear strength ()
of a soil at a point on a
particular plane is
given by
 = c +  tan

Direct shear test apparatus –generally conducted on
cohesionless soil as CD test

UCC test apparatus – conducted only on clayey soil
(confining pressure is zero)

Triaxial test – used for determination of shear strength of
all types of soil under different drainage condition

Vane shear test – ideally suited for the determination
of the in-situ undrained shear strength of clay

Consolidation:
Compression of
saturated soil under a
steady static pressure

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