The document provides an overview of key concepts in education law, including the following:
1) It outlines the four main sources of law: constitutional law, legislative law, judicial law, and administrative law. It also discusses common law. 2) It summarizes several important clauses and amendments of the U.S. Constitution related to education, such as the General Welfare Clause, Contracts Clause, and various amendments regarding rights. 3) It describes the federal and state court systems for handling education cases and the administrative appeals process.
The document summarizes key aspects of the U.S. federal court system, including its structure and landmark Supreme Court cases that have expanded judicial power and affected policy. It outlines the dual state and federal court systems and specialized national courts. It also describes the Supreme Court's role at the top of the federal system and its power of judicial review established in Marbury v. Madison. Landmark cases like Brown v. Board of Education, Roe v. Wade, and Miranda v. Arizona are highlighted for establishing important precedents around civil rights, privacy, and criminal procedure.
Unit 1 law & order introduction to school lawJason Braddock
The document discusses several key topics regarding the legal framework for public education in the United States, including the sources of law that govern public school administration, the structure of the U.S. judicial system, and legal issues pertaining to public schools. It notes that federal, state, and local governments all exert some control over public education and outlines the different sources of law - constitutional law, statutory law, regulatory law, and case law. It also describes how power is shared between the federal and state governments in establishing and operating public school systems.
This document discusses legal issues related to education in the United States. It begins by explaining that the 10th Amendment gives states responsibility for public education. Key court cases are discussed, including those related to separation of church and state, desegregation, students' rights, and teachers' rights. The rights of teachers can differ slightly from other citizens, as schools have an interest in maintaining order, but teachers are generally afforded due process protections.
Chapter 3 - The U.S. Supreme Court: The Final Wordlisajurs
The Supreme Court is the highest court in the US and its decisions cannot be overturned by any other body. It has the power of judicial review to determine the constitutionality of laws. Cases reach the Court through appeals or in its original jurisdiction over disputes between states. The 9 Justices are nominated by the President and confirmed by the Senate, holding lifetime appointments. Their decisions depend on whether the Court's composition is considered more liberal or conservative at the time.
The document discusses educational laws and funding in the United States and California. It notes that while the US Constitution does not address education, state constitutions do and establish positions like the State Superintendent. It also outlines the levels of law from the Constitution down to case law and administrative regulations. Additionally, it describes that funding for education comes from several sources, including mostly state funds, some local taxes, federal funding, and private donations, with the state providing nearly 80% of funds. Local districts have limited budget autonomy.
A N O V E R V I E W O F E D U C A T I O N L A W, T E X A S S C H O O L ...William Kritsonis
Educational Background
Dr. William Allan Kritsonis earned his BA in 1969 from Central Washington University, Ellensburg, Washington. In 1971, he earned his M.Ed. from Seattle Pacific University. In 1976, he earned his PhD from the University of Iowa. In 1981, he was a Visiting Scholar at Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, and in 1987 was a Visiting Scholar at Stanford University, Palo Alto, California. In June 2008, Dr. Kritsonis received the Doctor of Humane Letters, School of Graduate Studies from Southern Christian University. The ceremony was held at the Hilton Hotel in New Orleans, Louisiana.
For more course tutorials visit
www.newtonhelp.com
POL 110 Week 1 Discussion How Active Is Your Government
POL 110 Week 2 Discussion Does the need for national security conflict with our personal rights
The document summarizes key aspects of the U.S. federal court system, including its structure and landmark Supreme Court cases that have expanded judicial power and affected policy. It outlines the dual state and federal court systems and specialized national courts. It also describes the Supreme Court's role at the top of the federal system and its power of judicial review established in Marbury v. Madison. Landmark cases like Brown v. Board of Education, Roe v. Wade, and Miranda v. Arizona are highlighted for establishing important precedents around civil rights, privacy, and criminal procedure.
Unit 1 law & order introduction to school lawJason Braddock
The document discusses several key topics regarding the legal framework for public education in the United States, including the sources of law that govern public school administration, the structure of the U.S. judicial system, and legal issues pertaining to public schools. It notes that federal, state, and local governments all exert some control over public education and outlines the different sources of law - constitutional law, statutory law, regulatory law, and case law. It also describes how power is shared between the federal and state governments in establishing and operating public school systems.
This document discusses legal issues related to education in the United States. It begins by explaining that the 10th Amendment gives states responsibility for public education. Key court cases are discussed, including those related to separation of church and state, desegregation, students' rights, and teachers' rights. The rights of teachers can differ slightly from other citizens, as schools have an interest in maintaining order, but teachers are generally afforded due process protections.
Chapter 3 - The U.S. Supreme Court: The Final Wordlisajurs
The Supreme Court is the highest court in the US and its decisions cannot be overturned by any other body. It has the power of judicial review to determine the constitutionality of laws. Cases reach the Court through appeals or in its original jurisdiction over disputes between states. The 9 Justices are nominated by the President and confirmed by the Senate, holding lifetime appointments. Their decisions depend on whether the Court's composition is considered more liberal or conservative at the time.
The document discusses educational laws and funding in the United States and California. It notes that while the US Constitution does not address education, state constitutions do and establish positions like the State Superintendent. It also outlines the levels of law from the Constitution down to case law and administrative regulations. Additionally, it describes that funding for education comes from several sources, including mostly state funds, some local taxes, federal funding, and private donations, with the state providing nearly 80% of funds. Local districts have limited budget autonomy.
A N O V E R V I E W O F E D U C A T I O N L A W, T E X A S S C H O O L ...William Kritsonis
Educational Background
Dr. William Allan Kritsonis earned his BA in 1969 from Central Washington University, Ellensburg, Washington. In 1971, he earned his M.Ed. from Seattle Pacific University. In 1976, he earned his PhD from the University of Iowa. In 1981, he was a Visiting Scholar at Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, and in 1987 was a Visiting Scholar at Stanford University, Palo Alto, California. In June 2008, Dr. Kritsonis received the Doctor of Humane Letters, School of Graduate Studies from Southern Christian University. The ceremony was held at the Hilton Hotel in New Orleans, Louisiana.
For more course tutorials visit
www.newtonhelp.com
POL 110 Week 1 Discussion How Active Is Your Government
POL 110 Week 2 Discussion Does the need for national security conflict with our personal rights
Understanding federal and state courtssevans-idaho
The document discusses the differences between the federal and state court systems in the United States. It explains that the US has two separate court systems due to the concept of federalism outlined in the Constitution. The federal court system handles issues relating to federal law and powers while state court systems handle issues of state law. It provides details on the structure of both systems, including the different levels of courts and the types of cases typically heard at each level of federal versus state courts.
The document discusses several key aspects of the American judicial system, including the importance of judicial independence, the common law tradition, and sources of American law such as statutes, administrative law, and case law. It also provides an overview of the federal court system, describing the different types of federal courts and their roles. The Supreme Court's process for deciding cases and issuing opinions is outlined. The selection of federal judges and debates around judicial activism vs. restraint are also summarized.
Federal courts decide cases related to federal law and the US Constitution. There are two main types of federal courts - district courts where trials take place, and appellate courts that review district court decisions. The Supreme Court is the highest federal court and can choose to review appellate court rulings. Civil cases involve disputes between private parties, while criminal cases involve acts considered harmful to society and are prosecuted by the government.
This document outlines Chapter 7 from a criminal justice textbook. It discusses the structure and functions of the US court system, including: the historical foundations that influenced the US legal system; the dual federal and state court structure; differences between criminal and civil law; the structure and roles of federal courts including magistrate courts, district courts, appeals courts, and the Supreme Court; and the process for case review by the Supreme Court.
Education Funding Litigation in Washington State (June 2014)Dan Steele
Historical review of Education Funding litigation in Washington State, with a comprehensive update of the on-going McCleary v. State of Washington case
POL 110 RANK Education Planning--pol110rank.comWindyMiller31
FOR MORE CLASSES VISIT
www.pol110rank.com
POL 110 Week 1 Discussion How Active Is Your Government
POL 110 Week 2 Discussion Does the need for national security conflict with our personal rights
POL 110 Week 3 Discussion Is Federalism Necessary?"
POL 110 Week 4 Discussion The Ideologies of American Politics
POL 110 RANK Achievement Education / pol110rank.comagathachristie149
This document outlines the course content for POL 110 Entire Course. It includes discussion questions, assignments, and exams for each of the 11 weeks. The weekly topics cover the roles of government, national security vs personal rights, federalism, political ideologies, the two-party system, voting and interest groups, Congress, presidential elections, the fairness of the court system, social security and Medicare, and a self-review. Exams are also included for weeks 4, 8, and 11.
POL 110 RANK Inspiring Innovation--pol110rank.comagathachristie63
This document outlines the course content for POL 110 Entire Course. It includes discussion questions, assignments, and exams for each of the 11 weeks. The weekly topics cover government roles, national security vs personal rights, federalism, political ideologies, elections, the court system, and social programs. Assignments include papers on politics past and present and the fairness of the political system. Exams assess understanding of concepts covered throughout the course.
The document summarizes how to conduct legal research. It discusses primary and secondary legal sources, including cases, statutes, legal periodicals, and treatises. It explains how to read and brief a case, including identifying the key components of a judicial opinion like the facts, issues, holding, and reasoning. The document also discusses keeping current with changes to the law using resources like legal citations, Shepardizing cases, and online legal research.
POL 110 RANK Education Counseling--pol110rank.comvenkat60043
This document outlines the course content for POL 110 Entire Course, which includes weekly discussions, assignments, and exams on topics such as the roles of government, national security and personal rights, federalism, political ideologies, the two-party system, voting and interest groups, Congress, presidential elections, the fairness of the court system, and social security and Medicare. It provides questions and prompts for each weekly discussion. The exams contain multiple choice questions testing knowledge of concepts addressed throughout the course.
POL 110 RANK Education Your Life / pol110rank.comkopiko19
FOR MORE CLASSES VISIT
www.pol110rank.com
POL 110 Week 1 Discussion How Active Is Your Government
POL 110 Week 2 Discussion Does the need for national security conflict with our personal rights
POL 110 Inspiring Innovation/tutorialrank.comjonhson151
For more course tutorials visit
www.tutorialrank.com
POL 110 Week 1 Discussion How Active Is Your Government
POL 110 Week 2 Discussion Does the need for national security conflict with our personal rights
POL 110 Week 3 Discussion Is Federalism Necessary?"
POL 110 RANK Education for Service-- pol110rank.comKeatonJennings28
This document outlines the course content for POL 110 Entire Course. It includes discussion questions, assignments, and exams for each of the 11 weeks. The weekly topics cover the roles of government, national security vs personal rights, federalism, political ideologies, the two-party system, voting and interest groups, Congress, presidential elections, the fairness of the court system, social security and Medicare, and a self-review. Exams are also included for weeks 4, 8, and 11.
Here are brief summaries of some landmark Supreme Court cases related to students' rights in schools:
- Tinker v. DesMoines (1969): Students have a First Amendment right to freedom of expression unless it causes a substantial disruption to school activities. Wearing black armbands to protest the Vietnam War was protected speech.
- NJ v. TLO (1985): Schools can search students if there is reasonable suspicion the search will find evidence of a violation of law or school rules. A search of a student's purse for cigarettes was justified.
- Hazlewood v. Kuhlmeier (1988): Schools have authority over school-sponsored activities like student newspapers and can censor content for educational reasons.
Pol 110 Massive Success / snaptutorial.comReynolds26
POL 110 Week 1 Discussion How Active Is Your Government
POL 110 Week 2 Discussion Does the need for national security conflict with our personal rights
POL 110 Week 3 Discussion Is Federalism Necessary?"
POL 110 Week 4 Discussion The Ideologies of American Politics
Chapter 4 - The Art of Educational Leadership by Dr. Fenwick W. English, Pres...William Kritsonis
This document discusses several concepts related to human agency and principles of action in leadership. It outlines Weber's four types of action - instrumental, value-rational, affectual, and traditional. It also describes Gardner's cognitive model of leadership, which posits that followers create leaders by seeking someone to help make sense of their situation and give voice to their emotions. Leaders must convincingly embody the stories and narratives they tell to gain and maintain legitimacy. The document contrasts the perspectives of Plato, who saw morality as based on enduring values, versus the Sophists, who saw truth as dependent on context. It notes that leadership roles can wound leaders by conflicting with their personal needs and values.
The document contains data on various websites and organizations from different countries and industries. It includes metrics like SEO score, index page results from search engines, WCAG accessibility score, use of assistive technologies, and social media/link metrics for each site. The sites are ranked and compared based on these optimization and accessibility indicators.
This document is a dissertation submitted by Margaret Curette Patton to Prairie View A&M University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a Doctor of Philosophy degree in March 2009. The dissertation explores factors that influence success in economically challenged minority schools. It uses Jim Collins' Good to Great framework to examine characteristics of successful versus acceptable performing economically challenged minority schools in Texas. The dissertation seeks to identify distinguishing factors between schools recognized as exemplary or recognized versus acceptable performers. It examines characteristics related to leadership, teamwork, data-driven decisions, and student interventions. The study uses interviews and coding to analyze responses from exemplary/recognized and acceptable performing schools based on the Good to Great framework of disciplined people, disciplined thought
The document outlines the agenda for an NN/LM Emergency Preparedness & Response Plan meeting. The agenda includes introductions, state reports, a tabletop exercise, lunch, and discussions on regional emergency preparedness structures, disaster planning, and response plans. It also provides information on developing disaster plans, service continuity plans, and memorandums of understanding with backup libraries.
This document provides an overview of approaches to studying the New Testament, including the world behind, within, and in front of the text. It discusses author-centered, text-centered, and reader-centered approaches. Several methods of biblical study are explained in brief, including background studies, textual criticism, source criticism, and form criticism. Examples are given analyzing passages from the gospels using these different critical methods.
Dr. William Allan Kritsonis, Editor-in-Chief, NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS - www.n...William Kritsonis
This document provides a history of Christian missions among the Kafe people of Papua New Guinea. It discusses how Lutheran missionaries were the first to reach the Kafe in the 1920s, establishing churches and schools. While most Kafe are now Christian, services are typically conducted in Tok Pisin rather than the Kafe language. This has contributed to some syncretism, as the Kafe have mixed Christian and traditional beliefs. The document examines how missions have impacted Kafe culture, seeking to both evangelize and introduce new practices and technologies to the isolated people.
Understanding federal and state courtssevans-idaho
The document discusses the differences between the federal and state court systems in the United States. It explains that the US has two separate court systems due to the concept of federalism outlined in the Constitution. The federal court system handles issues relating to federal law and powers while state court systems handle issues of state law. It provides details on the structure of both systems, including the different levels of courts and the types of cases typically heard at each level of federal versus state courts.
The document discusses several key aspects of the American judicial system, including the importance of judicial independence, the common law tradition, and sources of American law such as statutes, administrative law, and case law. It also provides an overview of the federal court system, describing the different types of federal courts and their roles. The Supreme Court's process for deciding cases and issuing opinions is outlined. The selection of federal judges and debates around judicial activism vs. restraint are also summarized.
Federal courts decide cases related to federal law and the US Constitution. There are two main types of federal courts - district courts where trials take place, and appellate courts that review district court decisions. The Supreme Court is the highest federal court and can choose to review appellate court rulings. Civil cases involve disputes between private parties, while criminal cases involve acts considered harmful to society and are prosecuted by the government.
This document outlines Chapter 7 from a criminal justice textbook. It discusses the structure and functions of the US court system, including: the historical foundations that influenced the US legal system; the dual federal and state court structure; differences between criminal and civil law; the structure and roles of federal courts including magistrate courts, district courts, appeals courts, and the Supreme Court; and the process for case review by the Supreme Court.
Education Funding Litigation in Washington State (June 2014)Dan Steele
Historical review of Education Funding litigation in Washington State, with a comprehensive update of the on-going McCleary v. State of Washington case
POL 110 RANK Education Planning--pol110rank.comWindyMiller31
FOR MORE CLASSES VISIT
www.pol110rank.com
POL 110 Week 1 Discussion How Active Is Your Government
POL 110 Week 2 Discussion Does the need for national security conflict with our personal rights
POL 110 Week 3 Discussion Is Federalism Necessary?"
POL 110 Week 4 Discussion The Ideologies of American Politics
POL 110 RANK Achievement Education / pol110rank.comagathachristie149
This document outlines the course content for POL 110 Entire Course. It includes discussion questions, assignments, and exams for each of the 11 weeks. The weekly topics cover the roles of government, national security vs personal rights, federalism, political ideologies, the two-party system, voting and interest groups, Congress, presidential elections, the fairness of the court system, social security and Medicare, and a self-review. Exams are also included for weeks 4, 8, and 11.
POL 110 RANK Inspiring Innovation--pol110rank.comagathachristie63
This document outlines the course content for POL 110 Entire Course. It includes discussion questions, assignments, and exams for each of the 11 weeks. The weekly topics cover government roles, national security vs personal rights, federalism, political ideologies, elections, the court system, and social programs. Assignments include papers on politics past and present and the fairness of the political system. Exams assess understanding of concepts covered throughout the course.
The document summarizes how to conduct legal research. It discusses primary and secondary legal sources, including cases, statutes, legal periodicals, and treatises. It explains how to read and brief a case, including identifying the key components of a judicial opinion like the facts, issues, holding, and reasoning. The document also discusses keeping current with changes to the law using resources like legal citations, Shepardizing cases, and online legal research.
POL 110 RANK Education Counseling--pol110rank.comvenkat60043
This document outlines the course content for POL 110 Entire Course, which includes weekly discussions, assignments, and exams on topics such as the roles of government, national security and personal rights, federalism, political ideologies, the two-party system, voting and interest groups, Congress, presidential elections, the fairness of the court system, and social security and Medicare. It provides questions and prompts for each weekly discussion. The exams contain multiple choice questions testing knowledge of concepts addressed throughout the course.
POL 110 RANK Education Your Life / pol110rank.comkopiko19
FOR MORE CLASSES VISIT
www.pol110rank.com
POL 110 Week 1 Discussion How Active Is Your Government
POL 110 Week 2 Discussion Does the need for national security conflict with our personal rights
POL 110 Inspiring Innovation/tutorialrank.comjonhson151
For more course tutorials visit
www.tutorialrank.com
POL 110 Week 1 Discussion How Active Is Your Government
POL 110 Week 2 Discussion Does the need for national security conflict with our personal rights
POL 110 Week 3 Discussion Is Federalism Necessary?"
POL 110 RANK Education for Service-- pol110rank.comKeatonJennings28
This document outlines the course content for POL 110 Entire Course. It includes discussion questions, assignments, and exams for each of the 11 weeks. The weekly topics cover the roles of government, national security vs personal rights, federalism, political ideologies, the two-party system, voting and interest groups, Congress, presidential elections, the fairness of the court system, social security and Medicare, and a self-review. Exams are also included for weeks 4, 8, and 11.
Here are brief summaries of some landmark Supreme Court cases related to students' rights in schools:
- Tinker v. DesMoines (1969): Students have a First Amendment right to freedom of expression unless it causes a substantial disruption to school activities. Wearing black armbands to protest the Vietnam War was protected speech.
- NJ v. TLO (1985): Schools can search students if there is reasonable suspicion the search will find evidence of a violation of law or school rules. A search of a student's purse for cigarettes was justified.
- Hazlewood v. Kuhlmeier (1988): Schools have authority over school-sponsored activities like student newspapers and can censor content for educational reasons.
Pol 110 Massive Success / snaptutorial.comReynolds26
POL 110 Week 1 Discussion How Active Is Your Government
POL 110 Week 2 Discussion Does the need for national security conflict with our personal rights
POL 110 Week 3 Discussion Is Federalism Necessary?"
POL 110 Week 4 Discussion The Ideologies of American Politics
Chapter 4 - The Art of Educational Leadership by Dr. Fenwick W. English, Pres...William Kritsonis
This document discusses several concepts related to human agency and principles of action in leadership. It outlines Weber's four types of action - instrumental, value-rational, affectual, and traditional. It also describes Gardner's cognitive model of leadership, which posits that followers create leaders by seeking someone to help make sense of their situation and give voice to their emotions. Leaders must convincingly embody the stories and narratives they tell to gain and maintain legitimacy. The document contrasts the perspectives of Plato, who saw morality as based on enduring values, versus the Sophists, who saw truth as dependent on context. It notes that leadership roles can wound leaders by conflicting with their personal needs and values.
The document contains data on various websites and organizations from different countries and industries. It includes metrics like SEO score, index page results from search engines, WCAG accessibility score, use of assistive technologies, and social media/link metrics for each site. The sites are ranked and compared based on these optimization and accessibility indicators.
This document is a dissertation submitted by Margaret Curette Patton to Prairie View A&M University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a Doctor of Philosophy degree in March 2009. The dissertation explores factors that influence success in economically challenged minority schools. It uses Jim Collins' Good to Great framework to examine characteristics of successful versus acceptable performing economically challenged minority schools in Texas. The dissertation seeks to identify distinguishing factors between schools recognized as exemplary or recognized versus acceptable performers. It examines characteristics related to leadership, teamwork, data-driven decisions, and student interventions. The study uses interviews and coding to analyze responses from exemplary/recognized and acceptable performing schools based on the Good to Great framework of disciplined people, disciplined thought
The document outlines the agenda for an NN/LM Emergency Preparedness & Response Plan meeting. The agenda includes introductions, state reports, a tabletop exercise, lunch, and discussions on regional emergency preparedness structures, disaster planning, and response plans. It also provides information on developing disaster plans, service continuity plans, and memorandums of understanding with backup libraries.
This document provides an overview of approaches to studying the New Testament, including the world behind, within, and in front of the text. It discusses author-centered, text-centered, and reader-centered approaches. Several methods of biblical study are explained in brief, including background studies, textual criticism, source criticism, and form criticism. Examples are given analyzing passages from the gospels using these different critical methods.
Dr. William Allan Kritsonis, Editor-in-Chief, NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS - www.n...William Kritsonis
This document provides a history of Christian missions among the Kafe people of Papua New Guinea. It discusses how Lutheran missionaries were the first to reach the Kafe in the 1920s, establishing churches and schools. While most Kafe are now Christian, services are typically conducted in Tok Pisin rather than the Kafe language. This has contributed to some syncretism, as the Kafe have mixed Christian and traditional beliefs. The document examines how missions have impacted Kafe culture, seeking to both evangelize and introduce new practices and technologies to the isolated people.
This article discusses an approach to ESL/EFL teaching that aims to help teachers bridge the gap between theoretical knowledge and practical application in the classroom. It proposes integrating an understanding of language variation across communication contexts, using corpus-based descriptive grammar, and incorporating scaffolded language learning activities based on sociocultural theory. This specific approach is intended to address challenges faced by K-12 teachers in connecting theory to practice by providing concrete models of language use.
cloud foundry summit - no talent shortageAndrew Shafer
The speaker argues that the concept of "talent shortage" is a myth and that organizations can cultivate talent through developing a learning culture. He outlines seven dimensions of organizational learning: continuous learning, inquiry and dialogue, team learning, empowerment, embedded systems, connectedness, and strategic leadership. Measuring an organization across these dimensions can help identify areas for improvement and building a learning culture is key to both attracting and retaining talent as well as adapting to changing market conditions. Developing high-performing individuals and teams requires deliberately cultivating learning and sharing at all levels of the organization.
The document provides a summary of Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), and the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) as they relate to students with disabilities. It discusses that Section 504 focuses on non-discrimination and ensuring access to education. IDEA provides funding for students with more severe disabilities. ADA built upon Section 504 and applied its protections more broadly. Section 504 remains important for students who are disabled but may not qualify for IDEA. It requires schools to provide a Free Appropriate Public Education (FAPE) to these "Section 504 only" students to ensure their educational needs are met without discrimination.
Trees come in many varieties and sizes. Some common trees include oak, pine, and maple trees. They provide benefits like shade, wood, oxygen, and habitats for wildlife.
The document discusses several key aspects of instructional theory:
1. Effective instruction requires assessing student readiness through evaluating their existing knowledge, skills, and abilities.
2. Instructors must clearly define the learning objectives, procedures for achieving the objectives, and criteria for success.
3. Providing feedback through evaluation and remediation is important for students to diagnose their performance and improve. Frequent evaluation and quick remediation enhances learning.
4. Instructional strategies like repetition, clarity of communication, smaller student-teacher ratios, and reminders can boost academic achievement.
Economics is the study of how people and societies choose to use scarce resources to satisfy their wants and needs. It can be divided into microeconomics, which examines the choices of individual actors like households and businesses, and macroeconomics, which looks at aggregate outcomes in economies and societies as a whole. Producers use four factors of production - natural resources, human resources, capital resources, and entrepreneurship - to create goods and services for consumers to purchase.
Biomass is an alternative renewable energy source that can be generated from organic waste materials like dead trees, livestock manure, garden waste, sawdust, and food scraps. The document discusses how biomass works by collecting these waste materials and allowing them to decompose and produce methane gas, which can then be captured and used to generate electricity by boiling water to power steam turbines. It proposes that a school could install a biomass generator using wood pellets or waste collected from the local area to provide heat for the building in a renewable and cost-effective way.
Kids were given cameras to document their perspectives. In spite of struggles with poverty, homelessness, drugs, and insecurity, the kids found beauty in unexpected places. Their photos captured emotions and the most beautiful moments of life, showing optimism for the future despite harsh present realities.
Chapter 1 Lectures Notes - William Allan Kritsonis, PhDWilliam Kritsonis
1) The document summarizes key sources of law in the United States including the Constitution, legislative law, judicial law, and administrative law. It also discusses common law.
2) Key parts of the US Constitution are outlined including articles about Congressional powers, contracts, individual rights in the Bill of Rights, and state powers.
3) The document then covers court systems at the federal, state, and administrative levels and defines some legal terms. It concludes with notes about education law and the history of school finance litigation in Texas.
This document provides an overview of public school law in Texas, including sources of law such as constitutional law, statutory law, administrative law, and judicial law. It discusses key laws and court cases that have shaped education policy. It also summarizes Texas laws on school finance, parental rights, and options for private and home schooling.
Dr. William Allan Kritsonis, School Law Power Point Presentation, Educational Laws & Policies, Due Process, Employment Law, Personnel Law, Equal Rights, Discrimination, Diversity, Teacher Rights, Termination of Employment
The document provides an overview of key topics in school law, including the legal system, types of laws, how laws are made and enforced, landmark Supreme Court rulings affecting education, and other legal issues pertaining to schools such as desegregation, school finance, student and teacher rights, special education, church-state separation, and school choice. Key Supreme Court cases discussed include Brown v. Board of Education, which ruled that segregation was unequal, and San Antonio v. Rodriguez, which found that education is not a fundamental right.
Business Law I Introduction to LawHello class and welcome to t.docxRAHUL126667
Business Law I
Introduction to Law
Hello class and welcome to the week one lecture for Business Law I. We will begin with an introduction to the law and the American Legal system. Law is a grouping of rules governing relationships among individuals and between individuals and their society. The function of the law is to maintain stability while allowing for change when necessary. As we will discuss, this law originates from many sources.
To start, America has a rich common law tradition. Common law dates back to the English Court system. This common law developed through the slow accumulation of decisions over many hundreds of years. At bottom, judges generally apply the principle of Stare Decisis or the application of principles applied in earlier cases with similar facts. These earlier cases are known as precedent. This principle is important because it allows for a modicum of stability in the law as the idea is that similar cases will be decided in similar ways. However, this system allows gives the common law some flexibility. Judges may decide that old precedent is no longer applicable, for example, due to changes in society’s attitudes or in technology. When this situation occurs, the judge can create a new precedent.
The constitution provides another source of law. The federal constitution creates the rules for governing the country. It specifies which powers each branch of government may wield, and any state or federal law found to be in conflict with the constitution by the courts will be found to be invalid. A third source of law is statutory law. This source of law includes the statutes and ordinances of Congress and state legislatures. This is a very important source of law, and much of the work of the courts is consumed by interpreting these statutes.
The final source of law to discuss is the administrative law. The development of this law has become increasingly important. As the economy began to grow more complex, Congress devolved some of its powers to administrative agencies (generally under the supervision of the executive branch) to regulate the economy. For example, the Clean Air Act requires the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to keep the air safe. This mandate empowers the EPA to pass and enforce regulation protecting society from airborne pollutants. Although this area of law gets less coverage from the press, it can be critically important as these regulations have a monumental impact on the economy. Judges are frequently called upon to determine if the agencies have exceeded the scope of their mandate.
Another important distinction involves the relationship between the federal and state courts. Each state and the federal government has its own court system. And each of these entities will often have different statues, common law, administrative law, and constitutions. States are generally required to follow the decisions of other court’s due to the full faith and credit clause ...
The Law of Higher Education (Kaplan 4th) Chapter1Todd Hurt
This document discusses several key topics in educational law, including the governance and sources of law for higher education institutions. It covers the internal and external governance structures for public and private colleges/universities. Sources of law include institutional rules as well as federal, state, and local laws. Church-state issues are also examined through various court cases addressing prayer and religious activities at public institutions.
Chapter 10· Page 241Using public funds for private schools hasEstelaJeffery653
Chapter 10
· Page 241
Using public funds for private schools has a major impact on the overall aspects of school finance. Although the public, in general, supports its local public schools, forces continue to promote using taxpayer dollars to assist in providing revenues for nonpublic schools. Legislators, private entrepreneurs, and some citizens are questioning the ability of personnel in the public sector to operate the schools efficiently and to offer enough options to meet the needs of students. Privately sponsored schools have been encouraged for those groups and individuals who are willing to support them financially in addition to participating in financing the public school system. However, such groups have become more vocal, stressing that because the states have a responsibility to provide a free education for the school-age population, they should provide for students in both private and public schools. The use of public funds for educating children in private schools was essentially a non-issue for more than a century. The interpretation of the First Amendment of the U.S. Constitution as part of the Bill of Rights (1791), as well as established state codes, was that an interrelationship between church and state was prohibited, and that direct government support for private or parochial schools was illegal. In 1875, President Ulysses S. Grant called for a Constitutional Amendment that would prohibit the use of public funds for private “sectarian schools.” Motivated by Grant’s speech, Congressman James G. Blaine proposed the following amendment in the U.S. House of Representatives: No State shall make any law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof, and no money raised by taxation in any State for the support of public schools, or derived from any public fund therefore, nor any public lands devoted therein, shall ever by under the control of any religious sect, nor shall any money so raised or lands so devoted be divided between religious sects or denominations.1 Blaine’s proposal passed the House but did not pass by two-thirds vote in the Senate. The proposal had a great impact on states; however, as many as 37 states included laws with similar criteria with some included in state constitutions.2 The State Blaine influence has been felt in several court cases as late as 2015. The first court case that opened a door for those who advocated using public funds for church-related schools was Pierce v. Society of Sisters (268 U.S. 510, 1925). In its ruling, the U.S. Supreme Court stated, “The fundamental theory of liberty under which all governments in this union repose excludes any general power of the State to standardize its children by forcing them to accept instruction from public teachers.”3 From this decision to the present day, many changes have occurred that have had and will have a great effect on financing public schools during the next decade. The arguments for and against the use of ...
Chapter 3 Due Process, Equal Protection, and Civil Rights Those .docxchristinemaritza
Chapter 3 Due Process, Equal Protection, and Civil Rights
Those who deny freedom to others deserve it not for themselves.
Abraham Lincoln
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
After studying this chapter you should better understand:
· • The standards applied for determining whether a procedure satisfies the constitutional due process requirements
· • The manner in which the restrictions on federal government action in the Bill of Rights have been incorporated into the due process guaranty that applies to state actions
· • The U.S. Supreme Court’s approach to determining whether classifications violate the constitutional equal protection requirements
· • The classifications to which “strict scrutiny” is applied in the equal protection analysis
· • The basic remedies available for civil rights violations
At the heart of the rule of law lie the ideals that everyone should be treated fairly and equally before the law. Toward this end the U.S. Constitution protects individual rights by constraining government. But fairness and equality cannot be reduced to prohibitions. To reach more broadly the Constitution also includes fundamental guaranties. Many important court decisions and legislative acts addressing individual rights have been based on the two most fundamental general guaranties: the Due Process Clause and the Equal Protection Clause.
A Due Process Clause was part of the Fifth Amendment in the original Bill of Rights and it was aimed at the federal government. It provides that no person shall be “deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process.” The original Bill of Rights did not mention equal protection of the laws in a general sense. The Fourteenth Amendment, added after the Civil War and aimed at former slave states, included the same due process provisions as the Fifth Amendment. The Fourteenth Amendment also included the Equal Protection Clause. It provides that no state shall “deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.” Although nothing in the text said that equal protection applied to the federal government as well as to the states, the U.S. Supreme Court eventually held that it did. In 1954 in Bolling v. Sharpe the Court said that “the concepts of equal protection and due process, both stemming from our American ideal of fairness, are not mutually exclusive. The ‘equal protection of the laws’ is a more explicit safeguard of prohibited unfairness than ‘due process of law,’ and, therefore, we do not imply that the two are always interchangeable phrases. But, as this Court has recognized, discrimination may be so unjustifiable as to be violative of due process.”1 Consequently due process and equal protection apply to both federal and state laws.
The Due Process and Equal Protection Clauses address government action. They require that laws and legal procedures be fair. As discussed in the final section of this chapter, other constitutional provisions or laws may directly address unfair or discriminato ...
Chapter 22 THE LAW AND TALENT MANAGEMENTWayne F. Cascio, HEstelaJeffery653
Chapter 2
2 THE LAW AND TALENT MANAGEMENT
Wayne F. Cascio, Herman Aguinis
Learning Goals
By the end of this chapter, you will be able to do the following:
· 2.1 Describe the framework of the U.S. legal system
· 2.2 Describe alternative legal routes for complaints against an employer’s employment practices
· 2.3 Explain the two major legal theories of unfair employment discrimination
· 2.4 Understand the major legal principles that define key civil rights laws
· 2.5 Identify the six exemptions to Title VII coverage
· 2.6 Define sexual harassment and identify preventive steps employers should take
· 2.7 Know when you can and cannot justify “English-only” rules in the workplace
· 2.8 Understand how to prevent age-discrimination claims when downsizing or terminating workers for cause
Comprehensive employment-related legislation, combined with increased motivation on the part of individuals to rectify unfair employment practices, makes the legal aspects of employment among the most dominant issues in human resource management today. All three branches of the federal government have been actively involved in ongoing efforts to guarantee equal employment opportunity (EEO) as a fundamental individual right, regardless of race, color, age, gender, religion, national origin, or disability.
All aspects of the employment relationship, including initial screening, recruitment, selection, placement, compensation, training, promotion, and performance management, have been addressed by legislative and executive pronouncements and by legal interpretations from the courts. With growing regularity, I/O psychologists and HR professionals are being called on to work with attorneys, the courts, and federal regulatory agencies. It is imperative, therefore, to understand thoroughly the rights as well as obligations of individuals and employers under the law and to ensure that these are translated into everyday practice in accordance with legal guidelines promulgated by federal regulatory agencies. Affirmative action involves a proactive examination of whether equality of opportunity exists. If it does not, a plan is implemented for taking concrete measures to eliminate the barriers and to establish true equality (Society for Human Resource Management, 2016b). Affirmative action has become a fact of modern organizational life. To ignore it is to risk serious economic, human, and social costs.
Every public opinion poll based on representative national samples drawn between 1950 and the present shows that a majority of Americans—black, brown, and white—support EEO and reject differential treatment based on race, regardless of its alleged purposes or results. There is agreement about the ends to be achieved, but there is disagreement about the means to be used (Von Drehle, 2003). EEO has been, and is still, an emotionally charged issue. Congress has provided sound legal bases for effecting changes in EEO through sweeping civil rights legislation. Subsequently, thousan ...
Serrano V. Priest and Educational Equalization in CaliforniaDavid Hedley
The document summarizes the Serrano v. Priest case which challenged California's school funding system on equal protection grounds. It discusses key precedents like Brown v. Board of Education which found segregated schools unconstitutional. California relied heavily on local property taxes to fund schools, resulting in disparities between wealthy and poor districts. Serrano v. Priest argued this violated equal protection by providing unequal educational opportunities. The California Supreme Court agreed and found the system unconstitutional in Serrano I, requiring the state to equalize school funding.
The document discusses the origins and development of natural law, common law, and different types of laws. It begins by explaining that ancient Greek philosophers like Plato and Aristotle posited the existence of natural justice or natural right. The concept of natural law was influential in the development of English common law. Common law derives from legal precedents established following the Norman Conquest of England in 1154. The document then contrasts common law systems with civil or code-based systems, and discusses different levels of laws from constitutional to statutory to regulatory.
Chapter 1 Overview - Public School Law, Dr. W.A. Kritsonisguestfbbbfe37
This chapter provides an overview of the sources and components of education law in Texas, including the rights of parents. It discusses how constitutional law, statutory law, administrative law and judicial law shape the governance and operation of Texas public schools at the state and local levels. Key governing bodies include the Texas Legislature, State Board of Education, Texas Education Agency, local school boards, and important federal statutes and court cases that impact Texas schools.
This chapter provides an overview of the sources and components of education law in Texas, including the governance structure of Texas public schools. It discusses how constitutional law, statutory law, administrative law and judicial law shape Texas education. It outlines the roles of the Texas Legislature, State Board of Education, Texas Education Agency, local school districts, and charter and private schools. Key topics covered include sources of federal and state education law, governance of local school districts, and how court cases have impacted school finance in Texas.
Chapter 1 Overview - School Law - Dr. William Allan KritsonisWilliam Kritsonis
Dr. William Allan Kritsonis, School Law Power Point Presentation, Educational Laws & Policies, Due Process, Employment Law, Personnel Law, Equal Rights, Discrimination, Diversity, Teacher Rights, Termination of Employment
Education is a hallmark of civic life in America, so it’s no surpr.docxgidmanmary
Education is a hallmark of civic life in America, so it’s no surprise that it’s been at the center of many landmark controversies over the years. Here are 10 Supreme Court cases related to education that impacted both constitutional law and the public school experience.
10. Brown v. Board of Education (1954)
Arguably the most well-known ruling of the 20th century, Brown overturned Plessy v. Fergusonand established that “separate educational facilities are inherently unequal.” The Warren Court’s unanimous decision explained that the separate-but-equal doctrine violated the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment, and ordered an end to legally mandated race-segregated schools. While the Brown decision marked only the beginning of a prolonged struggle to achieve actual integration, its impact cannot be understated.
9. Engel v. Vitale(1962) and 8. Abington School District v. Schempp (1963)
This pair of cases shaped the modern understanding of how the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment constrains prayer in public schools. In Engel, the Court struck down a New York State rule that allowed public schools to hold a short, nondenominational prayer at the beginning of the school day. The Court decided that these prayers amounted to an “official stamp of approval” upon one particular kind of prayer and religious service, and said that, since teachers are agents of the federal government, the scheme violated the Establishment Clause.
The reasoning in Engel was also applied in Schempp, in which the Court struck down a Pennsylvania policy that required all students to read 10 Bible verses and say the Lord’s Prayer at the beginning of each day. While a student could get an exemption with a parent’s note, the Warren Court decided that this still amounted to an unconstitutional government endorsement of a particular religious tradition.
7. Lemon v. Kurtzman(1971)
This case adjudicated a different sort of Establishment Clause challenge, where the controversy dealt with a statute providing financial support for teacher salaries and textbooks in parochial schools. The Burger Court unanimously decided that this financial aid scheme violated the Establishment Clause and delineated the governing precedent for Establishment Clause cases known as the Lemon test. Under Lemon, statutes (1) must have a secular legislative purpose; (2) must have primary effects that neither inhibit nor advance religion; and (3) cannot foster an “excessive government entanglement with religion.” The Court held that this scheme violated the third prong of the Lemon test.
6. Wisconsin v. Yoder (1972)
Among the litany of public school cases from the Warren and Burger eras is the landmark Free Exercise Clause decision in Yoder. Wisconsin mandated that all children attend public school until age 16, but Jonas Yoder, a devoutly religious Amish man, refused to send his children to school past eighth grade. He argued that his children didn’t need to be in school that long t ...
This document summarizes the legal landscape around vaccine laws and policies. It discusses the basic constitutional framework established by cases like Jacobson v. Massachusetts and Prince v. Massachusetts. It also examines issues like the right to education, religious freedom laws, parental rights laws, and how states have regulated vaccination requirements through statutes and regulations. The document provides an overview of key considerations and debates around these legal topics to help navigate the complex issues surrounding vaccine policies.
Main Java[All of the Base Concepts}.docxadhitya5119
This is part 1 of my Java Learning Journey. This Contains Custom methods, classes, constructors, packages, multithreading , try- catch block, finally block and more.
How to Manage Your Lost Opportunities in Odoo 17 CRMCeline George
Odoo 17 CRM allows us to track why we lose sales opportunities with "Lost Reasons." This helps analyze our sales process and identify areas for improvement. Here's how to configure lost reasons in Odoo 17 CRM
Strategies for Effective Upskilling is a presentation by Chinwendu Peace in a Your Skill Boost Masterclass organisation by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan on 08th and 09th June 2024 from 1 PM to 3 PM on each day.
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty, In...Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty,
International FDP on Fundamentals of Research in Social Sciences
at Integral University, Lucknow, 06.06.2024
By Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
This slide is special for master students (MIBS & MIFB) in UUM. Also useful for readers who are interested in the topic of contemporary Islamic banking.
Introduction to AI for Nonprofits with Tapp NetworkTechSoup
Dive into the world of AI! Experts Jon Hill and Tareq Monaur will guide you through AI's role in enhancing nonprofit websites and basic marketing strategies, making it easy to understand and apply.
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
How to Add Chatter in the odoo 17 ERP ModuleCeline George
In Odoo, the chatter is like a chat tool that helps you work together on records. You can leave notes and track things, making it easier to talk with your team and partners. Inside chatter, all communication history, activity, and changes will be displayed.
How to Build a Module in Odoo 17 Using the Scaffold MethodCeline George
Odoo provides an option for creating a module by using a single line command. By using this command the user can make a whole structure of a module. It is very easy for a beginner to make a module. There is no need to make each file manually. This slide will show how to create a module using the scaffold method.
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
1. Chapter 1 Notes
Law Notes and Lectures
Class Notes
Chapter One
Lesson One Notes and Information
Sources of Law
1). Constitution Law, 2). Legislative Law, 3). Judicial Law, 4).
Administrative Law
Some references use another source of law term known as "Common Law."
Common Law comes from 3 sources: a) customs and traditons (such as fence lines
between neighbors), b) court decisions, attorney general decisions, and judges
opinions or decisions. c) acts of paliament.
The Constitution of the United States
Article 1, Section 8---Know as the "GENERAL WELFARE CLAUSE"---Congress has the
power to collect taxes, provide for defense, and common welfare of all people..."
Article 1, Section 10--"No state shall...make any law impairing th e obligations of
contracts." This article of the constitution makes a contract an important
document. Example: King George Chartered Dartmouth College; the state wanted
to make Dartmouth a state college. The courts said "No" because of article 1,
section 10. This action could not be done without the consent of Dartmouth College.
First Amendment
1). Separation of church and state 2). abridging freedom of speech or press 3).
right of people to assemble and petition government with grievances.
Fourth Amendment
1). Search and seizure
Fifth Amendment
1). Person does not have to witness against himself; due process; imminent
domain
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2. Chapter 1 Notes
Tenth Amendment "Reserved Powers Clause"
1). Those powers not specific to federal government are reserved to states....this is
our basis for state education; however, it is not mentioned in the constitution as a
reserved power.
Fourteenth Amendment
1). discrimination, 2). due process, 3). equal protection
PRECEDENCE
The Supreme Court of the United States interprets the United States Constitution
Each State has a constitution but if conflict between the state and federal law exist,
the question reverts to the federal constitution and federal
COURT SYSTEMS
Federal or United States Constitutional issues go to the federal court system. 1).
Case orginates at Federal District Court, 2). If parties are not satisfied; file in Federal
Curcuit Court of Appeals. (This areas of Texas would go to 5th Curcuit Court of
Appeals in New Orleans...7 judges). 3). If parties are still not content with court
decision an appeal can be filed with the United States Supreme Court.
State issues related to education are filed first in the Travis County State District
Court, 2). If parties are not satisfied; file an appeal with the State Court of Appeals,
3). If still not satisfied with outcome; file in Texas Supreme Court
Administrative Appeals Process
1). Level One--Campus Principal, Level II--Superitendent of designee, Level III--
Local Board of Education.
2). State Commissioner of Education
3). Travis County Court
Definition of Terms
1. Plantiff--one who brings the lawsuit
2. Defendant--one who is being sued
3. Appellant--the person who appeals the case (usually the lost case)
4. Appellee--the person against whom the appeal is made
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3. Chapter 1 Notes
5. Dictum/Dicta--judges render an opinion or decision, and include something that is
intended to ward off further court cases an issue; not a part of law or facts of the
case. Sometimes the dicta is more important than the decision!!!
6. Injunction--a court order to stop something; to hold something in obeyance
7. Writ of mandamus--order to comply or do something.
The following notes and comments were written by Dr. Ray Johnson, Professor of
Education Law at Fort Hays State University in Fort Hays, Kansas
Today more then ever professional educators should ensure that their actions in
school settings are lawful. The idea that we are "a nation of laws and nation of men"
is never more applicable than in the field of education. The trend of our society is
forcing our schools to take on more and more responsibility in the training and
educating of children which used to be carried out by families and the religious
institutions.
We have one federal system and 50 separate state legal systems. The responsibility
for education was established by the tenth amendment as a States rights: "the
powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to
the states, are reserved to the states respectively, or to the people", therefore public
education is one of the sovereign powers of the states. The Supreme Court has
repeatedly reaffirmed the states and school officials right "to prescribe the curriculum
and control conduct of students in the schools."
Education is a national interest, a function of the states and subject to local control.
While many authors believe that much control remains at the local level, I would take
exception. We have moved progressively more and more to a national system of
education until today the vast majority of educators behavior has been
predetermined by the Federal Courts and Textbook companies. Local school districts
still decided when schools will start and end, what sports they will participate in and
whether to show condoms to sixth graders; but they cannot reduce the number of
hours or days a student goes to school or decides that boys only will be on the
wrestling team and teach creationism without a equal amount of time given to
evolution. Federal laws, mandates, and money have shaped a system of American
Education so that a student can move freely from state to state and be in familiar
and comfortable education environment.
State Legislatures have created local school boards (except in Hawaii) to act as the
legal agency to carry out educational practices on behalf the that legislature. Article
#1 and #8 of the United States Constitution, grants congress the power to tax for the
"general welfare of the United States." This provision has enabled billions of federal
tax dollars to flow into school programs within the states. Each state legislature
decides independently how they will fund the education of children in their states. A
wide variety of finding formulas can be found ranging from Property or Sales Tax to
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4. Chapter 1 Notes
lottery funds. In most states the LSB has limited financial resource that it can add to
the State and Federal allocations. One exception to this is asking the local community
to increase their local taxes by putting forth to the public a bond issues, which are
usually used for remodeling or construction of new facilities.
School Finance in Texas...A rich source of finance litigation!
Financing Schools Equitably click on this link for a good source of finance
information
The following is referenced to Texas Association of School Boards website TCER
FINANCE GUIDE
SCHOOL FINANCE EQUITY ISSUES
Inequities in public school finance have been a national concern since the 1960s and
are a logical extension of U.S. Supreme Court rulings affecting school desegregation
(1954), legislative reapportionment (1962), and protection of the civil rights of the
poor (1965). In 1973, the U.S. Supreme Court found the Texas school finance
system constitutional in Rodriguez v. San Antonio ISDRodriguez v. San Antonio
ISD, ending federal court challenges to the constitutionality of state school finance
plans.
According to a review by the Education Commission of the States (ECS), there are 12
states in which the school finance system was ruled unconstitutional by the state's
highest court. Two additional states have had the funding system ruled
unconstitutional by a lower court, and the state did not appeal. In 17 states, the
highest court has upheld the school finance system as constitutional. ECS notes that
school finance litigation is in process in 11 states, including six states in which the
state's high court has, in the past, made a ruling.
Litigants seek equity in school finance using one of several approaches. They may
seek equity in funding as a requirement of equal protection provisions in the state
constitution, or they may seek it as a means to secure "efficiency" in public finance.
They may also look to the court to define and meet state standards for "adequate" or
"thorough and efficient" education for all children. In Texas, the trial court in
Edgewood ISD v. Kirby (1987) found the Texas school finance system
unconstitutional on both equal protection and efficiency counts because the system
discriminated against students living in poor school districts. In 1989, the Texas
Supreme Court upheld the ruling on the violation of the efficient system clause, but
did not take up the equal protection arguments. In response to this decision, the
legislature enacted Senate Bill 1 on June 7, 1990. The legislation provided an
immediate funding increase along with a five-year phase-in of reforms requiring that
95 percent of students be in a wealth-neutral system by 1995. The Texas Supreme
Court rejected this plan in Edgewood II on the grounds that equalization for 95
percent of the students is not "substantially equal." The Legislature passed neTw
legislation in May 1991 creating County Education Districts (CED) by tax base
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5. Chapter 1 Notes
consolidation. The Supreme Court ruled the CED mandatory property tax
unconstitutional in January 1992 in Edgewood III. In May 1993, the Texas
Legislature passed Senate Bill 7, which directs high-wealth school districts to reduce
property wealth. This system was upheld by the Texas Supreme Court in January
1995 (Edgewood IV).
There are two judicial standards of school finance equity. One is expenditure equality,
which requires that districts spend similar amounts of money per pupil. The second is
fiscal neutrality, which requires that district resources be independent of district
wealth. In a fiscally neutral system, all districts should have the opportunity to
generate similar revenues per pupil at similar levels of tax effort. Fiscal neutrality
characterizes the Texas equity standard.
More than 260 Texas school districts challenged the school finance system enacted in
May 1993 on the grounds that it failed to make "suitable provision" for the system of
public education in Texas. Plaintiffs fashioned their argument on four points: (1) the
state share of funding for public schools is less than 50 percent; (2) the state has
failed to provide support through the foundation program for its mandates; (3) local
districts must increase property taxes sharply to provide mandated programs, further
shifting the burden for public school funding away from state aid; and (4) overall
funding is not sufficient to provide accredited education programs across the state. In
December 1993, the district court held for the state and determined that plaintiff
claims regarding "suitable provision" were a political rather than a legal matter.
These are the principal causes of school finance inequities in most states:
Differences in taxable wealth per pupil among school districts;
Property tax systems that are not equal and uniform and which further
exacerbate the disparities resulting from differences in taxable wealth;
Different levels of tax effort exerted by school districts, resulting in unequal
expenditures even when property tax disparities have been reduced;
Over reliance on the local property tax revenues to fund public education; and
Methods of allocating funds to school districts that do not overcome wealth
differences among districts, in an effective manner.
In Edgewood, the fiscal neutrality standard was imposed. The Supreme Court stated
that there must be a "direct and close correlation between a district's tax effort and
the educational resources available to it" and that school district revenues must be
substantially equal at similar levels of tax effort. The Court also found an implicit link
between efficiency and equality. However, the Court did not ignore expenditure
equality as a standard, and the Court made several statements about the lack of
adequacy of state aid.
SCHOOL FINANCE ADEQUACY ISSUES
Adequacy, as a school finance goal, is defined as sufficiency of resource inputs or
Page 5
6. Chapter 1 Notes
inputs in amounts sufficient to ensure desired outcomes. The classic question in
school finance has been: How much is enough? Although conservation of resource
inputs is an important goal, insufficient state resources may result in inequities.
Underfunding may also lead to a "paradox of thrift" where patterns of low support
result in problems that are very costly to remediate. Therefore, calibration of school
finance formulas based on measured needs is crucial to the productivity of an
education system.
The Basic Allotment (BA) of the Texas foundation program is the allocation per
unweighted student in average daily attendance before all adjustments are made for
pupil weights and district cost factors. The BA now stands at $2,387 and may rise to
$2,396 if voters approve a constitutional amendment in November 1997.
Page 6