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Copyright © 2015 Pearson Canada Inc.
CHAPTER 9
MOTIVATING, SATISFYING, AND LEADING
EMPLOYEES
CHAPTER SYNOPSIS
What motivates you to do well at your job? Is it money? Respect? Recognition? Every
employee in an organization has his or her own set of motivating factors. This chapter
discusses the basic forms of behaviour that employees exhibit in organizations as well as
the nature and importance of individual differences among employees. It also explains
the meaning and importance of psychological contracts and the person-job fit in the
workplace. Time-tested models and concepts of employee motivation are presented, and
some strategies and techniques used by organizations to improve employee motivation
are discussed. The chapter also includes information about leadership and its role in
motivation. The various approaches to leadership—trait, behavioural, and situational—
are discussed, and recent trends in leadership are noted.
CHAPTER OUTLINE
I. FORMS OF EMPLOYEE BEHAVIOUR
Employee behaviour refers to the pattern of actions by members of an
organization that directly or indirectly influences the organization’s effectiveness.
Performance behaviours directly influence how a job is performed, while
citizenship behaviours provide positive benefits to the organization in more
indirect ways. Counterproductive behaviours (like absenteeism, turnover, theft,
sabotage) are those that work against organizational interests.
II. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES AMONG EMPLOYEES
A. Personality—This refers to the relatively stable set of psychological
attributes that distinguish one person from another. The “big five” personality
traits are shown in Figure 9.1 and briefly described in the text.
1. Emotional intelligence—Refers to the extent to which people are
self-aware, can manage their emotions, can motivate themselves, can
express empathy for others, and possess social skills.
B. Attitudes—These reflect our beliefs and feelings about specific ideas,
situations, and other people. Job satisfaction and organizational commitment are
examples of attitudes that influence organizational performance.

Part 2—The Business of Managing
284
III. MATCHING PEOPLE AND JOBS
A. Psychological Contracts—The psychological contract is the set of
expectations held by the employee concerning what the employee will contribute
to the organization (contributions) and what the organization will provide the
employee (inducements) in return. It is likely that if the psychological contract is
created, maintained, and managed effectively, the result will be a satisfied and
motivated employee.
B. The Person-Job Fit—This refers to the extent to which a person’s
contributions and the organization’s inducements match one another.
IV. MOTIVATION IN THE WORKPLACE
Motivation refers to the set of forces that cause people to behave in certain ways.
Many theories attempting to explain motivation and job satisfaction have evolved
over the years.
A. Classical Theory—Assumes that workers are motivated primarily by
money. Taylor's scientific management techniques, including time-and-motion
studies, proposed ways for companies and workers to benefit from this
motivation.
B. Early Behavioural Theory—Studies at Western Electric on the
relationship between productivity and the physical environment led to the
unexpected finding that working conditions were not as important as other factors
in enhancing employee productivity. The Hawthorne effect describes the tendency
for productivity to increase when workers feel they are receiving special attention
from management.
1. The Human Resources Model: Theories X and Y—Douglas
McGregor concluded that managers made one of two basic assumptions
about workers: either workers were naturally lazy and uncooperative
(Theory X) or workers are naturally energetic and interested in being
productive (Theory Y).
2. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs model—See Figure 9.3. Five levels
of needs exist, including physiological, security, social, esteem and self-
actualization. Unfulfilled needs can be met by one's work but must be
satisfied in order of primacy (satisfaction – progression model). Filled
needs are no longer motivating.
3. Two-Factor (Motivator-Hygiene) theory—Herzberg found that job
dissatisfaction is the result of a lack of appropriate hygiene factors and job
satisfaction is the result of appropriate motivating factors.

Chapter 9—Motivating, Satisfying, and Leading Employees
285
C. Contemporary Motivation Theory—Recently, more complex models of
employee motivation have been developed.
1. Expectancy theory—This theory says that people are motivated to
work toward rewards that they value and believe they have a reasonable
chance of attaining.
2. Equity theory—This theory of motivation says that people will be
motivated to engage in certain behaviours if they feel they are being
inequitably treated compared to others (comparison other) when
considering the inputs and the outcomes (as long as the ratio of inputs to
outcomes for each is an equal ratio, then the employee feels that they are
being treated equally).
V. STRATEGIES FOR ENHANCING MOTIVATION
Applying theory is challenging. Five common strategies are described here.
A. Reinforcement//Behaviour Modification Theory—Reinforcement means
applying (or withholding) positive (or negative) consequences in order to
motivate employees to exhibit behaviours the manager wants. Examples of
positive reinforcement, punishment, omission, and negative reinforcement are
given.
B. Goal Setting Theory—SMART goals (goals that are specific, measurable,
achievable, relevant, and time-framed) are most likely to result in increased
employee performance. A popular method of goal setting is management by
objectives, which is a system of collaborative goal setting that extends form the
top of an organization to its bottom.
C. Participative Management and Empowerment—Giving employees a voice
in how they do their jobs and how the company is managed tends to increase
employee satisfaction and their commitment to company goals. One way of doing
this is through quality circles.
D. Team Management—Companies benefit from using teams of workers
because increased motivation and job satisfaction usually occurs. Various kinds of
teams are described (problem-solving, self-managed, project, transnational,
virtual).
E. Job Enrichment and Redesign—These approaches can increase
satisfaction if a job lacks motivating factors. Job enrichment means adding
motivating factors to a job in order to increase satisfaction. An example is
described. Job enrichment is accomplished by job redesign, which involves

286
combining tasks to increase job variety, forming natural work groups, and
establishing client relationships.
1. Combining tasks—Enlarging jobs and increasing their variety to
make employees feel that their work is more meaningful.
2. Forming natural workgroups—People who different specific jobs
on the same project are good candidates for natural workgroups.
3. Establishing client relationships—This involves letting employees
interact with customers.
F. Modified Work Schedules—Different approaches to working hours and
the work week as a motivating strategy include:
1. Flextime—Employees are allowed some choice in the hours they
work. Flextime may allow choice of hours within a day or days within a
week.
2. Compressed workweeks—Under this system, employees work
fewer days per week, but more hours per day on the days they work.
3. Telecommuting—This system allows people to do all or part of
their work away from the traditional office. It allows people to avoid
wasting time driving to and from work, but some people miss the
interaction with others at the workplace.
4. Workshare programs—Also called jobsharing, worksharing allows
two people to share one job either on a short-run basis or for the long-run.
Both employees and employers typically benefit.
VI. LEADERSHIP AND MOTIVATION
Leadership is the processes and behaviours used by managers to motivate, inspire,
and influence others to meet organizational objectives. Leadership and
management are not synonymous terms.
A. Approaches to Leadership—There are several different approaches that
have been used over the years—the trait approach, the behavioural approach, and
the situational approach.
1. The trait approach—This approach focused on identifying the
traits that distinguished leaders from non-leaders. Many traits were
identified, but the list became so long that it was of no practical value.

287
2. The behavioural approach—The goal of this approach was to
determine how the behaviour of effective leaders differed from the
behaviour of ineffective leaders. Task-focused and employee-focused
behaviours were the key behaviours that were identified. Researchers also
identified three main leadership styles (autocratic, democratic, and free-
rein).
3. The situational approach to leadership—The basic idea in this
approach is that leadership situations are complex, so different situations
will require different kinds of leader behaviours.
B. Recent Trends in Leadership—During the past few decades, several new
ideas about leadership have emerged. These include the following:
1. Transformational leadership—Transformational leadership refers
to the abilities that allow a leader to recognize the need for change, to
crate a vision to guide that change, and to execute the change effectively.
Transactional leadership, by contrast, deals with routine matters.
2. Charismatic leadership—This is a type of influence based on the
leader’s personal charisma. Charismatic leaders envision likely future
trends, energize others by demonstrating personal excitement, and
empathize with others. Some potential problems with charismatic
leadership are also noted.
3. Leaders as coaches—As organizations become less hierarchical,
leaders become more like coaches than commanders.
4. Gender and leadership—Research shows that female leaders are
not necessarily more nurturing or supportive than male leaders. As well,
male leaders are not necessarily more harsh, controlling, or task focused
than female leaders.
5. Cross-cultural leadership—Increased diversity in workforces
around the world means that leaders must be able to deal with many
different kinds of subordinates.
a. Canadian versus American management styles—Canadian
managers tend to be more subtle and subdued than American managers,
more committed to their companies, less willing to mindlessly follow the
latest management fad, and more open to different cultures because of the
multicultural nature of Canada.
6. Strategic leadership—This refers to a leader’s ability to understand
the complexities of both the organization and its environment in order to
lead change in the organization which will improve its competitiveness.

288
7. Ethical leadership—Business leaders are increasingly being called
upon to maintain high ethical standards in their own conduct, and to hold
others in the organization to the same high standard.
8. Virtual leadership—Formerly, leaders and subordinates worked in
close proximity to one another, but now leaders and subordinates may be
physically separated (e.g., telecommuting). Therefore, leaders have to
work at crating and maintaining relationships with their employees that go
beyond words on a computer screen.
QUICK QUESTIONS
1. What are some typical performance behaviours expected of you in the workplace?
2. What are some examples of employee behaviours that exemplify organizational
citizenship?
3. What is your personality configuration with respect to the “big five” personality
traits?
4. How might a company benefit from high degrees of job satisfaction and
organizational commitment among its employees?
5. What is the theory behind scientific management?
6. Does the Hawthorne effect still apply to people in the workplace?
7. Why are Theory Y managers more likely to have satisfied and motivated
employees?
8. Based on Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, what is an example of how physiological
needs take precedence over safety and social needs?
9. How does expectancy theory apply when a student feels that the harder she or he
studies for an exam the greater the likelihood of a good grade?
10. How is the comparison of employee inputs relative to outputs similar to the
“psychological contract”?
11. Give some examples of positive reinforcement and punishment in the workplace
from your own experience.
12. What contributions and inducements are typically found in the psychological
contract?

289
13. With management by objectives, managers and subordinates set goals and
evaluate progress over time. What are some advantages and disadvantages of MBO?
14. Participative management programs are not for everyone. What are some
drawbacks of such programs?
15. What are some advantages and disadvantages of using teams in organizations?
16. What qualities would you look for in a mentor? What kind of mentor do you think
you would make?
17. In what types of situations might employees benefit from work-share programs
and flextime programs?
18. What are the advantages and disadvantages of telecommuting?
19. What distinguishes leadership from management? Can someone be a manager and
not a leader, or a leader and not a manager?
20. The trait approach was all but abandoned several decades ago. Why?
21. What is the difference between task-focused leader behaviour and employee-
focused leader behaviour?
22. What attributes make a leader charismatic?
23. “A new role for a leader is to become a coach rather than an overseer.” Explain
this statement. What has brought about this change in leadership focus?
24. Do men and women tend to lead differently? If so, how?
25. Is Canada a collectivist culture or an individualist culture?
26. What contemporary issues might have increased the attention placed on ethical
leadership in recent years?
27. Virtual leadership involves managing employees who work in different locations
than the manager. What are some advantages and disadvantages of virtual leadership
from the manager’s perspective?
IN-CLASS EXERCISES
Exercise #1: Balancing Inducements and Contributions
Activity Overview:

290
This activity asks students to think about the psychological contract between themselves
and their jobs.
Time Limit: 30 minutes
What to Do:
1. Divide students into three-person groups. Remind students what it means to have
a psychological contract, and what person-job fit refers to. (5 minutes)
2. Tell each student to interview his or her partners, asking the partners to assess the
balance of contributions and inducements at their jobs. Is the psychological contract even
for both sides? Do the contributions outweigh the inducements? If the contributions and
inducements do not balance, what has to happen so they will be in balance? (15 minutes)
3. Reassemble the class and ask students to summarize the information they’ve
obtained in their interviews. (10 minutes)
Don’t Forget:
Some students may not feel comfortable revealing the name of their employer in this
scenario; if so, they can disguise the company name.
Wrap-Up:
Close with a recap of the psychological contract and highlight how a good person-job fit
occurs when employee contributions and company inducements line up. Ultimately, this
results in higher performance and more positive attitudes.
Exercise #2: What Motivates Employees?
Activity Overview:
This activity asks students to consider what companywide incentives might motivate
workers who work in various jobs.
What to Do:
1. Divide the class into small groups and assign each group to one of the jobs below.
(5 minutes)
• A cook at a fast-food restaurant
• A waitress at a local diner
• A groundskeeper
• A computer technician at a small firm
• A janitor
• A college professor

291
2. Ask each group to brainstorm what incentives would be especially motivating for
a worker performing the assigned job; remind students to consider both tangible and
intangible incentives. (10 minutes)
3. Reassemble the class and ask each group to share their results, allowing all
students to share input. (15 minutes)
Don’t Forget:
This activity can be completed using any type of job as the basis for discussion. Remind
students to consider “reasonable” costs to the company as they brainstorm for ideas.
Wrap-Up:
Bring the activity to a close by recapping each group’s conclusion, reminding students
that tangible incentives, such as various benefits packages, can be motivating but that
intangible incentives, such as employee recognition programs, can also be motivating.
Exercise #3: Motivation in Global Firms
Activity Overview:
This activity asks students to think about the increased challenges that stem from trying
to motivate employees in a global company.
What to Do:
1. Divide the class into small groups and ask them to discuss what types of
additional difficulties may arise when attempting to motivate employees in a global
company compared with a domestic company. (10 minutes)
2. Reassemble the class and discuss group comments. (15 minutes)
Don’t Forget:
Cultural differences can be difficult to assess; students may want to think of differences
in perceptions of time, personal space, punctuality, reasons for working, and
communication when completing this assignment.
Wrap-Up:
Remind students that a good rule of thumb when motivating workers in a global company
is to always treat employees with respect, to be sensitive to local cultures, and to follow
laws of the host country; the rest might come a little easier.
Exercise #4: Setting Standards for Patient Care
Activity Overview:
This activity asks students to read a supplemental article and to apply strategies and
techniques for enhancing motivation in a health-care facility.

292
What to Do:
1. In advance, make copies of the article below and distribute them to students prior
to the day on which this exercise is to be conducted.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Setting Standard for Patient Care
Personnel working on the firing line are a valuable, yet sometimes untapped, source for
improving service delivery. Nowhere is this more evident than in hospitals where staffing
needs are at an all-time high. Faced with increasing patient loads and patient
information scattered in various departments, nurses too often find themselves searching
for information— sometimes up to 30 percent of their time—instead of treating patients.
Nurse managers at Southern Tennessee Medical Center in Winchester, Tennessee,
recognized information gaps and other inadequacies that, if overcome, could improve
patient care for which they are accountable. Revamping into a new care-delivery system
would require participation and teamwork of nursing staff at all levels.
Preparation for improvement began by identifying deficiencies in the current process.
Nurses were observed trying to clarify patients’ care plans from physicians’ diagnoses,
with only general directions for treatment. Even nurses with top-level education and
experience were struggling to translate plans into nursing actions. Even worse, plans
weren’t located at bedside where nurses needed direction most. Also missing were care
standards for treating each health condition, causing inconsistencies in treatments by
different nurses from shift to shift for the same patient. Furthermore, outcome
measurements for individual patients were nonexistent so outcomes-based evaluations of
nursing performance and accountability were impossible.
A new care system was developed to overcome inadequacies and improve performance.
Some highlights of the new process include the following:
• Care standards are explained in nursing documents, at each patient’s bedside, for
care categories, such as respiratory, nutrition, elimination, mobility,
communication, and circulatory.
• For each category’s care standards, desired patient outcomes were developed
(e.g., the “respiratory” category lists seven desired outcomes including “no
wheezing sound in breathing,” “at least 28 respirations per minute” to avoid
shortness of breath, and “difficulty in clearing own secretions”).
• Nurses record “yes/no” bedside responses for patient outcomes, thereby tracking
patient progress using consistent treatments across shifts.

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• Response sheets provide data for measuring individual patient outcomes, nursing
unit outcomes, and staff performance outcomes for every health-care problem on
every work shift.
The new system delivered immediate improvement results on specific care standards for
which nurses are held accountable, such as the following:
• Infection-control actions were properly implemented 95 percent of the time by
staff without direction from the infection-control specialist.
• Number of patient falls was reduced by 60 percent.
• For patients over 65 years old, hospital-acquired constipation fell from 25
percent to less than 3 percent.
In addition, orientation time for new nurses was reduced—at a cost savings of $500 per
nurse—because performance expectations and treatment standards are explained in the
bedside nursing documentation.
Receiving a 100-percent compliance score from the Joint Commission on Accreditation
of Healthcare Organizations (JCAHO), the new system reinforces comments by JCAHO
President Dennis O’Leary: “Measures and measurement systems that are truly going to
be usable and helpful for people in the trenches will need to be simple, frugal, and
focused.”
Questions for Discussion
1. How can reinforcement/behavior modification be used to enhance employee
motivation in this scenario?
2. How might managers apply management by objectives in this scenario in an
attempt to enhance motivation?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2. Divide students into three-member groups and ask them to develop responses to
the case questions (15 minutes):
3. Reassemble the class and discuss the groups’ comments. (15 minutes)
Don’t Forget:
Students may also want to tie in employee empowerment and participative management
techniques when considering the previously mentioned options.
Wrap-Up:
Close the discussion with a recap of reinforcement/behavior modification and a
discussion of the pros and cons of management by objectives.

294
Exercise #5: Learning to Lead
Activity Overview:
This activity encourages students to think about their own strengths and weaknesses as
they relate to leadership skills.
What to Do:
1. Divide the class into four-person groups and ask each group to
complete Steps 1 and 2 of the Building Your Business Skills exercise found at the end of
Chapter 9. (30 minutes)
2. Reassemble the class as a whole and ask the groups to discuss their
recommendations. (10 minutes)
3. Discuss student input to the Follow-Up Questions with the class as a whole. (10
minutes) (Possible answers to the Follow-Up Questions are found near the end of this
chapter under the “Team Exercises” heading.)
Don’t Forget:
Students should review the leadership theories presented in the textbook prior to
completing this exercise. This activity can also be assigned as homework.
Wrap-Up:
Bring the activity to a close by reiterating that leadership theories apply to organizations
and their employees in a variety of ways but that all such theories are applicable in some
way or another.
Exercise #6: Mentors as Leaders and Motivators
Activity Overview:
This activity is designed to help students apply the concept of mentoring within the
workplace to a case study.
What to Do:
1. Make copies of the case study below and distribute to students in advance of the
class where this exercise is to be conducted.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Finding a Mentor

295
Keeping top employees is a challenge. Many firms have found that investing in a
mentoring program is one way to attract and to retain top talent. Certainly some large
companies have mentoring programs that match employees with mentors. Although such
programs vary, they might include features like spending your first 90 days on the job
with “buddies” who help you learn the ropes. Some programs require you to sign a
mentoring contract establishing your mentoring relationship. You might be required to
meet your mentor at least once every quarter, and usually much more often than that.
Some mentoring programs have even produced handbooks to guide the mentoring
relationship.
But what should you do if there isn’t a formal mentoring program? Terris Scandura, an
expert in mentoring from the University of Miami’s Graduate School of Business
suggests that employees should make a pitch to potential mentors explaining why they
should take valuable time out of their schedule to be a mentor. Sometimes telling the
individual that you admire their work will work wonders, Scandura suggests.
Many managers now use mentors. It is widely believed that a good mentor can open up
doors for the manager being mentored. Not all forms have such formal programs, and it
is not always advisable to find all of your mentors from within your current company. If
you do, and you are laid off, you not only lose your job but it may also put strain on your
mentoring relationships.
Finally, how many mentors should you have? The current trend is to have a network of
mentors so that you do not overly rely on the input of a single individual. Such a network
of mentors is like your own personal board of directors where some act as career
coaches, while others as career sponsors.
Source: “Associated Press: Finding the Right Mentor Can Bolster Your Career.” The
New York Times, December 28, 2009
Questions for Discussion
1. What aspects of the mentoring relationship do you think you would find satisfying?
What kind of leadership role does a mentor play?
2. What do you think helps account for the success of mentoring programs? Can you
think of any potential drawbacks to such programs?
3. What qualities would you look for in a mentor? What kind of mentor do you think you
would make?
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2. Divide students into small groups and ask them to answer the questions for
discussion in their groups. (15 minutes)

296
3. Once students have answered the questions, discuss their answers as a class.
Make sure they touch on the following points: (15 minutes)
(1) Students should recognize that mentees may appreciate help with their
career development, while mentors may enjoy the opportunity to share their
experience and exercise informal leadership.
(2) Several factors are mentioned in the case, such as the 18-page booklet, the
contract that formalizes the relationship, the opportunity for employees to choose
their own mentors, and the fact that the relationship is taken seriously in the
performance review process. A couple of possible drawbacks could occur if the
mentor and mentee don’t get along or have some kind of conflict, or if an
employee’s mentor leaves the company.
(3) Answers will vary, but qualities in a mentor include industry experience,
company knowledge, empathy, commitment, and good communication skills.
Don’t Forget:
This activity could be completed individually by students in class or as a homework
assignment.
Wrap-Up:
Close the activity by pointing out that mentoring provides managers with a chance to
create continuity in corporate culture and management philosophy by training new
managers to “think” and “act” in the company’s traditional way. You may want to also
mention that this thought, in some instances, could stifle creativity and innovation among
managers. Sometimes it is a plus for an organization to bring a new manager or managers
onboard who are going to carry on in their own way.
Exercise #7: Are You a Leader or a Manager?
Activity Overview:
This activity provides students with a chance to interview a classmate then discuss their
own leadership potential with the classmate.
What to Do:
1. After reviewing the differences between “managers” and “leaders,” ask students
to think about their own leadership and management potential. Assign each student to a
partner, asking each one to briefly interview the other to find out how each would assess
his or her own management and leadership potential. (10 minutes)
2. Reassemble the class and ask for volunteers who can share any information about
their own personal assessments and/or introduce their interviewee and discuss some of
the topics discussed in the interview. (10 minutes)

297
Don’t Forget:
Some students will already have some managerial/leadership experience upon which to
draw. For those who don’t, ask them to consider a situation where they have been able to
display management or leadership qualities (in a school club or a circle of friends, for
example) or characteristics and behaviours in their own bosses that they admire, and then
assess whether they could emulate those behaviours and characteristics; that may help
them to better distinguish their leadership potential from their management potential.
Wrap Up:
Wrap up the discussion by reminding students that some managers are both leaders and
managers.
Exercise #8: Transformational Versus Transactional
Activity Overview:
This activity asks students to assess the leadership characteristics of selected leaders,
identifying transformational and transactional characteristics among them.
What to Do:
1. Divide the class into small groups and ask each group to think of a business or
political leader they are familiar with. Based on the leader selected, each group should
identify their selected leader as being either transformational or transactional. (10
minutes)
2. Reassemble the class as a whole to discuss each group’s input. (10 minutes)
Don’t Forget:
People can perceive leadership differently. Groups should make their assessments based
on the descriptions of transactional and transformational leadership given in the textbook.
Wrap-Up:
Bring the activity to a close by providing a quick overview of both types of leadership,
identifying some cited leadership characteristics from the groups’ discussions to further
define the two types.
Exercise #9: Was Steve Jobs a Charismatic Leader?
Activity Overview:
This activity asks students to assess the leadership characteristics of one of the most
successful entrepreneurs in the world.

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We cultivate such a use of our eyes, as indeed of all our faculties, as
will on the whole lead to the most profitable results. As a rule, the
particular impression is not so important as what it represents.
Sense impressions are simply the symbols or signs of things or
ideas, and the thing or the idea is more important than the sign.
Accordingly, we are accustomed to interpret lines, whenever we can,
as the representations of objects. We are well aware that the canvas
or the etching or the photograph before us is a flat surface in two
dimensions, but we see the picture as the representation of solid
objects in three dimensions. This is the illusion of pictorial art. So
strong is this tendency to view lines as the symbols of things that if
there is the slightest chance of so viewing them, we invariably do so;
for we have a great deal of experience with things that present their
contours as lines, and very little with mere lines or surfaces. If we
view outlines only, without shading or perspective or anything to
definitely suggest what is foreground and what background, it
becomes possible for the mind to supply these details and see
foreground as background, and vice versa.
A good example to begin with is Fig. 8. These outlines will probably
suggest at first view a book, or better a book cover, seen with its
back toward you and its sides sloping away from you; but it may
also be viewed as a book opened out toward you and presenting to
you an inside view of its contents. Should the change not come
readily, it may be facilitated by thinking persistently of the
appearance of an open book in this position. The upper portion of
Fig. 9 is practically the same as Fig. 8, and if the rest of the figure
be covered up, it will change as did the book cover; when, however,
the whole figure is viewed as an arrow, a new conception enters,
and the apparently solid book cover becomes the flat feathered part
of the arrow. Look at the next figure (Fig. 10), which represents in
outline a truncated pyramid with a square base. Is the smaller
square nearer to you, and are the sides of the pyramid sloping away
from you toward the larger square in the rear? Or are you looking
into the hollow of a truncated pyramid with the smaller square in the
background? Or is it now one and now the other, according as you

Fig. 8.—This drawing may be
viewed as the representation of a
book standing on its half-opened
covers as seen from the back of
the book; or as the inside view of
an open book showing the pages.
Fig. 9.—When
this figure is
viewed as an
arrow, the
upper or
feathered end
seems flat;
when the rest of
the arrow is
covered, the
feathered end
may be made to
project or
recede like the
decid
e to
see
it?
Here
(Fig.
13) is
a
skelet
on
box
which
you
may
conce
ive as
made
of
wires
outlini
ng
the
sides.
Now
the
front,
or
side
neare
st to me, seems directed downward and to the
left; again, it has shifted its position and is no
longer the front, and the side which appears to
be the front seems directed upward and to the
right. The presence of the diagonal line makes
the change more striking: in one position it runs
from the left-hand rear upper corner to the

book cover in
Fig. 8.
right-hand front lower corner; while in the other
it connects the left-hand front upper corner
with the right-hand rear lower corner.
Fig. 10.—The smaller square may be
regarded as either the nearer face of a
projecting figure or as the more distant
face of a hollow figure.

Fig. 11.—This represents an
ordinary table-glass, the bottom
of the glass and the entire rear
side, except the upper portion,
being seen through the
transparent nearer side, and the
rear apparently projecting above
the front. But it fluctuates in
appearance between this and a
view of the glass in which the
bottom is seen directly, partly
from underneath, the whole of
the rear side is seen through the
transparent front, and the front
projects above the back.

Fig. 12.—In this scroll the left
half may at first seem concave
and the right convex, it then
seems to roll or advance like a
wave, and the left seems
convex and the right concave,
as though the trough of the
wave had become the crest, and
vice versa.

Figs. 13, 13a, and 13b.—The two methods of viewing Fig.
13 are described in the text. Figs. 13a and 13b are added to
make clearer the two methods of viewing Fig. 13. The
heavier lines seem to represent the nearer surface. Fig. 13a
more naturally suggests the nearer surface of the box in a
position downward and to the left, and Fig. 13b makes the
nearer side seem to be upward and to the right. But in
spite of the heavier outlines of the one surface, it may be
made to shift positions from foreground to background,
although not so readily as in Fig. 13.
Fig. 14.—Each member of this frieze represents a relief
ornament, applied upon the background, which in cross-
section would be an isosceles triangle with a large obtuse
angle, or a space of similar shape hollowed out of the solid
wood or stone. In running the eye along the pattern, it is
interesting to observe how variously the patterns fluctuate
from one of these aspects to the other.

Figs. 15, 15a, and 15b.—The two views of Fig. 15 described
in the text are brought out more clearly in Figs. 15a and
15b. The shaded portion tends to be regarded as the nearer
face. Fig. 15a is more apt to suggest the steps seen as we
ascend them. Fig. 15b seems to represent the hollowed-out
structure underneath the steps. But even with the shading
the dual interpretation is possible, although less obvious.
Fig. 15 will probably seen at first glimpse to be the view of a flight of
steps which one is about to ascend from right to left. Imagine it,
however, to be a view of the under side of a series of steps; the view
representing the structure of overhanging solid masonwork seen
from underneath. At first it may be difficult to see it thus, because
the view of steps which we are about to mount is a more natural
and frequent experience than the other; but by staring at it with the
intention of seeing it differently the transition will come, and often
quite unexpectedly.

Fig. 16.—This interesting figure (which is
reproduced with modifications from Scripture—
The New Psychology) is subject in a striking way
to interchanges between foreground and
background. Most persons find it difficult to
maintain for any considerable time either aspect
of the blocks (these aspects are described in the
text); some can change them at will, others must
accept the changes as they happen to come.

Figs. 17, 17a, and 17b.—How many
blocks are there in this pile? Six or
seven? Note the change in
arrangement of the blocks as they
change in number from six to seven.
This change is illustrated in the text.
Figs. 17a and 17b show the two phases
of a group of any three of the blocks.
The arrangement of a pyramid of six
blocks seems the more stable and is
usually first suggested; but hold the
page inverted, and you will probably
see the alternate arrangement (with,
however, the black surfaces still
forming the tops). And once knowing
what to look for, you will very likely be

able to see either arrangement,
whether the diagram be held inverted
or not. This method of viewing the
figures upside down and in other
positions is also suggested to bring out
the changes indicated in Figs. 13, 13a,
13b, and in Figs. 15, 15a, 15b.
The blocks in Fig. 16 are subject to a marked fluctuation. Now the
black surfaces represent the bottoms of the blocks, all pointing
downward and to the left, and now the black surfaces have changed
and have become the tops pointing upward and to the right. For
some the changes come at will; for others they seem to come
unexpectedly, but all are aided by anticipating mentally the nature of
the transformation. The effect here is quite striking, the blocks
seeming almost animated and moving through space. In Fig. 17 a
similar arrangement serves to create an illusion as to the real
number of blocks present. If viewed in one way—the black surface
forming the tops of the blocks—there seem to be six arranged as in
Fig. 18; but when the transformation has taken place and the black
surfaces have become the overhanging bottoms of the boxes, there
are seven, arranged as in Fig. 19. Somewhat different, but still
belonging to the group of ambiguous figures, is the ingenious
conceit of the duck-rabbit shown in Fig. 20. When it is a rabbit, the
face looks to the right and a pair of ears are conspicuous behind;
when it is a duck, the face looks to the left and the ears have been
changed into the bill. Most observers find it difficult to hold either
interpretation steadily, the fluctuations being frequent, and coming
as a surprise.

Figs. 18 and 19.
Fig. 20.—Do you see a duck or a rabbit,
or either? (From Harper's Weekly,
originally in Fliegende Blätter.)
All these diagrams serve to illustrate the principle that when the
objective features are ambiguous we see one thing or another
according to the impression that is in the mind's eye; what the
objective factors lack in definiteness the subjective ones supply,
while familiarity, prepossession, as well as other circumstances
influence the result. These illustrations show conclusively that seeing
is not wholly an objective matter depending upon what there is to be
seen, but is very considerably a subjective matter depending upon
the eye that sees. To the same observer a given arrangement of
lines now appears as the representation of one object and now of
another; and from the same objective experience, especially in
instances that demand a somewhat complicated exercise of the
senses, different observers derive very different impressions.
Not only when the sense-impressions are ambiguous or defective,
but when they are vague—when the light is dim or the forms

obscure—does the mind's eye eke out the imperfections of physical
vision. The vague conformations of drapery and make-up that are
identified and recognized in spiritualistic séances illustrate extreme
instances of this process. The whitewashed tree or post that
momentarily startles us in a dark country lane takes on the guise
that expectancy gives it. The mental predisposition here becomes
the dominant factor, and the timid see as ghosts what their more
sturdy companions recognize as whitewashed posts. Such
experiences we ascribe to the action of suggestion and the
imagination—the cloud "that's almost in shape like a camel," or "like
a weasel," or "like a whale." But throughout our visual experiences
there runs this double strain, now mainly outward and now mainly
inward, from the simplest excitements of the retina up to the realms
where fancy soars freed from the confines of sense, and the
objective finds its occupation gone.

NATURE STUDY IN THE
PHILADELPHIA NORMAL SCHOOL.
By L. L. W. WILSON, Ph. D.
When it was first proposed to me to write for the Popular Science
Monthly a brief account of the biological laboratories in the
Philadelphia Normal School, and of the Nature work carried on under
my direction in the School of Observation and Practice, I felt that I
could not do justice either to the place or the work; for, in my
judgment, the equipment of the laboratories and the work done in
connection with them are finer than anything else of the kind either
in this country or abroad—a statement which it seemed to me that I
could not make with becoming modesty. But, after all, it is not great
Babylon that I have built, but a Babylon builded for me, and to fail to
express my sense of its worth is to fail to do justice to Dr. W. P.
Wilson, formerly of the University of Pennsylvania, to whom their
inception was due; to Mr. Simon Gratz, president of the Board of
Education, who from the beginning appreciated their value, and
without whose aid they never would have taken visible form; to the
principals of the two schools, and, above all, to my five assistants,
whose knowledge, zeal, and hard work have contributed more than
anything else to the rapid building up of the work.
The Laboratories and their Equipment.—The rooms occupied by the
botanical and zoölogical departments of the normal school measure
each seventy by twenty feet. A small workroom for the teachers cuts
off about ten feet of this length from each room. In the middle of
the remaining space stands a demonstration table furnished with hot
and cold water. Each laboratory is lighted from the side by ten
windows. From them extend the tables for the students. These give
plenty of drawer space and closets for dissecting and compound

microscopes. Those in the zoölogical room are also provided with
sinks. Each student is furnished with the two microscopes, stage and
eyepiece micrometers, a drawing camera, a set of dissecting
instruments, glassware, note-books, text-books, and general
literature.
The walls opposite the windows are in both rooms lined with cases,
in which there is a fine synoptic series.
In the botanical laboratory this systematic collection begins with
models of bacteria and ends with trees. In other cases, placed in the
adjoining corridor, are representatives, either in alcohol or by means
of models, of most of the orders of flowering plants, as well as a
series illustrating the history of the theory of cross-fertilization, and
the various devices by which it is accomplished; another, showing
the different methods of distribution of seeds and fruits; another, of
parasitic plants; and still another showing the various devices by
means of which plants catch animals.
As an example of the graphic and thorough way in which these
illustrations are worked out, the pines may be cited. There are
fossils; fine specimens of pistillate and staminate flowers in alcohol;
cones; a drawing of the pollen; large models of the flowers; models
of the seeds, showing the embryo and the various stages of
germination; cross and longitudinal sections of the wood; drawings
showing its microscopic structure; pictures of adult trees; and
samples illustrating their economic importance. For the last, the
long-leaved pine of the South is used, and samples are exhibited of
the turpentine, crude and refined; tar and the oil of tar; resin; the
leaves; the same boiled in potash; the same hatcheled into wool;
yarn, bagging and rope made from the wool; and its timber split,
sawn, and dressed.
The series illustrating the fertilization of flowers begins with a large
drawing, adapted by one of the students from Gibson, showing the
gradual evolution of the belief in cross-fertilization from 1682, when
Nehemiah Grew first declared that seed would not set unless pollen

reached the stigma, down to Darwin, who first demonstrated the
advantages of cross-fertilization and showed many of the devices of
plants by which this is accomplished. The special devices are then
illustrated with models and large drawings. First comes the
dimorphic primrose; then follows trimorphic Lythrum, to the beautiful
model of which is appended a copy of the letter in which Darwin
wrote to Gray of his discovery:
"But I am almost stark, staring mad over Lythrum.... I should
rather like seed of Mitchella. But, oh, Lythrum!
"Your utterly mad friend,
"C. Darwin."
Models of the cucumber, showing the process of its formation, and
the unisexual flowers complete this series. Supplementing this are
models and drawings of a large number of flowers, illustrating
special devices by which cross-fertilization is secured, such as the
larkspur, butter and eggs, orchids, iris, salvia, several composites,
the milkweed, and, most interesting of all, the Dutchman's pipe. This
is a flower that entices flies into its curved trumpet and keeps them
there until they become covered with the ripe pollen. Then the hairs
wither, the tube changes its position, the fly is permitted to leave,
carrying the pollen thus acquired to another flower with the same
result.
Pictures and small busts of many naturalists adorn both of the
rooms. Of these the most notable is an artist proof of Mercier's
beautiful etching of Darwin. Every available inch of wall space is thus
occupied, or else, in the botanical laboratory, has on it mounted
fungi, lichens, seaweeds, leaf cards, pictures of trees, grasses, and
other botanical objects.
The windows are beautiful with hanging plants from side brackets
meeting the wealth of green on the sill. Here are found in one
window ferns, in another the century plant; in others still, specimens
of economic plants—cinnamon, olive, banana, camphor. On the

tables are magnificent specimens of palms, cycads, dracænas, and
aspidistras, and numerous aquaria filled with various water plants.
Most of these plants are four years old, and all of them are much
handsomer than when they first became the property of the
laboratory. How much intelligent and patient care this means only
those who have attempted to raise plants in city houses can know.
The zoölogical laboratory is quite as beautiful as the botanical, for it,
too, has its plants and pictures. It is perhaps more interesting
because of its living elements. Think of a schoolroom in which are
represented alive types of animals as various as these: amœba,
vorticella, hydra, worms, muscles, snails and slugs of various kinds,
crayfish, various insects, including a hive of Italian bees, goldfish,
minnows, dace, catfish, sunfish, eels, tadpoles, frogs, newts,
salamanders, snakes, alligators, turtles, pigeons, canaries, mice,
guinea-pigs, rabbits, squirrels, and a monkey! Imagine these living
animals supplemented by models of their related antediluvian forms,
or fossils, by carefully labeled dissections, by preparations and
pictures illustrating their development and mode of life; imagine in
addition to this books, pamphlets, magazines, and teachers further
to put you in touch with this wonderful world about us, and you will
then have some idea of the environment in which it is the great
privilege of our students to live for five hours each week.
In addition to these laboratories there is a lecture room furnished
with an electric lantern. Here each week is given a lecture on
general topics, such as evolution and its problems, connected with
the work of the laboratories.
The Course of Study pursued by the Normal Students.—Botany: In
general, the plants and the phenomena of the changing seasons are
studied as they occur in Nature. In the fall there are lessons on the
composites and other autumn flowers, on fruits, on the ferns,
mosses, fungi, and other cryptogams. In the winter months the
students grow various seeds at home, carefully drawing and
studying every stage in their development. Meanwhile, in the
laboratory, they examine microscopically and macroscopically the

seeds themselves and the various food supplies stored within. By
experimentation they get general ideas of plant physiology,
beginning with the absorption of water by seeds, the change of the
food supply to soluble sugar, the method of growth, the functions,
the histology, and the modifications of stem, root, and leaves. In the
spring they study the buds and trees, particularly the conifers, and
the different orders of flowering plants.
The particular merit of the work is that it is so planned that each
laboratory lesson compels the students to reason. Having once thus
obtained their information, they are required to drill themselves out
of school hours until the facts become an integral part of their
knowledge.
For the study of fruits, for example, they are given large trays, each
divided into sixteen compartments, plainly labeled with the name of
the seed or fruit within. Then, by means of questions, the students
are made to read for themselves the story which each fruit has to
tell, to compare it with the others, and to deduce from this
comparison certain general laws.
After sufficient laboratory practice of this kind they are required to
read parts of Lubbock's Flower, Fruit, and Leaves, Kerner's Natural
History of Plants, Wallace's Tropical Nature, and Darwinism, etc.
Finally, they are each given a type-written summary of the work, and
after a week's notice are required to pass a written examination.
Zoölogy: The course begins in the fall with a rather thorough study
of the insects, partly because they are then so abundant, and partly
because a knowledge of them is particularly useful to the grade
teacher in the elementary schools.
The locust is studied in detail. Tumblers and aquaria are utilized as
vivaria, so that there is abundant opportunity for the individual study
of living specimens. Freshly killed material is used for dissection, so
that students have no difficulty in making out the internal anatomy,
which is further elucidated with large, home-made charts, each of

which shows a single system, and serves for a text to teach them
the functions of the various organs as worked out by modern
physiologists.
They then study, always with abundant material, the other insects
belonging to the same group. They are given two such insects, a
bug, and two beetles, and required to classify them, giving reasons
for so doing. While this work is going on they have visited the
beehive in small groups, sometimes seeing the queen and the drone,
and always having the opportunity to see the workers pursuing their
various occupations, and the eggs, larvæ, and pupæ in their
different states of development. Beautiful models of the bees and of
the comb, together with dry and alcoholic material, illustrate further
this metamorphosis, by contrast making clearer the exactly opposite
metamorphosis of the locust.
At least one member of each of the other orders of insects is
compared with these two type forms, and, although only important
points are considered at all, yet from one to two hours of laboratory
work are devoted to each specimen. This leisurely method of work is
pursued to give the students the opportunity, at least, to think for
themselves. When the subject is finished they are then given a
searching test. This is never directly on their required reading, but
planned to show to them and to their teachers whether they have
really assimilated what they have seen and studied.
After this the myriapods, the earthworm, and peripatus are studied,
because of their resemblance to the probable ancestors of insects.
In the meantime they have had a dozen or more fully illustrated
lectures on evolution, so that at the close of this series of lessons
they are expected to have gained a knowledge of the methods of
studying insects, whether living or otherwise, a working hypothesis
for the interpretation of facts so obtained, and a knowledge of one
order, which will serve admirably as a basis for comparison in much
of their future work.

They then take up, more briefly, the relatives of the insects, the
spiders and crustaceans, following these with the higher
invertebrates, reaching the fish in April. This, for obvious reasons, is
their last dissection. But with living material, and the beautiful
preparations and stuffed specimens with which the laboratory is
filled, they get a very general idea of the reptiles, birds, and
mammals. This work is of necessity largely done by the students out
of school hours. For example, on a stand on one of the tables are
placed the various birds in season, with accompanying nests
containing the proper quota of eggs. Books and pamphlets relating
to the subject are placed near. Each student is given a syllabus
which will enable her to study these birds intelligently indoors and
out, if she wishes to do so.
In the spring are taken up the orders of animals below the insect,
and for the last lesson a general survey of all the types studied gives
them the relationships of each to the other.
The Course of Study pursued in the School of Practice.—In addition to
the plants and animals about them, the children study the weather,
keeping a daily record of their observations, and summarizing their
results at the end of the month. In connection with the weather and
plants they study somewhat carefully the soil and, in this connection,
the common rocks and minerals of Philadelphia—gneiss, mica schist,
granite, sandstone, limestones, quartz, mica, and feldspar.
As in the laboratories, so here the effort is made to teach the
children to reason, to read the story told by the individual plant, or
animal, or stone, or wind, or cloud. A special effort is made to teach
them to interpret everyday Nature as it lies around them. For this
reason frequent short excursions into the city streets are made.
Those who smile and think that there is not much of Nature to be
found in a city street are those who have never looked for it. Enough
material for study has been gathered in these excursions to make
them a feature of this work, even more than the longer ones which
they take twice a year into the country.

Last year I made not less than eighty such short excursions, each
time with classes of about thirty-five. They were children of from
seven to fourteen years of age. Without their hats, taking with them
note-books, pencils, and knives, they passed with me to the street.
The passers-by stopped to gaze at us, some with expressions of
amusement, others of astonishment; approval sometimes, quite
frequently the reverse. But I never once saw on the part of the
children a consciousness of the mild sensation that they were
creating. They went for a definite purpose, which was always
accomplished.
The children of the first and second years study nearly the same
objects. Those of the third and fourth years review this general
work, studying more thoroughly some one type. When they enter
the fifth year, they have considerable causal knowledge of the
familiar plants and animals, of the stones, and of the weather. But,
what is more precious to them, they are sufficiently trained to be
able to look at new objects with a truly "seeing eye."
The course of study now requires general ideas of physiology, and,
in consequences, the greater portion of their time for science is
devoted to this subject. I am glad to be able to say, however, that it
is not "School Physiology" which they study, but the guinea-pig and
The Wandering Jew!
In other words, I let them find out for themselves how and what the
guinea-pig eats; how and what he expires and inspires; how and
why he moves. Along with this they study also plant respiration,
transpiration, assimilation, and reproduction, comparing these
processes with those of animals, including themselves.
The children's interest is aroused and their observation stimulated by
the constant presence in the room with them of a mother guinea-pig
and her child. Nevertheless, I have not hesitated to call in outside
materials to help them to understand the work. A series of lessons
on the lime carbonates, therefore, preceded the lessons on
respiration; an elephant's tooth, which I happened to have, helped

to explain the guinea-pig's molars; and a microscope and a frog's leg
made real to them the circulation of the blood.
In spite of the time required for the physiology, the fifth-year
children have about thirty lessons on minerals; the sixth-year, the
same number on plants; and the seventh-year, on animals; and it
would be difficult to decide which of these subjects rouses their
greatest enthusiasm.

PRINCIPLES OF TAXATION.[6]
By the Late Hon. DAVID A. WELLS.
XX.—THE LAW OF THE DIFFUSION OF TAXES.
PART I.
No attempt ought to be made to construct or formulate an
economically correct, equitable, and efficient system of taxation
which does not give full consideration to the method or extent to
which taxes diffuse themselves after their first incidence. On this
subject there is a great difference of opinion, which has occasioned,
for more than a century, a vast and never-ending discussion on the
part of economic writers. All of this, however, has resulted in no
generally accepted practical conclusions; has been truthfully
characterized by a leading French economist (M. Parieu) as marked
in no small part by the "simplicity of ignorance," and from a
somewhat complete review (recently published[7]) of the conflicting
theories advanced by participants one rises with a feeling of
weariness and disgust.
The majority of economists, legislators, and the public generally
incline to the opinion that taxes mainly rest where they are laid, and
are not shifted or diffused to an extent that requires any recognition
in the enactment of statutes for their assessment. Thus, a tax
commission of Massachusetts, as the result of their investigations,
arrived at the conclusion that "the tendency of taxes is that they
must be paid by the actual persons on whom they are levied." But a
little thought must, however, make clear that unless the
advancement of taxes and their final and actual payment are one
and the same thing, the Massachusetts statement is simply an

evasion of the main question at issue, and that its authors had no
intelligent conception of it. A better proposition, and one that may
even be regarded as an economic axiom, is that, regarding taxation
as a synonym for a force, as it really is, it follows the natural and
invariable law of all forces, and distributes itself in the line of least
resistance. It is also valuable as indicating the line of inquiry most
likely to lead to exact and practical conclusions. But beyond this it
lacks value, inasmuch as it fails to embody any suggestions as to the
best method of making the involved principle a basis for any general
system for correct taxation; inasmuch as "the line of least
resistance" is not a positive factor, and may be and often is so
arranged as to make levies on the part of the State under the name
of taxation subservient to private rather than public interests. Under
such circumstances the question naturally arises, What is the best
method for determining, at least, the approximative truth in respect
to this vexed subject? A manifestly correct answer would be: first, to
avoid at the outset all theoretic assumptions as a basis for
reasoning; second, to obtain and marshal all the facts and conditions
incident to the inquiry or deducible from experience; third, recognize
the interdependence of all such facts and conclusions; fourth, be
practical in the highest degree in accepting things as they are, and
dealing with them as they are found; and on such a basis attention
is next asked to the following line of investigations.
It is essential at the outset to correct reasoning that the distinction
between taxation and spoliation be kept clearly in view. That only is
entitled to be called a tax law which levies uniformly upon all the
subjects of taxation; which does not of itself exempt any part of the
property of the same class which is selected to bear the primary
burden of taxation, or by its imperfections to any extent permits
such exemptions. All levies or assessments made by the State on the
persons, property, or business of its citizens that do not conform to
such conditions are spoliations, concerning which nothing but
irregularity can be predicated; nothing positive concerning their
diffusion can be asserted; and the most complete collection of
experiences in respect to them can not be properly dignified as "a

science." And it may be properly claimed that from a nonrecognition
or lack of appreciation of the broad distinction between taxation and
spoliation, the disagreement among economists respecting the
diffusion of taxes has mainly originated.
With this premise, let us next consider what facts and experiences
are pertinent to this subject, and available to assist in reaching
sound conclusions; proceeding very carefully and cautiously in so
doing, inasmuch as territory is to be entered upon that has not been
generally or thoroughly explored.
The facts and experiences of first importance in such inquiry are that
the examination of the tax rolls in any State, city, or municipality of
the United States will show that surprisingly small numbers of
persons primarily pay or advance any kind of taxes. It is not
probable that more than one tenth of the adult population or about
one twentieth of the entire population of the United States ever
come in contact officially with a tax assessor or tax collector. It is
also estimated that less than two per cent of the total population of
the United States advance the entire customs and internal revenue
of the Federal Government.
In the investigations made in 1871, by a commission created by the
Legislature of the State of New York to revise its laws relative to the
assessment and collection of taxes, it was found that in the city of
New York, out of a population of over one million in the above year,
only 8,920 names, or less than one per cent of this great multitude
of people, had "any household furniture, money, goods, chattels,
debts due from solvent debtors, whether on account of contract,
note, bond, or mortgage, or any public stocks, or stocks in moneyed
corporations, or in general any personal property of which the
assessors could take cognizance for taxation"; and further, that not
over four per cent, or, say, forty thousand persons out of the million,
were subject to any primary tax in respect to the ownership of any
property whatever, real or personal; while only a few years
subsequent, or in 1875, the regular tax commissioners of New York
estimated that of the property defined and described by the laws of

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