Capstone paper

Running Head: GROWTH COMPLEX AND THE POLICE 1
Growth Complex: How does it apply to Police and Police Departments?
Harold Ray Sowards II

Growth Complex: How does it apply to Police and Police Departments
According to McGuire and Okada (2014), growth complex is the idea that businesses and
entities act in their best interests to survive and grow. This can apply to police departments, as
they deal with budgets, funding, the hiring and firing of officers, as well as the image that they
have with the public. Therefore, they have lower standards when it comes to hiring officers so
that they can better compete with the criminals in their city and with these results come funding,
which allows the process to continue forward.
According to Discoverpolicing.org (2008), the standard requirements for police officers
include: US citizenship, minimum age between 18 and 21, minimum high school diploma or a
GED, a valid driver’s license and passing a fitness requirement that varies per agency. The only
disqualifications: felony conviction, misdemeanors with domestic or sexual abuse, illegal drug
usage, DWI/DUI convictions and a poor credit history. According to Godoy (2007), physical
standards, include a 16.30-21 minute 1.5-mile run depending on department, an obstacle course,
a percentage of your body weight during a bench press, 18-34 sit-ups in a minute depending on
department, 20 pushups in a minute and sit/reach extensions. According to Bier (2014), 17,895
law enforcement agencies existed in 2008, with 1.13 million full-time workers of which 765,000
were sworn in, and 100,000 part-time employees of which 44,000 were sworn in. With these
statistics, the parallels between that number and the standards stated by both discoverpolicing.org
and Godoy start to make sense, as the numbers seem quite high.
Now, Growth complex, is affected by Conflict Theory. According to McGuire and Okada
(2014), conflict theory deals with inequality in the system by those who have the most power.
Police departments are a business, and therefore if they does not have enough funding to hire
new officers, get new equipment, etc. they are placed at a disadvantage when compared to

departments who have the funding to do those things, as well as being at a disadvantage when
facing crime, as they start lacking the resources to combat them. This then ties into strain theory
as well. According to Agnew and Scheuerman (2015), strain theory is stressors that lead to
crime.
Fyfe (2006) states that in the 1960’s police shootings became a public issue. Now, with
the media’s attention regarding police officer shootings, more police departments are under
scrutiny for their efforts dealing with this issue. If more police departments have higher
education requirements, focused more situational training, officers would be less prone to shoot
first when under pressure. According to Williams, Bowman and Jung (2011), federal government
databases recordings of officer-involved shooting fatalities are incomplete and unreliable
because of the underreporting and the classification errors and states that there are 51.8 incidents
a year of officers involved in shooting fatalities. According to Maskaly and Donner (2015), 40%
of those shot are unarmed at the time of the encounter.
However, citizen complaints against officers are also an issue. The documenting of police
use of force has been an issue since 1931 and as of 2016 there has been no standard effort to do
so even when the federal commissions were calling for them to occur (Shane, 2016). With that, it
is impossible to estimate the use of force completely. However, according to Reilly (2015), there
was 26,000 complaints against officers for using use of force in 2002, of these 8% were deemed
to be credible complaints, 34% were not sustained, 25% were unfounded and 23% were
exonerated, and this related only to New York City. So, as noted that is a very low number of
credible complaints, which is why the Cato Institute (2010)’s data showing 4861 reports of
misconduct seems reasonable, with 23.8% of these complaints being about excessive use of

force. These numbers are a problem for the image of the department, the police and an issue for
the public.
Literature Review
To best understand the situation, the following will be analyzed: education, age of the
officers, race of the officers and how they respond to different races, gender of officers, police
stress and the results of a shooting incident, and the growth of the department in terms of people
and equipment.
Education
The education of police officers should be a concern for police departments. According to
Sanderson (1976), with a college degree police officers perform in the upper 25% of all
categories in the police academy 46% of the time compared to 24% of those without college
education. Sanderson, also states that the vast majority of the cops that are terminated, had no
upper education and those with more college were frequent in promotions and opportunities for
advancement. Education also plays a role in how police respond in situations where they are able
to shoot someone else. McElvain and Kposowa (2008) claim that college educated officers are
less likely to be involved in shootings than those who are non-educated.
Police officers do go to school however, as DataUSA (2014) shows the following trend:
42.1% major in protective services, 13.5% in business and 11.1% in the social science. So, this
shows a different perspective than what people may have thought before, as personal
communication would show it would be Criminal Justice. The idea that 13.5% of police officers
major in business, should come as a surprise, but looking a bit deeper on this idea, would show
that police departments are in fact a business and they need people to be able to help balance
their budgets, figure out their payroll numbers, work on retirement pensions and file grants for

equipment and programs. Now, for the 11.1% in social sciences, could be there because the
police need to be able to understand the person who they are policing and thus by participating in
a social science, they develop a better understanding of a certain kind of society.
All of this wraps up to this final point, about the percentage of officers who are actually
required to be educated. According to Hudgins (2014), 83% of police departments only require
high school diplomas, 8% require some college and only 1% requires a college degree. This is a
problem. Officers with college degrees use of force percentage is at 58% while officers with no
college degree use of force percentage is at 68% (Hudgins, 2014). This obviously shows that the
more educated the officer, the less likely they are to harm the suspect.
Education: Training
Appendix A shows the skills that all hired police officers are said to have during their
time of employment. Notice here that the highest areas are in: speaking, judgment and decision
making, complex problem solving, active listening and critical thinking. So, if these are the skills
that police departments have already working for them, then the training they do should match
these skills to fine tune them.
Officers outperformed civilians when it comes to overall speed and accuracy in terms of
shootings, but training does not affect the speed in which officer stereotypes how incongruent
targets are processed, but they do affect the end decision of whether they shoot or not (Correll,
Park, Jude, Wittenbrink, Sadler and Keesee, 2007). Police who received Critical Incident Stress
Debriefing begin to show reductions in anger levels and greater use of adaptive coping strategies
(Leonard and Alison, 2010). Police were trained not to shoot people because they possessed a

deadly weapon, and no law allowed them to do so, as they are only allowed to protect themselves
or innocents from immediate threats (James, James and Vila, 2016).
Now, it must be noted, that other aspects other than education may play a part in the
growth of police agencies, and the effects on shootings. Let’s examine those as well.
Age of the Officers
Age is another factor that affects police departments as they deal with retirement,
insurance and other issues that affect people of different age groups, thus affecting the hiring
process and the budget for that precinct. However, it also plays a part in officer misconduct.
McElvain and Kposowa (2008) claim that the risk of an officer shooting drops as an officer ages.
The average age for police officers in the United States is 39.6 (DataUSA, 2014).
Elite officers shoot more accurately and made fewer decision errors (Vickers and
Lewinski, 2012). There is no difference in duration of draw, aim and fire phases, but rookies’
onsets are later. Rookies are more prone to fire and focus on their own weapon, while the elites
have longer eye duration on the assailant’s weapon prior to firing.
Race
According to DataUSA (2014), whites make up 78% of the work force, while blacks
make up 12% of this work force.
According to Correll, Park, Jude, Wittenbrink, Sadler and Keesee (2007), citizens set
shooting criterion lower for blacks, however police don’t set this criterion so low. According to
McElvain and Kposowa (2008), whites were more likely to shoot than Hispanics, but there was
no difference between Hispanics and blacks.

According to James, James and Vila (2016), there is implicit bias against suspects,
officers were slower to shoot black armed suspects than armed white suspects and they were less
likely to shoot unarmed black suspects than unarmed white suspects. However, the higher the
percentage of non-whites in a community, the higher the rates of police use of deadly force. They
assume that economic inequality and the percentage of blacks in a city, can directly predict the
numbers of shootings by police and this prediction is that the number will go up. Now, the
influence of race and ethnicity on the police use of deadly force is insignificant when compared
to the violent crime rates on the community level.
As James, et al. (2016), shows 60% of blacks were shot when carrying handguns,
compared to 35% of whites. Blacks were however, 12% of the population, but committed 43% of
the felony killings of officers. The problem to figure out these results, isn’t easily understood.
James, et al., explains that the wariness increased about using deadly force against black
suspects, because officers were afraid of how it was going to be perceived and the associated
consequences with the action.
James, et al. (2016), says in deadly scenarios, 57% of victims were white, while 56%
were black and officers took on average 200 ms longer to shoot armed blacks than armed whites.
96% of the participants in their study associated blacks with images of weapons, and most
officers showed levels of implicit bias of taking longer to shoot armed blacks and being less
likely to shoot unarmed blacks. This implicit bias doesn’t result in racially motivated decisions to
shoot, but instead showed a counter-bias, reverse racism effect. Kuhn and Martin (2016), state
that this existing racial bias isn’t accurately identified nor perceived, and thus aren’t easily
changed.

Geller and Karales (1981) state that black and white officers were likely to shot equally.
However, the data given on the racial breakdown is the following: 20% shot were white, 70%
were black, and 10% were Hispanics. Due to the sensitivity effect, the items blacks held were
less distinguishable from harmless objects and the response bias, were these objects were more
likely to be treated as guns, is the reason (Greenwald, Oakes and Hoffman, 2003).
According to Gerstenberger, Beatty & Weatherby (2014), the percentage of blacks in the
population are unrelated to police killings, but have a positive relationship with the use of deadly
force against blacks. According to Fyfe (1981) the minority overrepresentation among police
shooters is closely related to racial patterns of assignment, socialization and residence, but this is
only a spurious relationship.
Police Stress
Police like everyone else in society experience forms of stress. According to Waters and
Ussery (2007), state that police start their careers in excellent physical health, but retire early and
are likely to die from job related stress. Some other results of this stress can be: digestive
disorders, cardiovascular diseases, alcoholism, domestic violence, PTSD, depression and suicide.
Fyfe (1991) states that brutality is linked to police training and he major purpose of this training
is to prepare trainees to handle work related problems better than a lay person. “The development
of other jobs (boxers, soldiers, etc.) prove that maintaining one’s temper under stressful and
confrontational conditions is a skill that can be taught (Fyfe, 1991).”
However, this is affected by one’s ethics. According to Miller and Braswell (1992), ethics
is professionally right conduct. Police agencies utilize a legal definition of ethical behavior and
until it is forbidden by las or policy, then the behavior is legitimate and this causes a false sense
of security for the officers from complaints against their unethical behavior. This proper conduct

is thus one’s individual decision and this is causes by personal morality and environmental
factors and thus concrete distinctions don’t exist in real-life police work.
Situations present for the officer during a shooting are also stressful to consider for the
officer. According to James, James and Vila (2011), suspect behavior/posture/demeanor are all
important as is the presence of a weapon and the suspect’s race, while others to consider are: use
of foul language, proximity to participant, clothing style, physical size, speed and subtlety of
movement and location. White (2006), states other factors include: lighting conditions and gun
type. According to James, et al. (2011), the national inclination is not to act under conditions of
uncertainty or personal moral dilemmas. Thus, real world instances in police encounters where
dynamic movement and contextual cues are crucial to the shooting incidents.
After a shooting event, there is some effects on the officer’s psyche as well. According to
Rivard, Dietz, Martell, and Widawski (2002), 90% of officers reported experiencing a
dissociative response during the incident, 30% fell under DSM IV (criterion B) and 19% of
officers show memory impairment for details of the incident. However, it is strange that there
were no reports of amnesia present in that study. According to McElvain and Kposowa (2008),
officers who have a previous history of shooting, are 51% more likely to shoot again.
It should also be mentioned that police officers are in a dangerous line of work. So, just
getting shot at is enough to cause stress. According to Geller and Karales (1981), 58% of officers
that get shot are shot by civilians and 38% of them are shot by themselves/colleagues.
Growth
Appendix B shows that the number of police officers that are under employment is
expected to grow steadily from 2014 to 2024. According to DataUSA (2014), the job growth is
expected to be 5% over these 10 years, which is rather high when the implications this causes.

Running Head: GROWTH COMPLEX AND THE POLICE
10
This directly ties to Brohe (2007)’s information that says there has been court ordered hiring
quotas in a lot of states, which has led to a 14% increase in African Americans being hired. Fyfe
(1991) states that police hiring lags behind the large-scale population changes in a given area.
Growth however doesn’t just apply to the number of officers being hired. There is also
the amount of equipment they go after, as well as budgeting for the departments. According to
Gerstenberger, Beatty and Weatherby, conflict theory here is the power struggle to control scarce
resources and the power to affect decisions come from these resources.
Equipment that helps the media’s perception of the agency have started becoming
necessary to help the public image. This is why body cameras are becoming more common as
well. Jennings, Fridell and Lynch (2010) says that officers are open to the use of body cameras
as they believe that it improves citizens and the behaviors of the officers. Harris (2010), states
that these body cameras do influence false complaints, because it requires all civilian encounters
with searches in favor of the defendant.
Proposed Solutions
To combat the shootings by police and the complaints against the department caused by
the growth complex, there needs to be changes done to affect law enforcement. The two
solutions are to improve the training of the officers as well as the education requirements and to
implement better policies.
Improve Training
Marion (1998) states that the police academy is providing quality training to potential
officers within their time and budgetary constraints. This is clearly not the case as the literature
review as pointed out. Thus, improving the actual training in this academy needs to occur.

11
According to James, James and Vila (2011), longer more interactive scenarios in a
deadly force judgement and decision making simulator seems reasonable to help the officers in
situations where they are faced with the option to shoot or not. Fyfe (1991) wants to avoid the
split-second syndrome and to do this training needs to be designed to avert the violence in both
hostage and barricade situations. This requires a diagnosis of crises that identify recurrent
patterns and success requires communication and coordination amongst authors. Thus, safety is
required as an element of the training, and this has been neglected previously (Fyfe, 1991).
Fyfe (1991) states that a five-day role playing training program (where officers
participate in various suspect/officer scenarios and take turns playing each role) has resulted in
30-50% reductions in injuries to officers as well as the use of force used and citizen complaints.
Vickers and Lewinski (2012) recommends requiring gaze control and firearm training under
extreme pressure. Oudejans (2008), works with this idea, and says that these kinds of training
helps acclimatize shooting performance of ordinary police officers to those situations with
elevated pressure that may occur at work. Performance according to Oudejans didn’t diminish.
This is why improving training for officers are a must as it lowers: complaints, use of
force allegations, officer injuries and improves: officer performance under pressure and the
safety of everyone involved.
Improve Education
The education of officers as shown in the literature is seriously in a slump as only 1% of
departments require a college degree. Hudgins (2014) calls for higher education amongst police
officers. Hudgins argues that higher education: brings better behavioral and performance
characteristics of officers, fewer on job injuries/assaults, fewer disciplinary actions from use of

12
force, a greater acceptance of minorities, and a decrease in the dogmatism, authoritarianism,
rigidity and conservatism associated with police officers.
Rydberg and Terrill (2010), show that higher education doesn’t influence the probability
of arrests or searches in police and suspect encounters, however college education does
significantly reduce the likelihood of force occurring, as more discretion is acquired. According
to Sanderson (1976), officers with a four-year college degree receive fewer complaints than
those who just have a two-year college degree. A college degree according to Sanderson also
relates to the number of sick days an officer uses, which is beneficial to the department and to
the safety of the individuals it presides over.
Thus, improving college education amongst police officers, would be a good idea because
it saves money in terms of sick days, on-the-job injuries, complaint casework and allows a smarter
officer who is more tolerant of others and can critically think their way through a situation and
uses discretion to know when to act and when not to act.
Implementing Better Policies
New policies for how police deal with shootings would be a great start to reducing the
officer’s personal discretion regarding shootings. According to Fyfe (1979) New York added
administrative shooting guidelines and shooting incident review procedures that are higher than
former justifications. This caused great decreases in “fleeing felon” shootings, warning shots,
injuries and deaths. The next thing to do is get mandatory reporting of officer shootings and
complaints for all police departments. According to Williams, Bowman and Jung (2011),
California and Texas are the only two states who require mandatory reporting.
Williams, et al. (2011) recommends funding an independent party (such as a university)
to collect open source data and supplement it with public record requests and government data.

13
According to Brohe (2007), city crime rats appear unaffected by hiring quotas. Therefore, these
quotas should either match the population changes and hire officers to match the rise/fall in
ethnicities, or just be eliminated altogether, especially if they aren’t affecting crime rates.
According to James, James and Vila (2011), the most typical encounters leading to
officer involved shootings are: domestic disturbances, vehicle stops, robberies in progress and
investigations of suspicious persons/circumstances. Therefore, policies that affect how officers
go about dealing with these encounters and guidelines for these interactions may be necessary to
help protect both the officer and the suspect.
Also, requiring body cameras to be worn by officers would be a great policy to
implement. Harris (2010) states that body cameras give the public assurance that police officers
obey the law has well as enforcing it, which brings about accountability. Body cameras record
evidence in real time, with high levels of accuracy, they quickly make and keep records with
create rapid resolutions for the court systems with guilty pleas, which allows the officers to have
more time on the streets, it reduces public order offenses, helps in domestic violence cases and
details reports for discharged firearms (Harris). Those are all a good use to spend money on
instead of hiring more officers for areas where they are not needed.
All of these policies show that the existing policies could use some work, thus new
guidelines could go a long way to better improve the officer’s job at providing safety for the
public.
Conclusions
There has been a huge problem with the police department’s image with the public
caused by officer related shootings and complaints. This is caused by the lack of education and
poor training the officers go through to compete with the growth index that the country calls for

14
the police department to have to provide public safety to them. According to Gerstenberger,
Beatty and Weatherby (2014), due to the fear of crime, the demand for police presence to control
it goes up which leads to increase of both arrest rates as well as the possibility for
conflict/violence to occur.
The best solution is improving the training and education of officers. It saves money for
the police department and thus the public taxpayers as well and provides the agency with a more
tolerant police officer who will help present a better image to the public than one who is
dogmatic and intolerant. It also lowers the risk of injuries and the number of complaints, while
improving the officer’s performance under pressure.
The problem with this however, according to Decker and Huckabee (2002), is that raising
the education levels may affect women and minorities getting hired. It will also lower the
application pool of potential new hirers as well as possibly requiring a raise in the pay level
associated with the entry level position to match their education. Also, it may cause a stigmatism
amongst the officers that were already hired before this education/training is required and the
newly hired officers, about which one is better and may decrease cooperation and
communication which could cause problems for public safety.
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20
Appendix A
DataUSA (2014). Skills [Bar Graph]. Police Officers. Retrieved from:
https://datausa.io/profile/soc/333050/#top

21
Appendix B
DataUSA (2014). Growth Projections. Police Officers. Retrieved from:
https://datausa.io/profile/soc/333050/#top

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