Carbohydrate

..
Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Science & Technology
University
Prepared by
Id: 19PHR016
Course code: PHR203
Course Title: Bio-Molecular Pharmacy
Session: 2019-20
Dept. of Pharmacy, BSMRSTU
The Topic Of Presentation: Carbohydrate

Prepared By: Mst. Muslima Khatun
Welcome
To
My Presentation
Carbohydrates

Contents
● Oxidation Of Glucose
● Effect Of Alkali
● Structure determination of
polysaccharides
● Starch
● Cellulose
● Glycogen
● Chemistry
● Isomerism
● Stereochemistry
● Aldoses
● Ketoses
● Hemiacetal and acetal forms
of glucose
● Disaccharides

The term carbohydrate is itself a combination of the “hydrates of carbon”. They are also known
as “Saccharides” which is a derivation of the Greek word “Sakcharon” meaning sugar.
Defination
Carbohydrates are large macromolecules consisting of carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen
(O) and have the general Cx(H2O)y formula. Carbohydrates have the general formula Cx(H2O)y.
The hydrate of carbon is known as carbohydrates.
General Formula
Fig: General Formula Of Carbohydrates

● Glucose
● Fructose
● Galactose
Simple
● Starches
● Fibers
● Glycogen
Carbohydrates
Classification
● Maltose
● Lactose
● Sucrose
Monosaccharides
Complex
Disaccharides
Polysaccharides

Monosaccharide
Monosaccharide carbohydrates are those carbohydrates that cannot be hydrolyzed further to give
simpler units of polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone.
Function of Monosaccharide
Monosaccharides have many functions within cells. First and foremost, monosaccharides are used
to produce and store energy. Most organisms create energy by breaking down the
monosaccharide glucose, and harvesting the energy released from the bonds.
Monosaccharide Structure
All monosaccharides have the same general formula of (CH2O)n, which designates a central carbon
molecule bonded to two hydrogens and one oxygen.

Structure of Carbohydrates – Glucose
Fig: Structure of Carbohydrates – Glucose Fig: Cyclic Structure of Glucose

Structure of Carbohydrates – Fructose
Fig: Structure of Carbohydrates – Fructose

Disaccharides
Disaccharides are those carbohydrates that on hydrolysis with acids or enzymes give two
molecules of monosaccharides which can either be the same or different.
Structure of Disaccharides Types
Fig: Structure of Sucrose

Fig: Structure of Maltose
Fig: Structure of Lactose

Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides are major classes of biomolecules. They are long chains of carbohydrate
molecules, composed of several smaller monosaccharides. These complex bio-macromolecules
functions as an important source of energy in animal cell and form a structural component of a
plant cell. It can be a homopolysaccharide or a heteropolysaccharide depending upon the type of
the monosaccharides.
Characteristics Of Polysaccharides
● They are not sweet in taste.
● Many are insoluble in water.
● They are hydrophobic in nature.
● They do not form crystals on desiccation.
● Can be extracted to form a white powder.
● Inside the cells, they are compact and osmotically inactive.
● They consist of hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen. The hydrogen to oxygen ratio being 2:1.

Functions Of Polysaccharides
● They store energy in organisms.
● Due to the presence of multiple hydrogen bonds, the water cannot invade the molecules
making them hydrophobic.
● They allow for changes in the concentration gradient which influences the uptake of nutrients
and water by the cells.
● Many polysaccharides become covalently bonded with lipids and proteins to form glycolipids
and glycoproteins. These glycolipids and glycoproteins are used to send messages or
signals between and within the cells.
● They provide support to the cells. The cell wall of plants is made up of polysaccharide
cellulose, which provides support to the cell wall of the plant. In insects and fungi, chitin
plays an important role in providing support to the extracellular matrix around the cells.

Isomerism
Isomerism is the phenomenon in which more than one compounds have the same chemical
formula but different chemical structures.
Types
● Chain
● Positional
● Founctional
● Metamerism
● Tautomerism
● Ring-Chain
● Geometric
● Optical
Isomerism
Structural Stereo

Chain Isomerism
● It is also known as skeletal isomerism.
● An example of chain isomerism can be observed in the compound C5H12, as illustrated
below.
Fig: Structure of Chain Isomerism

Position Isomerism
● The positions of the functional groups or substituent atoms are different in position isomers.
● An example of this type of isomerism can be observed in the compounds having the formula
C3H7Cl.
● Typically, this isomerism involves the attachment of the functional groups to different carbon
atoms in the carbon chain.
Fig: Structure of Position Isomerism

Functional Isomerism
● It is also known as functional group isomerism.
● As the name suggests, it refers to the compounds that have the same chemical formula but
different functional groups attached to them.
● An example of functional isomerism can be observed in the compound C3H6O.
Fig: Structure of Functional Isomerism

Metamerism
● This type of isomerism arises due to the presence of different alkyl chains on each side of the
functional group.
● It is a rare type of isomerism and is generally limited to molecules that contain a divalent atom
(such as sulphur or oxygen), surrounded by alkyl groups.
● Example: C4H10O can be represented as ethoxyethane (C2H5OC2H5) and methoxy-propane
(CH3OC3H7).
Tautomerism
● Typically, the tautomers of a compound exist together in equilibrium and easily interchange.
● It occurs via an intramolecular proton transfer.
● An important example of this phenomenon is Keto-enol tautomerism.

Ring-Chain Isomerism
● In ring-chain isomerism, one of the isomers has an open-chain structure whereas the other
has a ring structure.
● A great example of this type of isomerism can be observed in C3H6. Propene and
cyclopropane are the resulting isomers, as illustrated below.
Fig: Structure of Ring-Chain Isomerism

Geometric Isomerism
● It is popularly known as cis-trans isomerism.
● These isomers have different spatial arrangements of atoms in three-dimensional space.
● An illustration describing the geometric isomerism observed in the acyclic But-2-ene molecule
is provided below.
Fig: Structure of Geometric Isomerism

Optical Isomerism
● Compounds that exhibit optical isomerism feature similar bonds but different spatial
arrangements of atoms forming non-superimposable mirror images.
● These optical isomers are also known as enantiomers.
● Enantiomers differ from each other in their optical activities.
Fig: Structure of Optical Isomerism

Stereochemistry
Stereochemistry is the branch of chemistry that involves “the study of the different spatial
arrangements of atoms in molecules”. Stereochemistry is the systematic presentation of a specific
field of science and technology that traditionally requires a short preliminary excursion into history.
Stereochemistry is the ‘chemistry of space ‘, that is stereochemistry deals with the spatial
arrangements of atoms and groups in a molecule.
● Atropisomerism
● Cis-trans isomerism
● Diastereomers
● Enantiomers
Stereoisomers
Types

Atropisomerism
Atropisomers are stereoisomers resulting from hindered rotation about one or more single
bonds. This is observed in case of many drugs.
Cis-trans isomerism
Cis-trans isomerism shares the same atoms which are joined to one another in the same way
but have a different configuration. This is generally observed in the case of alkenes and
complexes.
Enantiomers
● When two isomers are mirror images of each other, the type of isomerism is called
enantiomerism and these isomers are referred to as enantiomers.
● Enantiomers are stable and isolable compounds that differ in their spatial arrangements in 3-D space.

Diastereomers
● When two isomers do not behave as mirror images of each other, they are called diastereomers.
● A molecule with ‘n’ number of asymmetric carbon atoms can have up to ‘2n’ diastereomers.
● When two diastereomers differ at only one stereocenter, they are referred to as epimers.
Fig: Structure of Enantiomers

Aldose
Fig: Structure of Diastereomers
An aldose is sugar with an aldehyde group (the functional group with the structure R-CHO), while
a ketose is a sugar with a ketone group. The monosaccharide is an aldose if the carbonyl group
is at the end of the carbon chain (in an aldehyde group); the monosaccharide is a ketose if the
carbonyl group is at any other position (in a ketone group).

Fig: Structure of Aldose
Simple aldoses, like other carbohydrates, have the chemical formula (CnH2O)n. Because
formaldehyde (n=1) and glycolaldehyde (n=2) aren’t commonly thought of as carbohydrates, the
most basic aldose is triose glyceraldehyde, which has only three carbon atoms.
Aldose structure

Fig: Structure of Ketose
A ketose is a monosaccharide containing one ketone group per molecule. The simplest ketose is
dihydroxyacetone, which has only three carbon atoms. It is the only ketose with no optical activity.
Ketose

Carbohydrates: (Carbon + Hydrate) are molecules with three or more carbons and a general
formula that approximates CnH2nOn
Hemiacetal and acetal forms of glucose
Saccharides:
• Are carbohydrates or sugars.
• Monosaccharides have one sugar moiety
• Disaccharides have two sugars linked together
• Trisaccharides have three
• Tetrasaccharides have four etc...
• Polysaccharides have an indeterminate number which can be hundreds of thousands
or more.

Prefixes and Suffixes:
• The suffix (ending) for sugar names is: -ose
• The prefix defines the number of carbons:
• Triose (3 carbons)
• Tetrose (4 carbons)
• Pentose (5 carbons)
• Hexose (6 carbons) etc
• A further prefix defines the types of carbonyl group in the sugar:
• aldo- (aldehyde) or
• keto- (ketone)
• for example glucose (shown below) is an "aldohexose" whereas fructose is a
"ketohexose"

Prefixes and Suffixes:
• The term pyranose means a six-membered sugar ring (hemiacetal or acetal - see
below)
• The term furanose means a five-membered ring
• These terms are often prefixed as in "glucopyranose" which means glucose cyclized to
its six-membered ring form (see below)
D- and L-Sugars:
This is a naming convention. If using standard nomenclature numbering, the highest numbered
stereogenic center ("chiral center" or "asymmetric center") has R configuration, the sugar is a
D-sugar; if it has S-configuration, the sugar is an L-sugar.

Fig: Structure of D- and L-Sugars

Glucose Hemi-Acetal Formation:
The open form of D-glucose (and many other sugars) can cyclize to form hemiacetals. These
can be depicted in various ways as shown below. Under acidic conditions the hemiacetal form of
glucose can react with other alcohols to give acetals known as glycosides. These are widely
distributed in nature.
Fig: Structure of Fischer Projection

Fig: Structure of Glucose Acetal (Glycoside) Formation
Glucose Acetal (Glycoside) Formation:

Fig: Structure of Examples of Disaccharides
Examples of Disaccharides:

Mild oxidation of D-gluease with Br-H2o gives a monocarbozylic acid called D-gluconic acid.
Drastie oxidation of gluease with cone.NHO3 yields di-carboxylic acid (D-glucaie acid).
Oxidation of glucose:
D-Glucose
D-Gluconicacid

D-Gluconicacid

In weakly alkaline solution, Glucose undergoes rearrangement reaction to give a mixture of D-
mannose D-glucose and D fructose.
Mannose and fructose under the same condition are converted into same mixture.
Action of Alkin:
D-Glucose D-Fructose
D-Manose

A computer program, CASPER, has been developed for the determination of the structure of
polysaccharides composed of regular repeating-units. The program utilises the 13C-n.m.r.
spectrum of the polysaccharide and information from sugar and methylation analyses. Based on
the identity of the monosaccharides present in the repeating unit and the positions of the linkages,
all possible permutations are constructed. With the aid of a database containing 13C-n.m.r.
substituent shifts obtained from disaccharides, the spectra of the alternative structures are
simulated and the best fit with the observed spectrum is selected. The program has been tested
on two polysaccharides of known structures, for both of which the correct structure was selected.
Structure determination of polysaccharides

Starch is a polysaccharide made up of 1,4 linkages between glucose monomers. The chemical
formula of the starch molecule is (C6H10O5)n. Starch is made up of long chains of sugar
molecules that are connected together. The linear polymer amylose is the most basic form of
starch, while amylopectin is the branched form.
Starch
Structure of Starch
Starch is made up of long chains of sugar molecules that are connected together. The linear
polymer amylose is the most basic form of starch, while amylopectin is the branched form. The
primary role of starch is to help plants in storing energy. In an animal’s diet, starch is a source of
sugar. Amylase, an enzyme contained in saliva and the pancreas that breaks down starch for
energy, is used by animals to break down starch.

Fig: Structure of Starch

Cellulose is an organic compound with the formula (C6H10O5)n, a polysaccharide consisting of a
linear chain of several hundred to many thousands of β(1→4) linked D-glucose units. Cellulose is
an important structural component of the primary cell wall of green plants, many forms of algae
and the oomycetes. Some species of bacteria secrete it to form biofilms. Cellulose is the most
abundant organic polymer on Earth. The cellulose content of cotton fiber is 90%, that of wood is
40–50%, and that of dried hemp is approximately 57%.
Cellulose
Structure of Cellulose
Cellulose is derived from D-glucose units, which condense through β(1→4)-glycosidic bonds.
This linkage motif contrasts with that for α(1→4)-glycosidic bonds present in starch and
glycogen. Cellulose is a straight chain polymer. Unlike starch, no coiling or branching occurs
and the molecule adopts an extended and rather stiff rod-like conformation, aided by the
equatorial conformation of the glucose residues.

Fig: Structure of Cellulose

Glycogen is a polysaccharide of glucose that serves as a form of energy storage in fungi and
animals. The polysaccharide structure of glucose shows the primary storage form of glucose in
the body. Glycogen is made and stored in the cells of liver and muscles that are hydrated with the
four parts of water. It acts as the secondary long-term energy storage. Muscle glycogen is quickly
converted into glucose by muscle cells and liver glycogen that converts into glucose for use
throughout the body which includes the central nervous system.
Glycogen
Structure of Glycogen
Glycogen is composed of long polymer chains of glucose units which are bonded with an alpha
acetal linkage. This acetal linkage forms by the combination of the carbonyl group and alcoholic
group. If the carbonyl group is an aldehyde group i.e (-CHO) and also termed as hemiacetal if
there is a ketonic group. If 2 alkoxy groups are bonded to the same carbon atom, it refers to the
acetal group.

Fig: Structure of Glycogen

Functions of Glycogen
● Liver glycogen acts as glucose reserve that hepatocyte release when there is a need to
maintain a normal blood sugar levels. There is about 40 kcal in body fluids while hepatic
glycogen can provide about 600 kcal after a fasting night.
● Glucose from glycogen stores remains within the cells in skeletal and cardiac muscles and is
used as an energy source from muscle work.
● Brain includes a small amount of glycogen in astrocytes. It gets accumulated during sleep and
is mobilized upon walking. Glycogen reserves also assure a moderate degree of protection
against hypoglycemia.
● It has a specialized role in fetal lung type II pulmonary cells. These cells start to accumulate
glycogen at about 26 weeks of gestation and then synthesize pulmonary surfactant.

Vectores:
● Isometric science laboratory color icon
set with instruments from the science lab
staff microscopes and devices for
experiments vector illustration
RESOURCES
Contents:
● Google
● Wikipedia
● Byjus
● Sciencedirect
● Chem
● Etc….
Photos:
● Medium shot scientist preparing solution
● Medium shot scientist working with microscope

THANKS!

Carbohydrate

Recommended

Recommended

More Related Content

Similar to Carbohydrate

Similar to Carbohydrate (20)

Recently uploaded

Recently uploaded (20)

Carbohydrate