John Carroll proposed a model of school learning in 1963 that stated learning is a function of time spent and time needed. Time spent depends on opportunity (allocated time) and perseverance (engagement rate). Time needed depends on aptitude, ability to understand instruction, and quality of instruction. Carroll's model was expanded by Huitt who proposed learning depends on context, inputs, and classroom processes rather than being measured by standardized test scores alone. Academic learning time replaced "time spent" and considers content covered, involvement, and success. Carroll omitted some important variables like planning, management, and teacher efficacy.

1. John Carroll’s Model
Compare and contrast Carroll's
model of school learning and
Huitt's model of the teaching/
learning process discussed in Unit
#1 (or a corresponding model from
one of the required readings).
Developed by W. Huitt (1999)

2. In 1963, John Carroll proposed a model to
account for school learning. His major
premise was that school learning is a
function of time. To be more specific,
Carroll proposed that
School
Learning
= f
Time Spent
Time Needed
John Carroll’s Model of School Learning

3. Carroll defined time spent as a function of
Opportunity Amount of time available
for learning
Perseverance
The extent to which students
take advantage of the
opportunity to learn
John Carroll’s Model of School Learning

4. Carroll proposed the following measures for
these variables:
Opportunity Allocated Time
(Amount of time
available for learning)
Perseverance Engagement Rate
(Percentage of Allocated
Time students were
paying attention)
John Carroll’s Model of School Learning

5. Carroll proposed engaged time or time-on-
task as measure of time spent
Engaged Time = Allocated Time *
Engagement Rate
Engaged Time = the number of minutes per
school day that students were actually
engaged in school work
John Carroll’s Model of School Learning

6. Carroll defined time needed as a function of
Aptitude
The ability to learn
academic material (IQ)
Ability to
Understand
Instruction
The preparedness of the
student for understanding
the specific material to be
learned (prerequisite
knowledge)
Quality of
Instruction Instruction methods and
techniques
John Carroll’s Model of School Learning

7. John Carroll’s Model of School Learning
The transactional model of the teaching/learning
process presented in this class is derived from a
set of models that relate historically to Carroll’s
model (McIlrath & Huitt, 1995).
McIlrath, D., & Huitt, W. (1995).
The teaching/learning process: A discussion of models. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State
There are some significant differences, however.
• Carroll was specific; Huitt is generic
• Carroll assumes learning is measured
by scores on standardized tests of basic
skills; Huitt does not

8. Using Carroll's terminology, an equation for
Huitt’s model would be
Learning (Output) = f(Context,
Input and Classroom Processes).
John Carroll’s Model of School Learning

9. Academic Learning Time (ALT) is the
variable that has replaced "time spent" or
"engaged time" identified in Carroll's model.
ALT
the amount of time students
are successfully covering
content that will be tested
Academic Learning Time

10. ALT is a combination of three separate variables:
Content
Overlap
Involvement
Success
The percentage of the content
covered on the test actually covered
by students in the classroom
Amount of time students are actively
involved in the learning process
Extent to which students accurately
complete the assignments they have
been given
Academic Learning Time

11. A high level of Academic Learning Time
means that
1) students are covering important
(tested/evaluated) content;
2) students are "on-task" most of the class
period; and
3) students are successful on most the
assignments they complete.
Academic Learning Time

12. Academic Learning Time
is a measure of the
QUALITY
as well as
QUANTITY
of time.
Academic Learning Time

13. Time Needed
If “Time to Learn” is held
CONSTANT (all students receive the
same amount of time-to-learn
regardless of aptitude), then Academic
Aptitude is the most important
variable related to Time Needed.

14. Time Needed
If “Time to Learn” is allowed to
VARY (students receive as much time
as they need to learn important
content), then Prerequisite Knowledge
and Quality of Instruction become
more important.

15. Variables Omitted In Carroll’s Model
Carroll omitted many important
variables in his model:
• Planning
• Management
• School-level and Annual Time Variables
• Teacher Efficacy
• Context Variables