C++ is a superset of C. Any correct C program is also a correct C++ program, except for some loopholes in C that are not allowed in C++.

1. 1
The C++ Language
• C Evolves into C++
• Object Oriented Programming
– Classes and Objects
– Operator Overloading
– Inheritance
– Polymorphism
– Template classes

2. 2
C Evolves into C++

3. 3
C is Alive in C++
• C++ is a superset of C.
• Any correct C program is also a correct C+
+ program, except for some loopholes in C
that are not allowed in C++.

4. 4
What is still the same
• The syntax of statements
if-else, switch, the “?:” conditional
for/while/do-while loops
assignments
arithmetic/logic/relational/ bitwise expressions
declarations, struct/union/enum types, typedef
pointers, arrays,
casting
• Same preprocessor commands in C &C++.

5. 5
C++: A Better C
• Convenient syntax for inline comments: // …
• Declaration anywhere
• Function overloading
• Default arguments
• Simplified IO: cin >>, cout<<, and more
• A new Boolean data type: bool
• Easier dynamic memory allocation: new & delete
• References (automatically dereferenced pointers)
• Function templates: data types as parameters
• Tag names as new data types
• Better type system: tighter use of void *

6. 6
Convenient Syntax for Inline
Comments
• Anything from // to the end of line is
considered a comment and thus ignored by
the compiler.
• The C-syntax for comments, /* … */, can
still be used for multi-tine comments.
int i; // i is an integer that will index the next array
double x[10]; // an array that will store user input
// and will then be sorted.

7. 7
Declaration Anywhere
• Declarations need no longer be at the head
of blocks.
• Variables and functions can be declared any
time, anywhere in a program, preferably as
close to where a variable is used the first
time.
• For example: note i is declared within for
for (int i=0;i<n;i++)

8. 8
Function Overloading
• Two or more functions can have the same
name but different parameters
• Example:
int max(int a, int b) {
if (a>= b)
return a;
else
return b;
}
float max(float a, float b) {
if (a>= b)
return a;
else
return b;
}

9. 9
Default Arguments
• A default argument is a value given in the
function declaration that the compiler
automatically inserts if the caller does not
provide a value for that argument in the
function call.
• Syntax:
return_type f(…, type x = default_value,…);

10. 10
Default Arguments
(Examples)
• The default value of the 2nd
argument is 2.
• This means that if the programmer calls
pow(x), the compiler will replace that call
with pow(x,2), returning x2
double pow(double x, int n=2)
// computes and returns xn

11. 11
Default Arguments
(Rules)
• Once an argument has a default value, all
the arguments after it must have default
values.
• Once an argument is defaulted in a
function call, all the remaining arguments
must be defaulted.
int f(int x, int y=0, int n)
// illegal
int f(int x, int y=0, int n=1)
// legal

12. 12
Examples of Legal/Illegal Defaulting
in Function Calls
• Let substring be a function whose prototype is:
• Assume
• Which call to substring is OK and which is not
OK? If OK, what is it equivalent to?
– substring(p)
– substring(p,10)
– substring( )
char * substring (char *p, int length=10, int pos=0)
char *p=“hello”;

13. 13
Default Arguments and
Function Overloading
• Default arguments and function overloading
can give rise to an ambiguity
• Consider an overloaded function f where
one declaration has default arguments that,
if removed, makes the function look
identical to a second declaration, as in
1. int f(int x, int y=0); returns xy
2. int f(int x); // returns 2x
If we call f(2), is it to f
in (1) or (2)?
The 1st
returns 1.
The 2nd
returns 4.

14. 14
Default Arguments and
Function Overloading (Contd.)
• If overloaded declarations of a function
with default arguments cause ambiguity, the
compiler gives an error message.
• It is the responsibility of the programmer
not to cause such ambiguities.

15. 15
Example of Function
Overloading and Default Args
// Precondition: x[] is a double array of length n.
// n is a positive integer. If missing, it defaults to 10
// Postcondition: the output is the maximum in x[]
double max(double x[], int n=10){
double M = x[0]; // M is the maximum so far
for (int i=1;i<n;i++)
if (x[i]>M)
M=x[i];
return M;
}

16. 16
Overloading & Defaulting Example (Contd.)
// Precondition: x[] is an int array of length n.
// n is a positive integer. If missing, it defaults to 10
// Postcondition: the output is the maximum in x[]
int max(int x[], int n=10){
int M = x[0]; // M is the maximum so far
for (int i=1;i<n;i++)
if (x[i]>M)
M=x[i];
return M;
}

17. 17
Simplified IO
• Instead of the complicated syntax of printf and
scanf, and the many variations of print and scan,
C++ offers a much simpler syntax
• For standard output, use cout
• For standard input, use cin
• File IO is also simpler, and will be discussed later
• Note: one can still use the IO syntax of C in C++

18. 18
Cout
• For printing output, use this syntax:
This prints out the string or the value of the
extpression.
• For output chaining, use this syntax
Each Si is a string or an expression. The effect is to
print out the value of S1 followed by the value of
S2, followed by the value of S3.
cout << a string or an expression;
cout << S1 <<S2<<S3<<endl;

19. 19
Cout (Contd.)
• The reserved word, endl, ensures that the
next cout command prints its stuff on a new
line.
• New lines can also be added using “n”.

20. 20
Cout (Examples)
Statements Output
int x=3; double y =4.5;
cout <<“the value of x=“<<x;
cout<<“; y=“<<y<<endl;
cout <<“x+y”<<x+y;
the value of x=3; y=4.5
x+y=7.5
int x=3; double y =4.5;
cout <<“x = “<<x<<“n”;
cout<<“y=“<<y;
cout <<“nx+y”<<x+y;
x = 3
y=4.5
x+y=7.5

21. 21
Cin
• For reading input values into variables:
• This reads the input from the standard input
(say the screen for now), puts the first read
value in variableName1, the second read
value in variableName2, and the third read
value in variableName3.
cin >> variableName1 >> variableName2 >> variableName3;

22. 22
Cin (Examples)
• Suppose you want to read an int value and a
double value into variables n and x.
• This code will do it (see next slide):
int n; double x;
cout<<“enter an int, a space, and a double: “;
cin>>n>>x; // use of cin
cout<<“You entered int n=“<<n;
cout<<“, and double x=“<<x<<endl;

23. 23
• If you run that code, you first get:
• Let’s say, you enter: -3 9.8
• The code next will store –3 in n, and 9.8 in
x, and print out to you:
Enter an int, a space, and a double:
Enter an int, a space, and a double: -3 9.8
You entered int n=-3, and double y=9.8

24. 24
A new Boolean data type:
bool
• A bool variable is a variable that can have
only two values: true or false.
• C does not have Boolean values or variables
• Instead, any non-zero was considered the
equivalent of true , and 0 the equivalent of
false.

25. 25
Example of bool
// Precondition: x[] is an integer array of length n.
// n is a positive integer.
// Postcondition: The output is true if the elements
// of the input array are all positive,. Else, false.
bool isAllPositive(int x[], int n){
for(int i=0;i<n;i++)
if (x[i] <= 0)
return false;
return true;
}

26. 26
A Comprehensive Example
#include <cstdlib>
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
// codes for isAllPositive( ), and for overloaded
// function max( ) should be inserted here
int main(int argc, char *argv[]){
cout << " enter five integers :";
int x[5]; int n=5;
for (int i=0;i<n;i++) // read the input to x[]
cin>>x[i];

27. 27
cout << "You entered: ";
for (int i=0;i<n;i++)
cout << x[i]<<" ";
if (isAllPositive(x,n))
cout << “nYour data is all positiven";
else
cout << “n Your data is not all positiven";
int M = max(x,n);
cout<<“Your maximum value is: "<<M<<endl;
} // end of main( )

28. 28
Easier Dynamic Memory
Allocation: new & delete
• new corresponds to malloc/calloc in C
• delete corresponds to free in C
• The syntax of new has forms:
• The semantics of this syntax is explained next
–type *pointer = new type; // type is a built-in
// or user-defined data type.
–type *pointer = new type[n]; // type as above

29. 29
Semantics of new
• For type *pointer = new type; :
– The system allocates dynamically (during
execution) a chunk of memory large enough to
hold data of the specified type, and returns a
pointer pointing to the address of that chunk.
This pointer is stored in the user-provided
pointer-variable pointer.

30. 30
Semantics of new [n]
• For type *pointer = new type[n]; :
– The system allocates dynamically an array of n
memory chunks, each large enough to hold data of the
specified type, and returns a pointer pointing to the
address of that chunk.
– The difference between this type of arrays (called
dynamic arrays) and conventional arrays is that the size
of the latter is constant while the size of the former can
vary.

31. 31
Example of new
// Precondition: n is a positive integer
// Postcondition: computes and prints out the first n
// elements of the Fibonacci sequence
void fibonacci(int n){
int *x = new int [n]; // creation of a dynamic array
x[0]=1; x[1]=1;
for (int i=2;i<n;i++)
x[i]=x[i-1]+x[i-2];
cout<<"The Fibonacci sequence of "<<n<<" values are:n";
for (int i=0;i<n;i++)
cout<<"x["<<i<<"]="<<x[i]<<endl;
}

32. 32
Syntax and Semantics of delete
• The syntax of delete has two forms:
• The first releases the memory of the single
memory chunk pointed to by pointer
• The second releases the memory
allocated to the array pointed to by
pointer.
– delete pointer ;
– delete [] pointer ;

33. 33
References
• A reference is an autmatically dereferenced
pointer
• Syntax of reference declaration:
• Semantics: refname becomes another name
(or alias) for variable. Any change to the
value of variable causes the same change to
refname, and vice versa.
Type& refname = variable;

34. 34
Illustration of References
Statements Outcome
int x=17;
int& xref = x;
cout<<“x=“<<x<<endl;
cout<<“xref=“<<xref<<endl;
x=17
xref=17
x=x+5;
cout<<“x=“<<x<<endl;
cout<<“xref=“<<xref<<endl;
x=22
xref=22
xref = xref-10;
cout<<“x=“<<x<<endl;
cout<<“xref=“<<xref<<endl;
x=12
xref=12

35. 35
References and Function Call by
Reference
void swap(int x, int y){
int tmp=x; x=y; y=tmp;
}
int x=5; int y=10;
swap(x,y);
cout<<x<<“, “<<y;
void swap(int& x, int& y){
int tmp=x; x=y; y=tmp;
}
int x=5; int y=10;
swap(x,y);
cout<<x<<“, “<<y;
Outcome:
5, 10 // no swap
Outcome:
10, 5 // it did swap

36. 36
Templates of Functions
(Motivation)
• Functions are a great construct because they all the
programmer to specify fairly generic parameters
(variable arguments), and later call a function
multiple times with different argument values,
thus saving on programming effort
• It will be equally convenient and effort-saving if
one can specify generic types that can be
substituted with any actual type whenever a
function is called

37. 37
Templates of Functions
(Purpose and Syntax)
• Templates provide that great convenience
• They make the data type/types of function
arguments and of the return value to be
“programmable”
• Syntax for declaring template function:
template<class type> function_declaration;
-Or-
template<typename type> function_declaration;

38. 38
Templates of Functions (Example)
// Precondition: x[] is an array of length n, of
// a generic type. n is a positive integer.
// Postcondition: the output is the minimum in x[]
template<typename T> T min(T x[], int n){
T m = x[0]; // M is the minimum so far
for (int i=1;i<n;i++)
if (x[i]<m)
m=x[i];
return m;
}

39. 39
How to Call a Function Template
• The syntax of calling a function template:
• Example:
functionName<an-actual-type>(parameter-list);
int x[]={11, 13, 5, 7, 4, 10};
double y[]={4.5, 7.13, 3, 17};
int minx = min<int>(x,6);
double miny=min<double>(y,4);
cout<<“the minimum of array x is: “<<minx<<endl;
cout<<“the minimum of array y is: “<<miny<<endl;

40. 40
Templates with More than One
Generic Type
• Templates can have several generic types
• Syntax for their declaration:
• class can be replaced by typename.
template<class type1,class type2> funct_decl;