This article aims to present the factors that led to the failure of the national developmentalism adopted in Brazil and in the world and show how to rescue it in the contemporary era. National developmentalism is understood as the effort undertaken by various governments in the world after World War II to make their countries reach the same level of development as developed capitalist countries. The identification of the factors or causes that led to the failure of national developmentalism will make it possible to rescue it with the necessary adjustments, which, in the specific case of Brazil, is very important because it was, with national developmentalism from 1930 to 1980, that the country reached the highest level of economic and social development in its history. What is also intended in this article is, by identifying the real causes of the failure of national developmentalism, to contribute to showing the paths that lead to the economic and social emancipation of the vast majority of countries in the world.
Autumn 2012, Labor and Globalization - The North American Free Trade Agreemen...Stephen Cheng
This is a final term paper that I wrote for Professor Ian Thomas MacDonald while at CUNY's School of Professional Studies (also known as the Joseph S. Murphy Institute) during the autumn 2012 semester. In this paper, I focus on the effects of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) on the political economy of twentieth century Mexico. I also examine the country's economic history and discuss import-substitution policies, farming, a 1980s-era financial crisis, and neoliberalism -- key aspects that helped lead to Mexico's involvement with NAFTA. I argue that NAFTA was essentially a neoliberal treaty that forced farmers in Mexico to seek work as wage laborers in the maquiladoras and in other countries such as the United States of America, which is also a signatory country of NAFTA. In point of fact, the US, Mexican, and Canadian governments all approved and signed this treaty.
Although I wrote this paper in late 2012 when Barack Obama and Mitt Romney competed for the US presidency, it remains relevant in light of Donald Trump's nativist and xenophobic scapegoating of Mexico, which is a key part of his attempt to become the Republican party's presidential candidate for the 2016 elections.
Self criticism that leftist political parties need to makeFernando Alcoforado
Changing the world through the state was the paradigm that prevailed in the left-wing political parties of the eighteenth century until the 1990s of the twentieth century when the Soviet Union and the socialist countries of Eastern Europe were dismantled. The thesis of the leftist political parties that founded these conceptions is simple: the state that until then was an instrument of the bourgeoisie was transformed into an instrument of the working class through the Reformation or the Social Revolution. The thesis of considering the state as the center of radiance of change was a resounding failure in all parts of the world, both in the countries that tried to build socialism and in the peripheral countries that adopted a nationalist stance in promoting their development.
The dilemmas of the developmental state: democracy and economic development i...FGV Brazil
Is it possible to reconcile one of the institutional strategies to promote development, known in the literature as “the developmental state”, with contemporary democratic systems of government? If so, what are the challenges, trade-offs and potential gains that such an effort may entail? The vast literature on “the developmental state” claims that it is more likely to succeed under autocratic regimes. While a “democratic developmental state” seems possible in theory, there is very little empirical evidence to show how it would work in practice. This article tries to contribute to this debate by analyzing the case of Brazil, a country that transitioned from a military dictatorship to a democratic regime in the late 1980s, and has been moving towards increasing state interventionism since 2002. While the policies implemented by the “New Developmental State” in Brazil have been explored in the academic literature, their democratic dimensions remain unchartered.
Date: 2015
Authors:
Prado, Mariana Mota
Schapiro, Mario Gomes
Coutinho, Diogo R.
It can be said that the failure in promoting economic and social development of almost all peripheral and semi-peripheral countries of the world can be attributed to the fact that the governments of these countries have adopted strategies to promote national development in isolation in relation to the world system capitalist. The new theoretical reference of analysis of the economic system of a nation taking into account the capitalist world-system proposed by Wallerstein is opposed to the Cartesian approach that formulates the development of the national economic system dissociated of the capitalist world system. So that explains the failure of national developmentalism and socialism deployment that resulted from the fact that their mentors admit having ability to promote national economic and social development disassociated from the capitalist world-system.
The pt workers´party governments are not progress forces in brazilFernando Alcoforado
Governments of the PT cannot be considered forces of progress because the balance of 13 years of Lula and Dilma Rousseff governments is the denial of the great struggles of the Brazilian people carried on in the twentieth century, a historical inconsistency traitor. Inconsistency in the economic sphere is manifested in the fact that both PT governments have given continuity to the neoliberal and anti-national policy of the Fernando Collor, Itamar Franco and Fernando Henrique Cardoso governments following what established the Washington Consensus in the 1990s. One of the great expectations that are created with the electoral victory of the PT governments from 2002 was that it would be continued Brazilian economic and social development process and national emancipation triggered by the presidents Getúlio Vargas and João Goulart to overcome the dependence on Brazil to foreign capital and the strengthening of production belonging to Brazilian sectors. Rather, what we found was the increased financial and technological dependence of Brazil in relation to the outside and the denationalization of the Brazilian economy.
This paper searches to understand the developmental state and its historical role in the industrial revolution and after it. First, the developmental state is defined as an alternative to the liberal state. Second, it was in the framework of a developmental state that industrial revolutions took place, and four models of developmental state are defined. Third, after the industrial revolution, the state withdraws partially from the economy, but the developmental state continues to have a major role in assuring the general conditions that make competitive the competent business enterprises in each country – in conducing an active macroeconomic policy, particularly an exchange rate policy, in coordinating the non-competitive industries, and in conducing strategic industrial and technological policy. The paper concludes by comparing developmentalism with nationalism.
Author: Pereira, Luiz C. Bresser
FGV's Sao Paulo School of Economics (EESP)
A lack of brazilian people´s protagonism in brazil historyFernando Alcoforado
Throughout the history of Brazil is flagrant the failure of the Brazilian people to play a protagonism role in the structural changes necessary for economic and social progress of the country. Generally, in times of political and economic crisis ever occurred agreements between the dominant economic classes and holders of political power that allowed maintain the "status quo". The critical political, economic and social situation in Brazil at the time may have to reconcile "by the high" among holders of economic and political power to keep the Dilma Rousseff government in power if the majority of the Brazilian people remains passive in regarding political, economic and social devastation in progress. This is the trump card of the incompetent and corrupt holders of Brazil's political power who do not fear of the people of Brazil that is primarily responsible for the rise them to power.
Autumn 2012, Labor and Globalization - The North American Free Trade Agreemen...Stephen Cheng
This is a final term paper that I wrote for Professor Ian Thomas MacDonald while at CUNY's School of Professional Studies (also known as the Joseph S. Murphy Institute) during the autumn 2012 semester. In this paper, I focus on the effects of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) on the political economy of twentieth century Mexico. I also examine the country's economic history and discuss import-substitution policies, farming, a 1980s-era financial crisis, and neoliberalism -- key aspects that helped lead to Mexico's involvement with NAFTA. I argue that NAFTA was essentially a neoliberal treaty that forced farmers in Mexico to seek work as wage laborers in the maquiladoras and in other countries such as the United States of America, which is also a signatory country of NAFTA. In point of fact, the US, Mexican, and Canadian governments all approved and signed this treaty.
Although I wrote this paper in late 2012 when Barack Obama and Mitt Romney competed for the US presidency, it remains relevant in light of Donald Trump's nativist and xenophobic scapegoating of Mexico, which is a key part of his attempt to become the Republican party's presidential candidate for the 2016 elections.
Self criticism that leftist political parties need to makeFernando Alcoforado
Changing the world through the state was the paradigm that prevailed in the left-wing political parties of the eighteenth century until the 1990s of the twentieth century when the Soviet Union and the socialist countries of Eastern Europe were dismantled. The thesis of the leftist political parties that founded these conceptions is simple: the state that until then was an instrument of the bourgeoisie was transformed into an instrument of the working class through the Reformation or the Social Revolution. The thesis of considering the state as the center of radiance of change was a resounding failure in all parts of the world, both in the countries that tried to build socialism and in the peripheral countries that adopted a nationalist stance in promoting their development.
The dilemmas of the developmental state: democracy and economic development i...FGV Brazil
Is it possible to reconcile one of the institutional strategies to promote development, known in the literature as “the developmental state”, with contemporary democratic systems of government? If so, what are the challenges, trade-offs and potential gains that such an effort may entail? The vast literature on “the developmental state” claims that it is more likely to succeed under autocratic regimes. While a “democratic developmental state” seems possible in theory, there is very little empirical evidence to show how it would work in practice. This article tries to contribute to this debate by analyzing the case of Brazil, a country that transitioned from a military dictatorship to a democratic regime in the late 1980s, and has been moving towards increasing state interventionism since 2002. While the policies implemented by the “New Developmental State” in Brazil have been explored in the academic literature, their democratic dimensions remain unchartered.
Date: 2015
Authors:
Prado, Mariana Mota
Schapiro, Mario Gomes
Coutinho, Diogo R.
It can be said that the failure in promoting economic and social development of almost all peripheral and semi-peripheral countries of the world can be attributed to the fact that the governments of these countries have adopted strategies to promote national development in isolation in relation to the world system capitalist. The new theoretical reference of analysis of the economic system of a nation taking into account the capitalist world-system proposed by Wallerstein is opposed to the Cartesian approach that formulates the development of the national economic system dissociated of the capitalist world system. So that explains the failure of national developmentalism and socialism deployment that resulted from the fact that their mentors admit having ability to promote national economic and social development disassociated from the capitalist world-system.
The pt workers´party governments are not progress forces in brazilFernando Alcoforado
Governments of the PT cannot be considered forces of progress because the balance of 13 years of Lula and Dilma Rousseff governments is the denial of the great struggles of the Brazilian people carried on in the twentieth century, a historical inconsistency traitor. Inconsistency in the economic sphere is manifested in the fact that both PT governments have given continuity to the neoliberal and anti-national policy of the Fernando Collor, Itamar Franco and Fernando Henrique Cardoso governments following what established the Washington Consensus in the 1990s. One of the great expectations that are created with the electoral victory of the PT governments from 2002 was that it would be continued Brazilian economic and social development process and national emancipation triggered by the presidents Getúlio Vargas and João Goulart to overcome the dependence on Brazil to foreign capital and the strengthening of production belonging to Brazilian sectors. Rather, what we found was the increased financial and technological dependence of Brazil in relation to the outside and the denationalization of the Brazilian economy.
This paper searches to understand the developmental state and its historical role in the industrial revolution and after it. First, the developmental state is defined as an alternative to the liberal state. Second, it was in the framework of a developmental state that industrial revolutions took place, and four models of developmental state are defined. Third, after the industrial revolution, the state withdraws partially from the economy, but the developmental state continues to have a major role in assuring the general conditions that make competitive the competent business enterprises in each country – in conducing an active macroeconomic policy, particularly an exchange rate policy, in coordinating the non-competitive industries, and in conducing strategic industrial and technological policy. The paper concludes by comparing developmentalism with nationalism.
Author: Pereira, Luiz C. Bresser
FGV's Sao Paulo School of Economics (EESP)
A lack of brazilian people´s protagonism in brazil historyFernando Alcoforado
Throughout the history of Brazil is flagrant the failure of the Brazilian people to play a protagonism role in the structural changes necessary for economic and social progress of the country. Generally, in times of political and economic crisis ever occurred agreements between the dominant economic classes and holders of political power that allowed maintain the "status quo". The critical political, economic and social situation in Brazil at the time may have to reconcile "by the high" among holders of economic and political power to keep the Dilma Rousseff government in power if the majority of the Brazilian people remains passive in regarding political, economic and social devastation in progress. This is the trump card of the incompetent and corrupt holders of Brazil's political power who do not fear of the people of Brazil that is primarily responsible for the rise them to power.
Is it possible accomplishing the national development independentFernando Alcoforado
The failure in promoting economic and social development of almost all peripheral and semi-peripheral countries of the world must be attributed to the fact that the governments of these countries outline strategies to promote national development dissociated from the evolution of the capitalist world-system. In his book Unthinking Social Science, the American sociologist Immanuel Wallerstein states that it is necessary to review the current paradigms of social sciences and going to think otherwise in the XXI century. Wallerstein argues for the adoption of a new theoretical and methodological framework in social science based on analysis of the capitalist world-system to understand how each national system it is inserted in order to promote their economic and social development. The new theoretical analysis of the economic system of a nation taking into account the capitalist world-system proposed by Wallerstein is opposed to the current Cartesian method approach that formulates the development of the national economic system of isolated and dissociated form of the analysis of the insertion of the national economy in the world capitalist system.
Dr. Alejandro Diaz-Bautista Economic Policy Import Substitution Dependency Th...Economist
Dependency theory and the import substitution period.
Alejandro Díaz-Bautista, Ph.D.
adiazbau@hotmail.com
Professor of Economics and Researcher at COLEF
Visiting Research Fellow and Guest Scholar 2008, Center for U.S.-Mexican Studies, University of California San Diego (UCSD).
Graduate School of International Relations & Pacific Studies IR/PS. University of California, San Diego.
The end of external dependence to promote national developmentFernando Alcoforado
It can be said that peripheral and semi-peripheral capitalist countries such as Brazil will only promote their development if their external dependence (economic and technological) is brought to an end on the central capitalist countries.
LES GRANDES INVENTIONS DU TRANSPORT PAR EAU À TRAVERS L'HISTOIRE ET LEUR ÉVOL...Fernando Alcoforado
Cet article vise à présenter les grandes inventions qui se sont produites avec les moyens de transport fluvial, lacustre et maritime, visant le transport de personnes et de marchandises à travers l'histoire et son évolution future. L'utilisation des bateaux a constitué l'un des premiers moyens de locomotion inventés par l'homme et a été cruciale pour le développement de l'humanité. Depuis l'Antiquité, les bateaux ont été utilisés comme moyen de transport. Au début, les canots étaient utilisés pour les activités de pêche et le transport à courte distance. Les canots sont considérés comme les premiers navires utilisés pour transporter des personnes et des marchandises. Profitant du courant de l'eau ou utilisant des avirons, les navigateurs déplaçaient les canots, parcourant de petites distances. Au fil du temps, des voiliers ont été inventés, qui se déplaçaient entraînés par la force du vent. Le développement des navires et la découverte de nouvelles techniques de navigation ont permis aux êtres humains de traverser les rivières, les mers et les océans, surmontant de longues distances dans le transport de passagers et de marchandises, en plus de les utiliser comme armes de guerre. Des canoës en bois aux grands navires tels que les paquebots modernes, il y a eu beaucoup de progrès. À l'avenir, les navires bénéficieront de technologies de plus en plus sophistiquées. Les navires intelligents feront partie intégrante de la réalité qui nous entoure.
THE GREAT INVENTIONS IN WATERWAY TRANSPORT THROUGHOUT HISTORY AND THEIR FUTUR...Fernando Alcoforado
This article aims to present the great inventions that occurred with the means of river, lake and maritime transport, aiming at the transport of people and cargo throughout history and its future evolution. The use of boats constituted one of the first means of locomotion invented by man and was crucial for the development of humanity. Since ancient times, boats have been used as a means of transport. In the beginning, canoes were used for fishing activities and short-distance transport. Canoes are considered the first vessels used to transport people and cargo. Taking advantage of the current of the water or using oars, the navigators moved the canoes, covering small distances. Over time, sailing boats were invented, which moved driven by the force of the wind. The development of ships and the discovery of new navigation techniques made it possible for human beings to cross rivers, seas and oceans, overcoming long distances in the transport of passengers and cargo, in addition to using them as weapons of war. From wooden canoes to large vessels such as modern ocean liners, there has been a lot of progress. In the future, vessels will benefit from increasingly sophisticated technologies. Smart ships will become an integral part of the reality that surrounds us.
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Is it possible accomplishing the national development independentFernando Alcoforado
The failure in promoting economic and social development of almost all peripheral and semi-peripheral countries of the world must be attributed to the fact that the governments of these countries outline strategies to promote national development dissociated from the evolution of the capitalist world-system. In his book Unthinking Social Science, the American sociologist Immanuel Wallerstein states that it is necessary to review the current paradigms of social sciences and going to think otherwise in the XXI century. Wallerstein argues for the adoption of a new theoretical and methodological framework in social science based on analysis of the capitalist world-system to understand how each national system it is inserted in order to promote their economic and social development. The new theoretical analysis of the economic system of a nation taking into account the capitalist world-system proposed by Wallerstein is opposed to the current Cartesian method approach that formulates the development of the national economic system of isolated and dissociated form of the analysis of the insertion of the national economy in the world capitalist system.
Dr. Alejandro Diaz-Bautista Economic Policy Import Substitution Dependency Th...Economist
Dependency theory and the import substitution period.
Alejandro Díaz-Bautista, Ph.D.
adiazbau@hotmail.com
Professor of Economics and Researcher at COLEF
Visiting Research Fellow and Guest Scholar 2008, Center for U.S.-Mexican Studies, University of California San Diego (UCSD).
Graduate School of International Relations & Pacific Studies IR/PS. University of California, San Diego.
The end of external dependence to promote national developmentFernando Alcoforado
It can be said that peripheral and semi-peripheral capitalist countries such as Brazil will only promote their development if their external dependence (economic and technological) is brought to an end on the central capitalist countries.
LES GRANDES INVENTIONS DU TRANSPORT PAR EAU À TRAVERS L'HISTOIRE ET LEUR ÉVOL...Fernando Alcoforado
Cet article vise à présenter les grandes inventions qui se sont produites avec les moyens de transport fluvial, lacustre et maritime, visant le transport de personnes et de marchandises à travers l'histoire et son évolution future. L'utilisation des bateaux a constitué l'un des premiers moyens de locomotion inventés par l'homme et a été cruciale pour le développement de l'humanité. Depuis l'Antiquité, les bateaux ont été utilisés comme moyen de transport. Au début, les canots étaient utilisés pour les activités de pêche et le transport à courte distance. Les canots sont considérés comme les premiers navires utilisés pour transporter des personnes et des marchandises. Profitant du courant de l'eau ou utilisant des avirons, les navigateurs déplaçaient les canots, parcourant de petites distances. Au fil du temps, des voiliers ont été inventés, qui se déplaçaient entraînés par la force du vent. Le développement des navires et la découverte de nouvelles techniques de navigation ont permis aux êtres humains de traverser les rivières, les mers et les océans, surmontant de longues distances dans le transport de passagers et de marchandises, en plus de les utiliser comme armes de guerre. Des canoës en bois aux grands navires tels que les paquebots modernes, il y a eu beaucoup de progrès. À l'avenir, les navires bénéficieront de technologies de plus en plus sophistiquées. Les navires intelligents feront partie intégrante de la réalité qui nous entoure.
THE GREAT INVENTIONS IN WATERWAY TRANSPORT THROUGHOUT HISTORY AND THEIR FUTUR...Fernando Alcoforado
This article aims to present the great inventions that occurred with the means of river, lake and maritime transport, aiming at the transport of people and cargo throughout history and its future evolution. The use of boats constituted one of the first means of locomotion invented by man and was crucial for the development of humanity. Since ancient times, boats have been used as a means of transport. In the beginning, canoes were used for fishing activities and short-distance transport. Canoes are considered the first vessels used to transport people and cargo. Taking advantage of the current of the water or using oars, the navigators moved the canoes, covering small distances. Over time, sailing boats were invented, which moved driven by the force of the wind. The development of ships and the discovery of new navigation techniques made it possible for human beings to cross rivers, seas and oceans, overcoming long distances in the transport of passengers and cargo, in addition to using them as weapons of war. From wooden canoes to large vessels such as modern ocean liners, there has been a lot of progress. In the future, vessels will benefit from increasingly sophisticated technologies. Smart ships will become an integral part of the reality that surrounds us.
AS GRANDES INVENÇÕES NO TRANSPORTE HIDROVIÁRIO AO LONGO DA HISTÓRIA E SUA FUT...Fernando Alcoforado
Este artigo tem o objetivo de apresentar as grandes invenções que ocorreram com os meios de transporte fluvial, lacustre e marítimo visando o transporte de pessoas e cargas ao longo da história e sua evolução futura. O uso de embarcações se constituíram em um dos primeiros meios de locomoção inventados pelo homem e foi crucial para o desenvolvimento da humanidade. Desde os tempos mais remotos, os barcos têm sido usados como meio de transporte. No início, eram utilizadas canoas para atividades de pesca e transporte de curta distância. As canoas são consideradas as primeiras embarcações utilizadas para o transporte de pessoas e de carga. Aproveitando a correnteza da água ou usando remos, os navegadores moviam as canoas, percorrendo pequenas distâncias. Com o tempo, foram inventados os barcos a vela, que se moviam impulsionados pela força do vento. O desenvolvimento das embarcações e a descoberta de novas técnicas de navegação tornaram possível aos seres humanos atravessar rios, mares e oceanos, vencendo longas distâncias no transporte de passageiros e de cargas, além de utilizá-las como armas de guerra. Das canoas de madeira às grandes embarcações, como os modernos transatlânticos, houve muitos progressos. No futuro, embarcações se beneficiarão de tecnologias cada vez mais sofisticadas. Navios inteligentes se tornarão parte integrante da realidade que nos cerca.
LA GUERRE EN UKRAINE ET LA FIN DE LA MONDIALISATION CONTEMPORAINEFernando Alcoforado
Cet article vise à démontrer que la guerre en Ukraine peut conduire à la fin de la mondialisation contemporaine et à l'avènement d'un nouvel ordre international. L'adoption par les États-Unis, l'Union européenne, le Royaume-Uni et d'autres pays de sanctions économiques et financières contre la Russie dans le but d'étouffer l'économie russe signale que tout pays au monde qui ne se soumet pas aux impositions des grands les puissances mondiales capitalistes pourraient encourir les mêmes peines que celles infligées pour la première fois de l'histoire à la Russie. Cet épisode peut amener chaque nation à réduire ses échanges économiques et financiers avec l'extérieur et rechercher son autonomie économique pour éviter de subir les conséquences néfastes de l'action concertée des grandes puissances occidentales si le pays ne se subordonne pas à ses intérêts. L'autosuffisance économique est la condition pour qu'aucune nation ne soit asphyxiée par la puissance des grandes puissances occidentales comme ce fut le cas de la Russie. Dans ces circonstances, tous les pays chercheraient à commercer avec le reste du monde sans devenir extrêmement dépendants de l'étranger, comme c'est actuellement le cas avec le processus de mondialisation économique et financière. Cela remet en cause le processus de mondialisation contemporain amorcé dans les années 1990, qui a été adopté pour intégrer les marchés mondiaux et a reçu le soutien de la plupart des pays du monde, dont la Russie et la Chine.
THE WAR IN UKRAINE AND THE END OF CONTEMPORARY GLOBALIZATIONFernando Alcoforado
This article aims to demonstrate that the war in Ukraine can lead to the end of contemporary globalization and the advent of a new international order. The adoption by the United States, the European Union, the United Kingdom and other countries of economic and financial sanctions against Russia with the purpose of suffocating the Russian economy signals that any country in the world that does not subordinate itself to the impositions of the great capitalist world powers could face the same penalties as those carried out for the first time in history against Russia. This episode can make each nation reduce its economic and financial exchange with the outside and seek its economic self-sufficiency to avoid suffering the harmful consequences of the concerted action of the great Western powers if the country does not subordinate to its interests. Economic self-sufficiency is the condition for no nation to be asphyxiated by the power of the great Western powers as was the Russia case. Under these circumstances, all countries would seek to trade with the rest of the world without becoming extremely dependent on foreign countries, as is currently the case with the process of economic and financial globalization. This calls into question the contemporary globalization process that began in the 1990s, which was adopted to integrate world markets and received the support of most countries in the world, including Russia and China.
COMO PROMOVER O DESENVOLVIMENTO DO SISTEMA DE EDUCAÇÃO DA BAHIA Fernando Alcoforado
Este é um resumo do trabalho que realizamos como um dos integrantes da comissão constituída pela Academia Baiana de Educação para propor as estratégias mais recomendáveis para promover o desenvolvimento do sistema de educação da Bahia. Para propor estratégias de desenvolvimento do sistema de educação da Bahia, cumprimos as etapas seguintes: 1) Diagnóstico do sistema de educação da Bahia; 2) Análise da política educacional do governo federal e suas consequências sobre o Brasil e a Bahia; 3) Análise dos fatores de sucesso dos melhores sistemas de educação do mundo; 4) Requisitos da educação do futuro na Bahia para lidar com as mudanças na sociedade brasileira; e, 5) Proposta de estratégias para superar as fragilidades do sistema de educação da Bahia, lidar com as políticas educacionais do governo federal, alcançar o mesmo sucesso dos melhores sistemas de educação do mundo e adequar o sistema de educação da Bahia às mudanças na sociedade brasileira impactada pelas mudanças tecnológicas em curso. Foram propostas 9 estratégias para superar as fragilidades atuais do sistema de educação da Bahia, 11 estratégias para lidar com as políticas educacionais do governo federal, 18 estratégias para alcançar o mesmo sucesso dos melhores sistemas de educação do mundo e 13 estratégias para adequar o sistema de educação da Bahia às mudanças na sociedade brasileira impactada pelas mudanças tecnológicas em curso.
COMMENT LA GUERRE EN UKRAINE PEUT TERMINER ET COMMENT METTRE UN TERME DEFINIT...Fernando Alcoforado
Cet article vise à indiquer quoi et comment faire pour célébrer la paix dans la guerre entre la Russie et l'Ukraine et mettre un terme définitif aux guerres sur notre planète, réalisant le rêve d'Emmanuel Kant exprimé dans son ouvrage "La paix perpétuelle" et le rêve de tous amoureux de la paix pour la perpétuer dans le monde où nous vivons. La guerre entre la Russie et l'Ukraine ne prendra fin que si ses causes sont éliminées. Il y a deux causes à la guerre : 1) l'expansion de l'OTAN, une alliance militaire occidentale, vers les frontières de la Russie, favorisant le siège de ce pays ; et, 2) le désir du gouvernement ukrainien de rejoindre l'OTAN, ce qui achèverait le siège de la Russie rendant ce pays vulnérable. Les tentatives de célébrer la paix entre les gouvernements de la Russie et de l'Ukraine n'ont pas produit de progrès car les gouvernements des États-Unis et de la Russie devraient la négocier car seuls ces gouvernements seraient en mesure d'éliminer les causes de la guerre. Pour conjurer définitivement de nouveaux risques d'une nouvelle guerre mondiale et instaurer une paix perpétuelle sur notre planète, il faudrait réformer le système international actuel, incapable de garantir la paix mondiale. Le nouveau système international était censé fonctionner sur la base d'un Contrat Social Planétaire qui serait la Constitution de la planète Terre. Pour assurer la pratique démocratique et la gouvernance sur la planète Terre, le pouvoir mondial devrait être exercé par le Parlement mondial qui, en plus d'élire le Président du Gouvernement mondial, devrait rédiger et approuver les lois internationales basées sur le Contrat Social Planétaire.
FOUS ET AVEUGLES CONDUISENT LE MONDE VERS LA NOUVELLE GUERRE MONDIALEFernando Alcoforado
Cet article vise à démontrer que le monde dans lequel nous vivons est gouverné par des fous qui, dominés par l'aveuglement, conduisent le monde vers une nouvelle guerre mondiale. Les dirigeants fous de la Russie, Wladimir Poutine, et de l'Ukraine, Volodymyr Zelensky, ont radicalisé leurs positions, ce qui a conduit au déclenchement de la guerre et à la dévastation subie par l'Ukraine. Les dirigeants fous des États-Unis et des pays de l'Union européenne se sont radicalisés en déclenchant une guerre économique contre la Russie qui peut contribuer à la radicalisation de Poutine pour tenter de se maintenir au pouvoir et de s'imposer contre les grandes puissances occidentales. La folie et l'aveuglement ont également atteint les dirigeants de la plupart des pays du monde qui, en tant que troupeau, ont pris des décisions presque unanimes pour condamner la Russie pour l'invasion de l'Ukraine lors de l'Assemblée générale des Nations Unies au lieu d'agir dans le sens de rechercher une solution négociée au conflit. L'ONU, censée servir de médiateur dans le conflit, a également été dominée par la folie et l'aveuglement car elle a cessé d'être un instrument de construction de la paix mondiale pour devenir un instrument de promotion de la guerre. Le monde n'est pas seulement composé de dirigeants fous et aveugles. La folie et l'aveuglement ont frappé les dirigeants d'entreprises qui ont cessé d'établir des relations commerciales avec la Russie, comme Apple, Samsung, Microsoft, Facebook, Twitter, Google, Spotfy, YouTube, Boeing, Airbus, Ford, General Motors, Toyota, Shell, British Petroleum, Mastercard, Visa, Amex et McDonald's, entre autres, alimentent le processus de radicalisation contre la Russie. Fous et aveugles sont aussi les fabricants d'armements, c'est-à-dire l'industrie de guerre dans le monde, notamment aux États-Unis, qui fomentent des guerres pour gagner de l'argent. Le déclenchement d'une nouvelle guerre mondiale pourrait se produire si la suffocation économique et financière de la Russie menace de déstabiliser le pouvoir de Poutine dans son pays. Poutine considère déjà les sanctions économiques et financières que lui imposent les États-Unis et l'Union européenne comme une déclaration de guerre. Il convient de noter que la Russie et les États-Unis possèdent conjointement plus de 8 000 ogives nucléaires. Les enjeux sont extrêmement élevés pour l'humanité. L'existence future des êtres humains est entre les mains de ces fous.
LOUCOS E CEGOS CONDUZEM O MUNDO RUMO A NOVA GUERRA MUNDIALFernando Alcoforado
Este artigo tem por objetivo demonstrar que o mundo em que vivemos é governado por loucos que dominados pela cegueira conduzem o mundo rumo a uma nova guerra mundial. Os loucos governantes da Rússia, Wladimir Putin, e da Ucrânia, Volodymyr Zelensky, radicalizaram suas posições que levaram à eclosão da guerra e à devastação a que foi submetida a Ucrânia. Os loucos governantes dos Estados Unidos e dos países da União Europeia radicalizaram ao desencadear uma guerra econômica contra a Rússia que pode contribuir para que Putin radicalize como tentativa de se manter no poder e se impor diante do poder das grandes potências ocidentais. A loucura e a cegueira alcançaram, também, os governantes da maioria dos países do mundo que, como manada, tomaram decisões quase unânimes de condenação da Rússia pela invasão à Ucrânia na Assembleia Geral da ONU ao invés de atuarem no sentido de buscarem uma solução negociada para o conflito. A ONU, que deveria mediar o conflito, foi dominada, também, pela loucura e pela cegueira ao deixar de ser instrumento de construção da paz mundial e passar a ser instrumento de promoção da guerra. O mundo não é composto apenas por governantes loucos e cegos. A loucura e a cegueira atingiram os dirigentes das empresas que deixaram de estabelecer relações comerciais com a Rússia, como a Apple, Samsung, Microsoft, Facebook, Twitter, Google, Spotfy, YouTube, Boeing, Airbus, Ford, General Motors, Toyota, Shell, British Petroleum, Mastercard, Visa, Amex e McDonald´s, entre outras, alimentando o processo de radicalização contra a Rússia. Loucos e cegos são, também, os fabricantes de armamentos, isto é, a indústria bélica do mundo, especialmente dos Estados Unidos, que fomentam guerras para ganhar dinheiro. A eclosão de uma nova guerra mundial poderá ocorrer se a asfixia econômica e financeira da Rússia ameaçar desestabilizar o poder de Putin internamente. Putin já está considerando as sanções econômicas e financeiras a ela impostas pelos Estados Unidos e União Europeia como uma declaração de guerra. Cabe observar que a Rússia e os Estados Unidos têm conjuntamente mais de 8 mil ogivas nucleares. Os riscos são extremamente elevados para a humanidade. Está nas mãos desses loucos a existência futura dos seres humanos.
THE REAL CAUSE OF THE WAR IN UKRAINE AND THE CURRENT WARS IN THE WORLD Fernando Alcoforado
This article aims to show the real responsible for the outbreak of wars in the world such as the one involving Russia and Ukraine at the present time and the wars that occurred from the beginning of the 20th century to the contemporary era. The real cause of the war between Russia and Ukraine is not being considered by many international policy analysts. Out of ignorance or because they are at the service of those who foment this war among so many that took place from the 20th century onwards, these analysts do not reveal that the arms industry is the real cause of wars in the world. It was the war industry, especially in the United States, which, after the end of the Soviet Union, encouraged the maintenance of NATO, a military alliance created to face the Soviet Union and its allies after the 2nd World War. The logical and rational decision would be the dissolution of NATO after the end of the Soviet Union, as happened with the Warsaw Pact, a military alliance of European socialist countries.
Este artigo analisa os desdobramentos futuros da guerra entre a Rússia e a Ucrânia e a necessidade de uma governança mundial para evitar novos conflitos internacionais e preservar a paz mundial.
Cet article vise à présenter quoi et comment faire face aux inondations au Brésil. À l'heure actuelle, plusieurs régions du Brésil sont touchées par des pluies intenses et des inondations qui ont fait des morts et détruit des bâtiments et des infrastructures. Les gouvernants expliquent l'existence de ce problème par l'excès de pluies ou le débordement des rivières, essayant de s'exonérer de la culpabilité de ne rien faire pour éviter son apparition et ses conséquences. Tout le monde s'accorde à dire que les inondations sont des calamités naturelles qui se produisent lorsqu'un lit naturel reçoit un volume d'eau supérieur à ce qu'il peut contenir, entraînant des débordements. Cette situation peut se produire dans les lacs, les rivières et les ruisseaux en raison de pluies abondantes et continues. Les inondations sont considérées, parmi les catastrophes naturelles, comme celles qui causent le plus de dommages aux biens et à la santé de la population en raison de l'effet direct des inondations, des maladies infectieuses secondaires et des perturbations des systèmes d'eau et d'assainissement.
This article aims to present what and how to do to deal with floods in Brazil. Now, several regions of Brazil are affected by intense rains and floods that have brought deaths and destruction of buildings and infrastructure. The rulers explain the existence of this problem by the excess of rains or the overflowing of rivers, trying to exonerate themselves of the guilt of doing nothing to avoid its occurrence and its consequences. Everyone agrees that floods are natural calamities that occur when a natural bed receives a volume of water greater than it can hold, resulting in overflows. This situation can occur in lakes, rivers and streams due to heavy and continuous rainfall. Floods are considered, among the natural disasters, the ones that cause the most damage to property and the health of the population because of the direct effect of floods, secondary infectious diseases and disruptions to water and sanitation systems.
Este artigo tem por objetivo apresentar o que e como fazer para lidar com inundações no Brasil. No momento atual, várias regiões do Brasil são afetadas por chuvas intensas e inundações que têm trazido mortes e destruição de edificações e infraestruturas. Os governantes explicam a existência deste problema pelo excesso de chuvas ou pelo transbordamento de rios tentando se eximir da culpa de nada fazer para evitar sua ocorrência e suas consequências. Todos concordam que as enchentes são calamidades naturais que ocorrem quando um leito natural recebe um volume de água superior ao que pode comportar resultando em transbordamentos. Esta situação pode ocorrer em lagos, rios e córregos devido a chuvas fortes e contínuas. As enchentes são consideradas, entre as catástrofes naturais, as que mais danos causam ao patrimônio e à saúde da população em decorrência do efeito direto das inundações, das doenças infecciosas secundárias e aos transtornos nos sistemas de água e saneamento.
Este artigo tem por objetivo analisar a gênese da riqueza e da pobreza das nações e apontar soluções para que as nações pobres se desenvolvam. O mundo passou a se defrontar há muitos anos com a existência de pouquíssimos países ricos que apresentam desenvolvimento econômico e social avançado ao lado da grande maioria de países pobres com precário desenvolvimento econômico e social. Muitos perguntam: qual a explicação para os países capitalistas centrais terem alcançado nível elevado de desenvolvimento econômico e social e os demais países não? Há várias respostas para esta pergunta. Uma delas é a de que os países capitalistas centrais desenvolveram competências essenciais para promover o desenvolvimento econômico, científico e tecnológico. Mas, a principal resposta é a de que os países capitalistas centrais acumularam grande volume de capital durante o colonialismo dos séculos XIV a XVII e o imperialismo dos séculos XVIII ao século XX com a o saque que realizaram nos países por eles dominados e, também, na etapa atual de globalização neoliberal. A relação de dependência dos países pobres, periféricos e semiperiféricos do capitalismo mundial, só chegará ao fim com o desaparecimento do sistema mundo capitalista e a adoção em todo o mundo de um novo modelo de sociedade que assegure o progresso econômico e social para todos os países e não apenas para pouquíssimos países. Este novo modelo requereria a existência de um governo mundial para assegurar o funcionamento de uma nova ordem mundial que garanta a equidade no processo de desenvolvimento das nações e a implantação do Estado de Bem Estar Social nos moldes do praticado nos países escandinavos com a necessária adaptação a cada país porque é o mais bem sucedido sistema social já implantado no mundo.
This article aims to analyze the genesis of the wealth and poverty of nations and to point out solutions for poor nations to develop. The world began to face many years ago with the existence of very few rich countries that present advanced economic and social development alongside the vast majority of poor countries with precarious economic and social development. Many ask: what is the explanation for the central capitalist countries having reached a high level of economic and social development and the other countries not? There are several answers to this question. One of them is that the core capitalist countries have developed essential competences to promote economic, scientific and technological development. But the main answer is that the central capitalist countries accumulated a large volume of capital during colonialism from the 14th to the 17th centuries and imperialism from the 18th to the 20th centuries with the looting they carried out in the countries they dominated and also in the current stage of neoliberal globalization. The relationship of dependence of poor, peripheral and semi-peripheral countries on world capitalism will only come to an end with the disappearance of the capitalist world system and the adoption throughout the world of a new model of society that ensures economic and social progress for all countries and not just for a very few countries. This new model would require the existence of a world government to ensure the functioning of a new world order that guarantees equity in the development process of nations and the implementation of the Welfare State along the lines of that practiced in Scandinavian countries with the necessary adaptation to each country because it is the most successful social system ever implemented in the world..
Cet article vise à analyser la genèse de la richesse et de la pauvreté des nations et à proposer des solutions pour que les nations pauvres se développent. Le monde a commencé à faire face il y a de nombreuses années à l'existence de très peu de pays riches qui présentent un développement économique et social avancé aux côtés de la grande majorité de pays pauvres au développement économique et social précaire. Beaucoup demandent : quelle est l'explication pour que les pays capitalistes centraux aient atteint un haut niveau de développement économique et social et que les autres pays ne le fassent pas ? Il y a plusieurs réponses à cette question. L'une d'entre elles est que les pays du noyau capitaliste ont développé des compétences essentielles pour promouvoir le développement économique, scientifique et technologique. Mais la principale réponse est que les pays capitalistes centraux ont accumulé un grand volume de capital pendant le colonialisme du XIVe au XVIIe siècle et l'impérialisme du XVIIIe au XXe siècle avec le pillage qu'ils ont effectué dans les pays qu'ils dominaient et aussi dans l'actuel stade de la mondialisation néolibérale. La relation de dépendance des pays pauvres, périphériques et semi-périphériques vis-à-vis du capitalisme mondial ne prendra fin qu'avec la disparition du système mondial capitaliste et l'adoption à travers le monde d'un nouveau modèle de société qui assure le progrès économique et social pour tous les pays, et pas seulement pour très peu de pays. Ce nouveau modèle nécessiterait l'existence d'un gouvernement mondial pour assurer le fonctionnement d'un nouvel ordre mondial qui garantisse l'équité dans le processus de développement des nations et la mise en place de l'État providence sur le modèle de celui pratiqué dans les pays scandinaves avec l'adaptation nécessaire aux chaque pays parce que c'est le système social le plus performant jamais mis en place dans le monde.
Este artigo tem por objetivo demonstrar que que riqueza e pobreza não podem ser tratados de forma isolada, uma vez que são as faces de uma mesma moeda formando um conjunto irredutível. A análise da riqueza não pode ser dissociada da pobreza, pois a concentração da riqueza gera a exploração que se constitui elemento fundante da pobreza. Isto significa dizer que se trata de uma falácia capitalista o dogma de que a promoção da concentração da riqueza e da renda seria o meio para o desenvolvimento econômico e a superação da pobreza. Há um pensamento generalizado de que as causas da miséria e da pobreza estariam vinculadas a desajustes familiares, ao despreparo educacional do indivíduo para o mundo do trabalho e à falta de capacidade do indivíduo para empreender. As causas da pobreza estão relacionadas com as desigualdades sociais resultantes da concentração da riqueza no capitalismo. Será que existe solução que leve â redução da desigualdade social? A resposta é a de que o fim da desigualdade social só será alcançada quando for implantado o Estado de Bem Estar social nos moldes do praticado nos países escandinavos com a necessária adaptação a cada país porque é o mais bem sucedido sistema social já implantado no mundo porque incorpora os elementos mais positivos tanto do socialismo como do capitalismo.
THE GENESIS OF WEALTH AND POVERTY IN THE CONTEMPORARY AGEFernando Alcoforado
This article aims to demonstrate that wealth and poverty cannot be treated in isolation, since they are the sides of the same coin forming an irreducible set. The analysis of wealth cannot be dissociated from poverty, as the concentration of wealth generates exploitation, which is a founding element of poverty. This means saying that the dogma that promoting the concentration of wealth and income would be the means for economic development and overcoming poverty is a capitalist fallacy. There is a general thought that the causes of misery and poverty are linked to family maladjustments, the individual's educational unpreparedness for the world of work and the individual's lack of capacity to undertake. The causes of poverty are related to social inequalities resulting from the concentration of wealth in capitalism. Is there a solution that leads to the reduction of social inequality? The answer is that the end of social inequality will only be achieved when the Welfare State is implemented along the lines of that practiced in Scandinavian countries with the necessary adaptation to each country, because it is the most successful social system ever implemented in the world because embodies the most positive elements of both socialism and capitalism.
LA GENÈSE DE LA RICHESSE ET DE LA PAUVRETÉ À L'ÉPOQUE CONTEMPORAINEFernando Alcoforado
Cet article vise à démontrer que la richesse et la pauvreté ne peuvent être traitées isolément, puisqu'elles sont les faces d'une même médaille formant un ensemble irréductible.L'analyse de la richesse est indissociable de la pauvreté, car la concentration de la richesse engendre l'exploitation, qui constitue un élément générateur de la pauvreté. Cela revient à dire que le dogme selon lequel la promotion de la concentration des richesses et des revenus serait le moyen du développement économique et de la lutte contre la pauvreté est une sophisme capitaliste. On pense généralement que les causes de la misère et de la pauvreté sont liées aux inadaptations familiales, à l'impréparation scolaire de l'individu au monde du travail et à son incapacité à entreprendre. Les causes de la pauvreté sont liées aux inégalités sociales résultant de la concentration des richesses dans le capitalisme. Existe-t-il une solution qui mène à la réduction des inégalités sociales ? La réponse est que la fin des inégalités sociales ne sera atteinte que lorsque l'État providence sera mis en place sur le modèle de celui pratiqué dans les pays scandinaves avec l'adaptation nécessaire à chaque pays, car c'est le système social le plus abouti jamais mis en place dans le monde car incarne les éléments les plus positifs du socialisme et du capitalisme.
how to sell pi coins in all Africa Countries.DOT TECH
Yes. You can sell your pi network for other cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin, usdt , Ethereum and other currencies And this is done easily with the help from a pi merchant.
What is a pi merchant ?
Since pi is not launched yet in any exchange. The only way you can sell right now is through merchants.
A verified Pi merchant is someone who buys pi network coins from miners and resell them to investors looking forward to hold massive quantities of pi coins before mainnet launch in 2026.
I will leave the telegram contact of my personal pi merchant to trade with.
@Pi_vendor_247
how can i use my minded pi coins I need some funds.DOT TECH
If you are interested in selling your pi coins, i have a verified pi merchant, who buys pi coins and resell them to exchanges looking forward to hold till mainnet launch.
Because the core team has announced that pi network will not be doing any pre-sale. The only way exchanges like huobi, bitmart and hotbit can get pi is by buying from miners.
Now a merchant stands in between these exchanges and the miners. As a link to make transactions smooth. Because right now in the enclosed mainnet you can't sell pi coins your self. You need the help of a merchant,
i will leave the telegram contact of my personal pi merchant below. 👇 I and my friends has traded more than 3000pi coins with him successfully.
@Pi_vendor_247
what is the best method to sell pi coins in 2024DOT TECH
The best way to sell your pi coins safely is trading with an exchange..but since pi is not launched in any exchange, and second option is through a VERIFIED pi merchant.
Who is a pi merchant?
A pi merchant is someone who buys pi coins from miners and pioneers and resell them to Investors looking forward to hold massive amounts before mainnet launch in 2026.
I will leave the telegram contact of my personal pi merchant to trade pi coins with.
@Pi_vendor_247
how can I sell pi coins after successfully completing KYCDOT TECH
Pi coins is not launched yet in any exchange 💱 this means it's not swappable, the current pi displaying on coin market cap is the iou version of pi. And you can learn all about that on my previous post.
RIGHT NOW THE ONLY WAY you can sell pi coins is through verified pi merchants. A pi merchant is someone who buys pi coins and resell them to exchanges and crypto whales. Looking forward to hold massive quantities of pi coins before the mainnet launch.
This is because pi network is not doing any pre-sale or ico offerings, the only way to get my coins is from buying from miners. So a merchant facilitates the transactions between the miners and these exchanges holding pi.
I and my friends has sold more than 6000 pi coins successfully with this method. I will be happy to share the contact of my personal pi merchant. The one i trade with, if you have your own merchant you can trade with them. For those who are new.
Message: @Pi_vendor_247 on telegram.
I wouldn't advise you selling all percentage of the pi coins. Leave at least a before so its a win win during open mainnet. Have a nice day pioneers ♥️
#kyc #mainnet #picoins #pi #sellpi #piwallet
#pinetwork
Falcon stands out as a top-tier P2P Invoice Discounting platform in India, bridging esteemed blue-chip companies and eager investors. Our goal is to transform the investment landscape in India by establishing a comprehensive destination for borrowers and investors with diverse profiles and needs, all while minimizing risk. What sets Falcon apart is the elimination of intermediaries such as commercial banks and depository institutions, allowing investors to enjoy higher yields.
how to sell pi coins in South Korea profitably.DOT TECH
Yes. You can sell your pi network coins in South Korea or any other country, by finding a verified pi merchant
What is a verified pi merchant?
Since pi network is not launched yet on any exchange, the only way you can sell pi coins is by selling to a verified pi merchant, and this is because pi network is not launched yet on any exchange and no pre-sale or ico offerings Is done on pi.
Since there is no pre-sale, the only way exchanges can get pi is by buying from miners. So a pi merchant facilitates these transactions by acting as a bridge for both transactions.
How can i find a pi vendor/merchant?
Well for those who haven't traded with a pi merchant or who don't already have one. I will leave the telegram id of my personal pi merchant who i trade pi with.
Tele gram: @Pi_vendor_247
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BYD SWOT Analysis and In-Depth Insights 2024.pptxmikemetalprod
Indepth analysis of the BYD 2024
BYD (Build Your Dreams) is a Chinese automaker and battery manufacturer that has snowballed over the past two decades to become a significant player in electric vehicles and global clean energy technology.
This SWOT analysis examines BYD's strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats as it competes in the fast-changing automotive and energy storage industries.
Founded in 1995 and headquartered in Shenzhen, BYD started as a battery company before expanding into automobiles in the early 2000s.
Initially manufacturing gasoline-powered vehicles, BYD focused on plug-in hybrid and fully electric vehicles, leveraging its expertise in battery technology.
Today, BYD is the world’s largest electric vehicle manufacturer, delivering over 1.2 million electric cars globally. The company also produces electric buses, trucks, forklifts, and rail transit.
On the energy side, BYD is a major supplier of rechargeable batteries for cell phones, laptops, electric vehicles, and energy storage systems.
how to sell pi coins on Bitmart crypto exchangeDOT TECH
Yes. Pi network coins can be exchanged but not on bitmart exchange. Because pi network is still in the enclosed mainnet. The only way pioneers are able to trade pi coins is by reselling the pi coins to pi verified merchants.
A verified merchant is someone who buys pi network coins and resell it to exchanges looking forward to hold till mainnet launch.
I will leave the telegram contact of my personal pi merchant to trade with.
@Pi_vendor_247
US Economic Outlook - Being Decided - M Capital Group August 2021.pdfpchutichetpong
The U.S. economy is continuing its impressive recovery from the COVID-19 pandemic and not slowing down despite re-occurring bumps. The U.S. savings rate reached its highest ever recorded level at 34% in April 2020 and Americans seem ready to spend. The sectors that had been hurt the most by the pandemic specifically reduced consumer spending, like retail, leisure, hospitality, and travel, are now experiencing massive growth in revenue and job openings.
Could this growth lead to a “Roaring Twenties”? As quickly as the U.S. economy contracted, experiencing a 9.1% drop in economic output relative to the business cycle in Q2 2020, the largest in recorded history, it has rebounded beyond expectations. This surprising growth seems to be fueled by the U.S. government’s aggressive fiscal and monetary policies, and an increase in consumer spending as mobility restrictions are lifted. Unemployment rates between June 2020 and June 2021 decreased by 5.2%, while the demand for labor is increasing, coupled with increasing wages to incentivize Americans to rejoin the labor force. Schools and businesses are expected to fully reopen soon. In parallel, vaccination rates across the country and the world continue to rise, with full vaccination rates of 50% and 14.8% respectively.
However, it is not completely smooth sailing from here. According to M Capital Group, the main risks that threaten the continued growth of the U.S. economy are inflation, unsettled trade relations, and another wave of Covid-19 mutations that could shut down the world again. Have we learned from the past year of COVID-19 and adapted our economy accordingly?
“In order for the U.S. economy to continue growing, whether there is another wave or not, the U.S. needs to focus on diversifying supply chains, supporting business investment, and maintaining consumer spending,” says Grace Feeley, a research analyst at M Capital Group.
While the economic indicators are positive, the risks are coming closer to manifesting and threatening such growth. The new variants spreading throughout the world, Delta, Lambda, and Gamma, are vaccine-resistant and muddy the predictions made about the economy and health of the country. These variants bring back the feeling of uncertainty that has wreaked havoc not only on the stock market but the mindset of people around the world. MCG provides unique insight on how to mitigate these risks to possibly ensure a bright economic future.
Seminar: Gender Board Diversity through Ownership NetworksGRAPE
Seminar on gender diversity spillovers through ownership networks at FAME|GRAPE. Presenting novel research. Studies in economics and management using econometrics methods.
Abhay Bhutada Leads Poonawalla Fincorp To Record Low NPA And Unprecedented Gr...Vighnesh Shashtri
Under the leadership of Abhay Bhutada, Poonawalla Fincorp has achieved record-low Non-Performing Assets (NPA) and witnessed unprecedented growth. Bhutada's strategic vision and effective management have significantly enhanced the company's financial health, showcasing a robust performance in the financial sector. This achievement underscores the company's resilience and ability to thrive in a competitive market, setting a new benchmark for operational excellence in the industry.
Abhay Bhutada Leads Poonawalla Fincorp To Record Low NPA And Unprecedented Gr...
CAUSES OF THE FAILURE OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENTALISM IN BRAZIL AND IN THE WORLD AND HOW TO REDEEM IT IN THE CONTEMPORARY ERA
1. 1
CAUSES OF THE FAILURE OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENTALISM IN
BRAZIL AND IN THE WORLD AND HOW TO REDEEM IT IN THE
CONTEMPORARY ERA
Fernando Alcoforado*
This article aims to present the factors that led to the failure of the national
developmentalism adopted in Brazil and in the world and show how to rescue it in the
contemporary era. National developmentalism is understood as the effort undertaken by
various governments in the world after World War II to make their countries reach the
same level of development as developed capitalist countries. The identification of the
factors or causes that led to the failure of national developmentalism will make it possible
to rescue it with the necessary adjustments, which, in the specific case of Brazil, is very
important because it was, with national developmentalism from 1930 to 1980, that the
country reached the highest level of economic and social development in its history. What
is also intended in this article is, by identifying the real causes of the failure of national
developmentalism, to contribute to showing the paths that lead to the economic and social
emancipation of the vast majority of countries in the world.
National developmental thinking was adopted in Brazil in 1930 by the Getúlio Vargas
government and was later assumed in 1948 by ECLAC, Economic Commission for Latin
America and the Caribbean, created by the UN (ECLAC. História da CEPAL. Available
on the website <https://www.cepal.org/pt-br/historia-de-la-cepal>). ECLAC has made
relevant contributions towards capitalist development in Latin America and the Caribbean
and its theories and visions have been heard in many parts of the world. ECLAC's
economic thinking was formulated based on an analytical method, called "structural-
historical", which analyzes how the institutions and the existing productive structure
inherited from the colonial period condition the economic dynamics of developing
countries and generate late economic development with performances different from
those obtained by the more developed nations. According to ECLAC, "late capitalist
development", like that of Brazil, has a different dynamic from nations that have
experienced robust development, such as that of developed capitalist countries.
In the second half of the 20th century, ECLAC was the only intellectual center in all of
Latin America and the Caribbean capable of generating its own analytical approach,
which was consistently preserved and refined throughout its existence. ECLAC's thinking
consisted in defending a necessary deliberate policy of capitalist development to be
adopted by the countries of Latin America and the Caribbean, ordered and rationalized
using government planning/programming, with the State leading import-substituting
industrialization. ECLAC advocated that Latin America and the Caribbean should raise
labor productivity and retain the income generated by them. The development model
advocated by ECLAC was defended in Brazil by great economists such as Celso Furtado
and Rômulo Almeida, among others. In the 1960s, the “dependency theory” emerged to
critically rethink the ECLAC model and offer an alternative interpretation of the
economic and social dynamics of Latin America and the Caribbean.
Dependency theory is a theoretical formulation developed by intellectuals such as the
German economist and sociologist André Gunder Frank and the Brazilian economist
Theotônio dos Santos, among others, which consists of a non-dogmatic Marxist analysis
of the processes of reproduction of underdevelopment on the periphery of world
capitalism, in contrast to the conventional Marxist positions of the communist parties of
the time and to the vision established by ECLAC (WIKIPEDIA. Teoria da dependência.
2. 2
Available on the website
<https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teoria_da_depend%C3%AAncia>). The explanation of
dependency theory and the intellectual production of authors influenced by this analytical
perspective had broad repercussions in Latin America in the late 1960s and early 1970s
when it became evident that the economic development of Latin American countries was
not it proceeded in stages as recommended by ECLAC.
For dependency theory, the characterization of countries as "backward" derives from the
relationship in world capitalism of the relationship of dependency of "peripheral"
capitalist countries in relation to "central" capitalist countries. According to its
formulators, André Gunder Frank and Theotônio dos Santos, among others, there would
be no possibility of autonomous and full capitalist development in Brazil and Latin
America and the Caribbean, but only an underdevelopment to which these countries
would be condemned, despite the process of industrialization, unless there was a socialist
revolution. In fact, industrialization in peripheral countries, such as Brazil, did not
overcome their underdevelopment, but they were wrong to assert that the socialist
revolution, like that in Cuba, would overcome underdevelopment.
According to the formulators of dependency theory, the "core" capitalist countries are the
center of the world economy where the headquarters of the large international capitalist
corporations are located, the technical, scientific and informational means are developed
on a large scale and the commercial and financial flows flow with more intensity.
Peripheral capitalist countries are those dependent on “central” capitalist countries and
present themselves as spaces where commercial and financial flows and the development
of science, technology and information occur on a smaller scale. Dependency means
subordination, that is, the idea that the development of these countries is submitted (or
limited) by the development of the central capitalist countries and was not the result of
the agrarian-exporting condition or the pre-capitalist inheritance of underdeveloped
countries, but by the pattern of the country's capitalist development and for its subordinate
insertion in world capitalism. In the view of dependency theory theorists, overcoming
underdevelopment would involve a rupture with dependence and not the modernization
and industrialization of the economy, which could even imply a rupture with capitalism
itself.
One of the most important references in dependency theory is sociologist Fernando
Henrique Cardoso (FHC), who later became president of Brazil (WIKIPEDIA. Teoria da
dependência. Available on the website
<https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teoria_da_depend%C3%AAncia>). In his work written
with Enzo Faletto, in 1967, (entitled "Dependência e Desenvolvimento na América
Latina") and, in later texts (such as the book "As Ideias e seu Lugar"), FHC highlighted
the role of internal factors in country in understanding the structural processes of
dependency. In this direction, he sought to show the different forms of articulation
between national economies and the international system and, at the same time, the
different power arrangements, which indicated different modes of integration with the
hegemonic poles of capitalism.
According to FHC, in Latin American countries in its beginnings (primary-exporting
period), two distinct forms of economic organization could be identified: enclave
economies and those in which there was national control of the production system. The
evolution of these different forms of economic articulation with world capitalism also
differed according to the composition and class struggles of different Latin American
countries. In the 1960s and 1970s, Latin American societies had already consolidated
3. 3
their internal market and there was the internationalization of their economies
subordinated to monopoly capitalism (with the expansion of multinational industries)
indicating a new pattern of dependence.
The work of Fernando Henrique Cardoso was also notable for denying that dependency
necessarily implied economic stagnation and underdevelopment and denying that the
socialist revolution would be the only possible path for the industrialization of the
continent. The facts of history demonstrate that FHC was wrong in denying that
dependence would not lead to stagnation and underdevelopment as, in fact, occurred in
the countries of Latin America and the Caribbean, but he was right to say that the socialist
revolution would not be the only possible path for industrialization of the continent
because socialist Cuba, for example, did not industrialize. During the 1980s, the
developmental cycle in Latin America and the Caribbean came to an end based on the
industrialization experiences planned by local governments. The economies of these
countries were plunged into stagnation, hyperinflation and the external debt crisis, as was
the case in Brazil. Faced with the failure of developmentalism in the 1980s, "neoliberal
thinking" emerged, which attracted the interest of many intellectuals and public policy
makers in Brazil in this economic thinking.
It can be said that, in all Brazilian governments from 1930 to 1980, there were numerous
mistakes that contributed to the failure of national developmentalism in Brazil because
they believed in the following: 1) Brazil could leave the condition of a peripheral country
for a developed one within the framework of capitalism; 2) Industrialization would pave
the way for development; 3) The national bourgeoisie would support the process of
conquest of autonomous development; 4) The planned action of the Brazilian State would
be sufficient to promote national development; 5) State-owned companies could
compensate for the weaknesses of national private capital; 6) The development of Brazil
would be achieved even with the strong presence of foreign capital in the country; 7) The
development of Brazil would be achieved even with the country financially and
technologically dependent on the outside world; 8) The development of all regions of
Brazil could happen even with the concentration of investments in São Paulo.
None of these beliefs were realized in Brazil due to the following facts: 1) Despite all the
efforts made, Brazil did not rise to the status of a developed capitalist country; 2)
Industrialization did not open the way for development because the most dynamic sectors
of Brazilian industry were occupied by foreign capital and the deindustrialization that is
still ongoing in the country occurred; 3) The national bourgeoisie did not support the
process of conquering the autonomous development of Brazil because it allied itself with
foreign capital, serving its interests in a subordinate way; 4) The planned action of the
Brazilian State was not enough to promote national development, despite the notable
advances achieved by the national economy with the action of the Brazilian State that
came to an end in the 1980s; 5) State companies did not compensate for all the weaknesses
of national private capital, as happened in some economic sectors with the creation of
companies such as Petrobras, Eletrobras, among others; 6) The development of Brazil
was not achieved with the strong presence of foreign capital in the country, as
demonstrated by the fact that it did not reach the condition of a developed country; 7) The
development of Brazil was not achieved even with the country financially and
technologically dependent on the outside world, as it was thought, because, on the
contrary, it increased even more the financial and technological dependence in relation to
the developed capitalist countries; 8) The development of all regions of Brazil did not
happen as thought even with the concentration of investments in São Paulo because
regional economic imbalances continue to exist in Brazil.
4. 4
It cannot be denied that there were positive legacies of the Brazilian national
developmentalism, for example, the implantation of the industrial park in São Paulo and
in other regions of the country, the increase in the size of the GDP, the growing generation
of employment and income, the increase in national income and the modernization of
Brazil. As negative legacies, however, we had the domination of the most dynamic sectors
of Brazilian industry by foreign capital, the increase in the country's financial and
technological dependence, Brazil's excessive external indebtedness, economic
imbalances between the country's regions and the country's deindustrialization.
Regarding Brazilian industry, it is important to emphasize that its share of Brazil's GDP
reached its highest value (24.9%) in 1970. This share (which brings together the entire
manufacturing sector) dropped to 11.79% of GDP in 2019 and 11 .30% in 2020,
remaining at this level in the 1st quarter of 2021, equivalent to that recorded in 1947
(11.27%), the year in which the historical series of national accounts calculated by the
Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE) begins. These numbers
demonstrate that there is a process of deindustrialization that began in 1985 and continues
to this day.
Brazilian national developmentalism was inaugurated by the Getúlio Vargas government
with the Revolution of 1930 and came to a melancholy end with the Ernesto Geisel
government in 1979, with the bankruptcy of the Brazilian state and the stagnation of the
Brazilian economy during the lost decade of the 1980s. it was replaced in Brazil, from
the 1990s onwards, by the neoliberal policy of insertion of the country into the
globalization process, which led to the weakening of the State's role in the economy and
greater opening of the national market to foreign capital. From 1990 to 2014, the Brazilian
economy evolved with very low GDP growth and growing financial and technological
dependence from abroad. From 2015 until the present moment, the Brazilian economy is
facing stagnation that was aggravated by the pandemic of the new coronavirus. The
perspective for the coming year of 2022 is of stagflation with the deepening stagnation
and escalation of inflation under way in the country. The facts of history show that
national developmentalism in Brazil failed to achieve its goals, but the neoliberalism that
replaced it failed even more so by dismantling the Brazilian economy from 1990 to the
present time.
The question is: how to overcome the current crisis and rescue national developmentalism
with the necessary adjustments in the contemporary era? To answer these questions, it is
necessary to know, above all, the real causes of Brazil's dependence on the central
capitalist countries responsible for its economic and social backwardness. To understand
the causes of Brazil's dependence, it is necessary to know the theory of world systems
developed by Immanuel Wallerstein and Fernand Braudel who consider that the world is
economically organized in the form of "world-economies", which would be, in Braudel's
language, “a fragment of the universe, a piece of the economically autonomous planet,
capable of essentially being self-sufficient and to which its internal connections and
exchanges confer a certain organic unity” (BRAUDEL, F. Civilização material, economia
e capitalismo. São Paulo: Martins Fontes, 1996). According to Wallerstein, the formation
of the world-system took place in the 16th century – the beginning of the capitalist system
– and its transformations until today, considering the capitalist system as a world system.
By the nineteenth century, virtually every region of the planet had been incorporated into
the capitalist world-system (WALLERSTEIN, Immanuel. Unthinking Social Science.
Cambridge: Polity Press, 1991). From 1990 onwards, with the economic and financial
globalization, the capitalist world-system integrated all the imperialisms of the great
powers that became the new imperialism of globalized capital.
5. 5
According to Wallerstein, the capitalist world-system is composed of a division between
center, periphery and semi-periphery, due to the division of labor between regions of the
planet. The center is the area of great technological development that produces complex
products; the periphery is the area that supplies raw materials, agricultural products and
cheap labor to the center. The economic exchange between the periphery and the center
is unequal: the periphery has to sell its products cheap while buying the center's products
expensive, and this situation tends to reproduce itself in an automatic, almost
deterministic way, although it is also dynamic and changes historically. As for the
semiperiphery, it is a region of intermediate development that functions as a center for
the periphery and a periphery for the center, as is the case in Brazil. Some countries in
the center assumed the condition of imperialists by exercising their domination over
countries on the periphery and semi-periphery that have been the object of secular
dispossession.
The semiperiphery is characterized by Wallerstein as a structural element necessary for
performing a stabilizing role similar to that of the middle class within the configuration
of classes in a country. It would also assume a function, in Arrighi's words, of “systemic
legitimation”, showing the periphery that there is the possibility of mobility within the
international division of labor for those who are sufficiently “capable” and/or “well-
behaved” (ARRIGHI, Giovanni. A ilusão do desenvolvimento. Petrópolis: Vozes, 1997).
According to Arrighi, the semiperipheral condition is described as one in which a
significant number of national states such as Brazil are permanently stationed between
central and peripheral conditions, and which, despite having undergone far-reaching
social and economic transformations, continues relatively late in important respects.
Arrighi states that the center of the world-system is composed of the most developed
countries in the world that are those that are part of the organic nucleus of the world
capitalist economy, that is, the countries of Western Europe (Belgium, Netherlands,
Luxembourg, Sweden, Denmark, Norway, Finland, Iceland, West Germany, Austria,
Switzerland, France and the United Kingdom), North America (United States and
Canada), Australia and New Zealand. After World War II, Japan and Italy, which were
semi-peripheral countries, joined this nucleus. The thesis that prevailed after World War
II that it would be possible for all peripheral and semiperipheral nations to reach the stage
of high level of development enjoyed by central capitalist countries similar to the United
States did not come true. From the second half of the 20th century, there were several
attempts to promote economic and social development in several countries in the world
that failed, whether those within the framework of capitalism with national
developmentalism initiated, for example, in Brazil, and those with the implementation of
socialism such as the Soviet Union, Eastern European socialist countries and Cuba,
among others. There have been several partial and temporary successes. But just when all
indicators seemed to be heading in the upward direction, almost all peripheral and semi-
peripheral capitalist countries collapsed during the 1980s.
According to Arrighi, the transformation from a peripheral or semiperipheral capitalist
country to the condition of a developed one is quite difficult to achieve, as shown in his
work The illusion of development. Arrighi states that, in the second half of the 20th
century, Japan and Italy were the only countries that moved from the condition of semi-
peripheral countries to that of members of the core of developed countries. Due to their
geopolitical importance during the Cold War, Japan and South Korea were able to climb
to a higher level of development due to the financial support they obtained from the
6. 6
United States after World War II and, above all, due to the role played by the national
state in promoting development. South Korea was the only country on the periphery of
the capitalist world-system that evolved into a semiperipheral condition and Japan and
Italy were the only ones in the semiperiphery to reach the level of developed countries in
the second half of the 20th century.
China, which was a semiperipheral country in the world economy, abandoned the
construction of Maoist socialism after 1980 and joined the capitalist world-system after
1990, taking advantage of its comparative economic advantages (giant market size, very
low labor cost , great existing infrastructure, etc.) without becoming subordinate to the
great capitalist powers like the others thanks to its status as a great military and nuclear
power and the independent developmental role played by the Chinese government, it can
evolve to integrate the core of developed countries. With the end of the Soviet Union,
Russia, which fits in as a semiperipheral country in the world economy, joined the
capitalist world-system in 1991 without becoming subordinate to the great capitalist
powers like the others thanks to its condition of great military and nuclear power and the
independent developmental role played by the Russian government, it can reach the status
of a developed country due to its comparative economic advantages (large market, large
natural resources and large industrial structure). In turn, Brazil was a peripheral country
until 1930, after which it reached the status of a semi-peripheral country that, despite
having large natural resources and a reasonable consumer market, is threatened with
retrogression from a semi-peripheral country in the world economy to the status of a
country peripheral with the continuity of the neoliberal model.
It can be said that the failure to promote economic and social development in the
peripheral and semi-peripheral countries of the world must be attributed to the fact that
these countries have not managed to free themselves from their dependence on the
capitalist world-system. In his work Unthinking Social Science, the North American
sociologist Immanuel Wallerstein states that it is necessary to review the current
paradigms of the social sciences and start thinking differently in the 21st century.
Wallerstein defends the thesis that it is not enough to start the national liberation struggle
in each country in isolation, as happened during the 20th century, without the rupture of
the peripheral and semiperipheral countries of the world in relation to the capitalist world-
system. This explains the failure of the vast majority of peripheral and semi-peripheral
countries to break away from dependence.
The failure of almost all peripheral and semi-peripheral capitalist and socialist countries
that tried to promote their autonomous development in relation to the capitalist world-
system is due to the fact that they have promoted their actions without carrying out a
globally coordinated world revolution, among other factors. This means to say that it is
not enough to carry out isolated socialist or capitalist revolutions in each country. The
peoples of all peripheral and semi-peripheral countries should carry out their national
revolutions simultaneously with the realization of a world revolution aimed at the end of
the capitalist world-system with the construction of a new world economic and political
order that will contribute to ending the dispossession they suffer at the present time by
globalized imperialism. Without this perspective, national capitalist developmentalism
and socialism as projects of society will be doomed to failure as they did in the past.
It is concluded, from the above, that Brazil and all peripheral and semi-peripheral
countries will only free themselves from their economic backwardness by simultaneously
carrying out in each country a true revolution that promotes changes in the economic base
and in the political and legal superstructure of the nation and the end of dependence on
7. 7
ancient and modern imperialism and the realization of a world revolution that promotes
the construction of a new world economic and political order. Therefore, it is necessary
to make the peoples of peripheral and semi-peripheral countries to act in a coordinated
way in the fight against the common enemy, the capitalist world-system. To be successful,
national revolutions in peripheral and semi-peripheral countries should take place
simultaneously with the world revolution and not in isolation as in the past. Ideally,
national revolutions should be carried out without the use of violence, seeking to build
consensus between members of civil society, the government and holders of the national
productive sector, as happened with the Scandinavian countries from 1930 onwards when
they implemented the State of Social Welfare which, according to the UN, are the best-
governed countries in the world and which present the highest political, economic and
social progress among all countries in the world.
In order to carry out the world revolution, it is necessary to establish a World Forum for
the Progress of Humanity by Civil Society organizations from all countries of the world,
through which the objectives and strategies of a world movement for the construction of
a new model of democratic society would be established in each country in the world in
accordance with the will of its peoples and by the constitution of a democratic world
government and a world parliament to coordinate the world economy, prevent
environmental degradation and ensure world peace. This would be the path that would
make it possible to carry out both national and world revolutions simultaneously without
the use of violence. If this path is not possible, revolutionary violence will inevitably
occur in every country.
* Fernando Alcoforado, 81, awarded the medal of Engineering Merit of the CONFEA / CREA System,
member of the Bahia Academy of Education, engineer and doctor in Territorial Planning and Regional
Development by the University of Barcelona, university professor and consultant in the areas of
strategic planning, business planning, regional planning and planning of energy systems, is author of the
books Globalização (Editora Nobel, São Paulo, 1997), De Collor a FHC- O Brasil e a Nova (Des)ordem
Mundial (Editora Nobel, São Paulo, 1998), Um Projeto para o Brasil (Editora Nobel, São Paulo, 2000), Os
condicionantes do desenvolvimento do Estado da Bahia (Tese de doutorado. Universidade de
Barcelona,http://www.tesisenred.net/handle/10803/1944, 2003), Globalização e Desenvolvimento (Editora
Nobel, São Paulo, 2006), Bahia- Desenvolvimento do Século XVI ao Século XX e Objetivos Estratégicos
na Era Contemporânea (EGBA, Salvador, 2008), The Necessary Conditions of the Economic and Social
Development- The Case of the State of Bahia (VDM Verlag Dr. Müller Aktiengesellschaft & Co. KG,
Saarbrücken, Germany, 2010), Aquecimento Global e Catástrofe Planetária (Viena- Editora e Gráfica,
Santa Cruz do Rio Pardo, São Paulo, 2010), Amazônia Sustentável- Para o progresso do Brasil e combate
ao aquecimento global (Viena- Editora e Gráfica, Santa Cruz do Rio Pardo, São Paulo, 2011), Os Fatores
Condicionantes do Desenvolvimento Econômico e Social (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2012), Energia no
Mundo e no Brasil- Energia e Mudança Climática Catastrófica no Século XXI (Editora CRV, Curitiba,
2015), As Grandes Revoluções Científicas, Econômicas e Sociais que Mudaram o Mundo (Editora CRV,
Curitiba, 2016), A Invenção de um novo Brasil (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2017), Esquerda x Direita e a sua
convergência (Associação Baiana de Imprensa, Salvador, 2018), Como inventar o futuro para mudar o
mundo (Editora CRV, Curitiba, 2019) and A humanidade ameaçada e as estratégias para sua sobrevivência
(Editora Dialética, São Paulo, 2021) .