Brain pictures to study
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The document discusses brain structures to study, including the brain without the cerebrum, corpus callosum, and cerebellum. It lists these key structures as important anatomical parts of the brain to learn for further neurological examination and analysis.
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The cerebellum
This MRI image shows a sagittal slice of a 16-year-old female's cerebellum. Key structures visible include the nodule, uvula, pyramid and tuber of the vermis in the midline, as well as the cerebellar cortex and several nuclei - the dentate, fastigial, globose and emboliform nuclei in the medullary center.
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CORPUS CALLOSUM (Final Review Project)
This document provides an overview of the corpus callosum and abnormalities that can occur. It begins with an introduction to the corpus callosum, including its location, parts, formation, functions, and blood supply. It then discusses abnormalities such as agenesis (complete or partial absence) of the corpus callosum. Causes of agenesis include genetic factors and prenatal infections or injuries. Signs and symptoms can include neurological, behavioral, learning and intellectual issues. Diagnosis is typically made via MRI or ultrasound. Treatment focuses on managing symptoms like seizures. The document concludes with a brief case study of complete agenesis.
Mnemonicdoc
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Brain sections - anatomy
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This document provides an overview of the brain and biological psychology. It begins with an introduction to the major parts of the brain including structures like the cerebrum, cerebellum, hypothalamus, and amygdala. Later lessons discuss the lobes of the cerebral cortex, split brain research, neurons, and neurotransmitters. It also distinguishes between the nervous and endocrine systems. The document aims to explain how biological processes and systems impact human behavior.
Anatomy of internal capsule
The internal capsule is a bundle of fibers that passes through the basal ganglia and connects the cerebral cortex with lower brain structures. It is divided into the anterior limb, genu, posterior limb, retrolenticular part, and sublenticular part. The internal capsule contains thalamocortical fibers, corticopontine fibers, corticonuclear fibers, and corticospinal fibers. It receives its blood supply from the lenticulostriate arteries of the middle cerebral artery, the anterior cerebral artery, and the anterior choroidal artery. Damage to specific parts of the internal capsule can cause motor or sensory deficits on the opposite side of the body.
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The cerebellum
This MRI image shows a sagittal slice of a 16-year-old female's cerebellum. Key structures visible include the nodule, uvula, pyramid and tuber of the vermis in the midline, as well as the cerebellar cortex and several nuclei - the dentate, fastigial, globose and emboliform nuclei in the medullary center.
Ap ch09
The chapter discusses the structure and function of the nervous system. It covers nerve structure, the central nervous system which includes the brain and spinal cord, the peripheral nervous system including somatic and autonomic nerves, and the five human senses. The chapter also addresses aging in the nervous system and how functions generally decline with loss of neurons and myelinization over time.
CORPUS CALLOSUM (Final Review Project)
This document provides an overview of the corpus callosum and abnormalities that can occur. It begins with an introduction to the corpus callosum, including its location, parts, formation, functions, and blood supply. It then discusses abnormalities such as agenesis (complete or partial absence) of the corpus callosum. Causes of agenesis include genetic factors and prenatal infections or injuries. Signs and symptoms can include neurological, behavioral, learning and intellectual issues. Diagnosis is typically made via MRI or ultrasound. Treatment focuses on managing symptoms like seizures. The document concludes with a brief case study of complete agenesis.
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Anatomy of internal capsule
The internal capsule is a bundle of fibers that passes through the basal ganglia and connects the cerebral cortex with lower brain structures. It is divided into the anterior limb, genu, posterior limb, retrolenticular part, and sublenticular part. The internal capsule contains thalamocortical fibers, corticopontine fibers, corticonuclear fibers, and corticospinal fibers. It receives its blood supply from the lenticulostriate arteries of the middle cerebral artery, the anterior cerebral artery, and the anterior choroidal artery. Damage to specific parts of the internal capsule can cause motor or sensory deficits on the opposite side of the body.
Protection of the cns
The brain and spinal cord are protected and cushioned by three layers of tissue (the meninges) and cerebrospinal fluid. The meninges include the dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater. Cerebrospinal fluid is produced by the choroid plexus within the ventricles and circulates around the brain and spinal cord. Blood enters the brain through the internal carotid and vertebral arteries, and drains into venous sinuses which form the jugular veins. The blood brain barrier regulates what substances can enter the brain by restricting passage through tight junctions between endothelial cells.
Deep brain structures
The document summarizes several structures that make up the limbic system and their functions. It discusses the pituitary gland which directs hormone production, its lobes (anterior, posterior, intermediate) and the hormones each regulates. It also describes the hypothalamus which controls the pituitary and regulates various functions, the amygdala which processes emotions, the hippocampus involved in memory, and the cingulate gyrus which regulates emotions and behavior.
Action potential notes
1. A signal travels down a motor neuron axon to the neuromuscular junction.
2. Vesicles at the axon terminal release acetylcholine into the synaptic cleft.
3. Acetylcholine binds receptor sites on the muscle fiber membrane, causing it to become permeable to sodium ions.
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The document reviews muscle terminology and structures:
- The sarcolemma is the cell membrane of a muscle fiber. The sarcoplasm is the cytoplasm. The sarcoplasmic reticulum surrounds each myofibril.
- A sarcomere is the smallest contractile unit within a myofibril. Myofibrils contain alternating actin and myosin filaments.
- T-tubules extend from the sarcolemma into the muscle fiber to bring electrical impulses close to the sarcoplasmic reticulum and sarcomeres.
- A motor unit is a motor neuron and the muscle fibers it innervates. More motor units means more forceful contraction.
Articulations
There are two main ways to classify joints in the human body. Structural classification divides joints into three categories - fibrous, cartilaginous, and synovial - based on how the bones connect and whether a space exists between them. Functional classification also has three categories - synarthrosis, amphiarthrosis, and diarthrosis - and considers the degree of movement permitted at each joint. Synovial joints allow the most movement as diarthrosis joints, while fibrous joints permit the least movement and are mostly synarthrosis joints.
Respiratory review part 2
The document summarizes key concepts related to human respiration and lung volumes. It defines that breathing helps ventilate carbon dioxide, heat, and water from the body. It states that the average tidal volume is 500 ml and residual volume is 1200 ml. The total lung capacity in humans averages 6000 ml.
Respiratory review part 1
The document discusses the anatomy and physiology of the respiratory system. It defines key terms like alveoli, bronchioles, larynx, trachea, lungs, and pharynx. It describes the branching structure of the bronchial tree and roles of different parts like the nose, sinuses, tonsils, and lungs in respiration and gas exchange.
Laryn trachea
The larynx, also known as the voice box, contains the vocal cords and is located at the top of the trachea. The vocal cords are longer and looser in males than females, resulting in deeper male voices. The trachea is a tube that extends from the larynx to the lungs, and contains rings of cartilage surrounded by muscle and fibrous tissue. Smoking paralyzes the cilia in the trachea that sweep particles out of the lungs, leading to a buildup of toxins and increased risk of lung damage and disease over time.
Intro nose pharynx
The primary function of the respiratory system is gas exchange, exchanging carbon dioxide for oxygen. It has secondary functions of olfaction and sound production.
The main components include the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, lungs, and bronchial tree. The nose warms, moistens, and filters incoming air and produces sound. It has external cartilage and skin and internal nasal cavities separated by the nasal septum.
The pharynx is a common tube that functions as an important junction. It contains the nasopharynx, oropharynx, and laryngopharynx. The pharynx contains tonsils that screen microorganisms and attack them with immune cells. Hum
Bronchial tree alveoli lungs review
The document describes the structure and function of the bronchial tree and lungs. It begins by explaining how the trachea branches into primary bronchi, which then branch further into secondary and tertiary bronchi. The smallest branches are bronchioles that lead to clusters of alveoli in the lungs. The alveoli are surrounded by capillaries where gas exchange occurs. The lungs have a very large surface area due to the large number of alveoli, which allows for efficient gas exchange.
Breathing
The document discusses the process of breathing and the mechanics of inhalation and exhalation. It notes that breathing involves two phases - inspiration and expiration. Inspiration is the active intake of air and can involve contraction of the diaphragm and intercostal muscles. Expiration is the passive release of air and relies on relaxation of these muscles and elastic recoil of the lungs. Forced exhalation uses additional contraction of the abdominal and internal intercostal muscles.
Volumes capacities 2
The document defines and provides average values for various lung volumes and capacities, including:
- Tidal volume is the volume of air inhaled and exhaled during normal breathing, averaging 500 ml.
- Inspiratory reserve volume is the additional air that can be inhaled beyond normal tidal breathing, averaging 3200 ml.
- Residual volume is the air that remains in the lungs after maximum exhalation, averaging 1200 ml.
- Total lung capacity is the total amount of air the lungs can hold, averaging 6000 ml.
Axial skeleton parts 1 2
The document summarizes the axial skeleton and its components. The axial skeleton includes the skull, vertebral column, and thoracic cage. The skull is made up of 29 bones divided into 5 areas: the cranium (8 bones), facial bones (14 bones), hyoid bone (1 bone), ossicles of the ear (6 bones), and Wormian bones (? bones). The cranium contains the frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal, sphenoid, and ethmoid bones. The facial bones include the nasal, maxilla, zygomatic, mandible, lacrimal, palatine, inferior nasal conchae, and vomer bones.
Appendicular skeleton
The document summarizes the bones that make up the human skeletal system, including those of the axial skeleton, appendicular skeleton, pectoral girdle, upper extremities, pelvic girdle, and lower extremities. It lists the specific bones in each region, such as the humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals and phalanges that comprise the upper extremities, and the femur, tibia, fibula, tarsals, metatarsals and phalanges that make up the lower extremities.
Axial skeleton parts 3 5
The document summarizes the organization and components of the human skeleton. It describes the axial skeleton, which includes the skull and vertebral column, and the appendicular skeleton. It provides details on the bones and structures of the skull, vertebral column, thoracic cage, and their functions in supporting the body and vital organs. Key bones mentioned include the cranium, ribs, sternum, and vertebrae.
Reflexes
Reflexes are automatic responses to stimuli that occur without conscious thought. Simple reflexes are handled by the spinal cord alone, while other reflexes involve the brainstem. When a reflex occurs in the spinal cord, a signal is sometimes also sent to the brain by an interneuron. This allows the brain to interpret the stimulus and react in addition to the reflex response. Examples of reflexes include the knee jerk response controlled by the spinal cord, sneezing controlled by the brainstem, and withdrawing a hand from a hot stove initiated by a spinal cord reflex and followed by a brain response.
Tissue
Nerve tissue consists of the brain, spinal cord, nerves and sensory organs. It contains neurons, which come in three types - sensory, interneuron and motor neurons. Nerve tissue also contains neuroglia cells which outnumber neurons 10 to 1 and support and nourish them. Nerve tissue is specialized in irritability, responding to stimuli like touch, and conductivity, carrying signals between the brain and body. It appears as either gray matter containing neuron bodies or white matter containing myelinated axons.
Neuroglia
Neuroglia are cells that provide support and protection for neurons in the central nervous system. There are several types of neuroglia, including astrocytes which provide energy and structural support for neurons, microglia which remove dead material, and oligodendrocytes which myelinate axons in the central nervous system. Schwann cells perform a similar role of myelinating axons in the peripheral nervous system. Myelination allows for faster nerve impulse transmission along myelinated axons.
Reflexes
Reflexes are automatic responses to stimuli that occur without conscious thought. Simple reflexes are handled by the spinal cord alone, while other reflexes involve the brainstem. When a reflex occurs in the spinal cord, a signal is sometimes also sent to the brain by an interneuron. This allows the brain to interpret the stimulus and react further. Examples of reflexes include the knee jerk response controlled by the spinal cord, sneezing controlled by the brainstem, and withdrawing a hand from a hot stove initiated by the spinal cord but also sending a signal to the brain. Reflex arcs involve sensory receptors, sensory and motor neurons, and an effector like a muscle.
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Protection of the cns
The brain and spinal cord are protected and cushioned by three layers of tissue (the meninges) and cerebrospinal fluid. The meninges include the dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater. Cerebrospinal fluid is produced by the choroid plexus within the ventricles and circulates around the brain and spinal cord. Blood enters the brain through the internal carotid and vertebral arteries, and drains into venous sinuses which form the jugular veins. The blood brain barrier regulates what substances can enter the brain by restricting passage through tight junctions between endothelial cells.
Deep brain structures
The document summarizes several structures that make up the limbic system and their functions. It discusses the pituitary gland which directs hormone production, its lobes (anterior, posterior, intermediate) and the hormones each regulates. It also describes the hypothalamus which controls the pituitary and regulates various functions, the amygdala which processes emotions, the hippocampus involved in memory, and the cingulate gyrus which regulates emotions and behavior.
Action potential notes
1. A signal travels down a motor neuron axon to the neuromuscular junction.
2. Vesicles at the axon terminal release acetylcholine into the synaptic cleft.
3. Acetylcholine binds receptor sites on the muscle fiber membrane, causing it to become permeable to sodium ions.
Review motor end plate nmj notes
The document reviews muscle terminology and structures:
- The sarcolemma is the cell membrane of a muscle fiber. The sarcoplasm is the cytoplasm. The sarcoplasmic reticulum surrounds each myofibril.
- A sarcomere is the smallest contractile unit within a myofibril. Myofibrils contain alternating actin and myosin filaments.
- T-tubules extend from the sarcolemma into the muscle fiber to bring electrical impulses close to the sarcoplasmic reticulum and sarcomeres.
- A motor unit is a motor neuron and the muscle fibers it innervates. More motor units means more forceful contraction.
Articulations
There are two main ways to classify joints in the human body. Structural classification divides joints into three categories - fibrous, cartilaginous, and synovial - based on how the bones connect and whether a space exists between them. Functional classification also has three categories - synarthrosis, amphiarthrosis, and diarthrosis - and considers the degree of movement permitted at each joint. Synovial joints allow the most movement as diarthrosis joints, while fibrous joints permit the least movement and are mostly synarthrosis joints.
Respiratory review part 2
The document summarizes key concepts related to human respiration and lung volumes. It defines that breathing helps ventilate carbon dioxide, heat, and water from the body. It states that the average tidal volume is 500 ml and residual volume is 1200 ml. The total lung capacity in humans averages 6000 ml.
Respiratory review part 1
The document discusses the anatomy and physiology of the respiratory system. It defines key terms like alveoli, bronchioles, larynx, trachea, lungs, and pharynx. It describes the branching structure of the bronchial tree and roles of different parts like the nose, sinuses, tonsils, and lungs in respiration and gas exchange.
Laryn trachea
The larynx, also known as the voice box, contains the vocal cords and is located at the top of the trachea. The vocal cords are longer and looser in males than females, resulting in deeper male voices. The trachea is a tube that extends from the larynx to the lungs, and contains rings of cartilage surrounded by muscle and fibrous tissue. Smoking paralyzes the cilia in the trachea that sweep particles out of the lungs, leading to a buildup of toxins and increased risk of lung damage and disease over time.
Intro nose pharynx
The primary function of the respiratory system is gas exchange, exchanging carbon dioxide for oxygen. It has secondary functions of olfaction and sound production.
The main components include the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, lungs, and bronchial tree. The nose warms, moistens, and filters incoming air and produces sound. It has external cartilage and skin and internal nasal cavities separated by the nasal septum.
The pharynx is a common tube that functions as an important junction. It contains the nasopharynx, oropharynx, and laryngopharynx. The pharynx contains tonsils that screen microorganisms and attack them with immune cells. Hum
Bronchial tree alveoli lungs review
The document describes the structure and function of the bronchial tree and lungs. It begins by explaining how the trachea branches into primary bronchi, which then branch further into secondary and tertiary bronchi. The smallest branches are bronchioles that lead to clusters of alveoli in the lungs. The alveoli are surrounded by capillaries where gas exchange occurs. The lungs have a very large surface area due to the large number of alveoli, which allows for efficient gas exchange.
Breathing
The document discusses the process of breathing and the mechanics of inhalation and exhalation. It notes that breathing involves two phases - inspiration and expiration. Inspiration is the active intake of air and can involve contraction of the diaphragm and intercostal muscles. Expiration is the passive release of air and relies on relaxation of these muscles and elastic recoil of the lungs. Forced exhalation uses additional contraction of the abdominal and internal intercostal muscles.
Volumes capacities 2
The document defines and provides average values for various lung volumes and capacities, including:
- Tidal volume is the volume of air inhaled and exhaled during normal breathing, averaging 500 ml.
- Inspiratory reserve volume is the additional air that can be inhaled beyond normal tidal breathing, averaging 3200 ml.
- Residual volume is the air that remains in the lungs after maximum exhalation, averaging 1200 ml.
- Total lung capacity is the total amount of air the lungs can hold, averaging 6000 ml.
Axial skeleton parts 1 2
The document summarizes the axial skeleton and its components. The axial skeleton includes the skull, vertebral column, and thoracic cage. The skull is made up of 29 bones divided into 5 areas: the cranium (8 bones), facial bones (14 bones), hyoid bone (1 bone), ossicles of the ear (6 bones), and Wormian bones (? bones). The cranium contains the frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal, sphenoid, and ethmoid bones. The facial bones include the nasal, maxilla, zygomatic, mandible, lacrimal, palatine, inferior nasal conchae, and vomer bones.
Appendicular skeleton
The document summarizes the bones that make up the human skeletal system, including those of the axial skeleton, appendicular skeleton, pectoral girdle, upper extremities, pelvic girdle, and lower extremities. It lists the specific bones in each region, such as the humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals and phalanges that comprise the upper extremities, and the femur, tibia, fibula, tarsals, metatarsals and phalanges that make up the lower extremities.
Axial skeleton parts 3 5
The document summarizes the organization and components of the human skeleton. It describes the axial skeleton, which includes the skull and vertebral column, and the appendicular skeleton. It provides details on the bones and structures of the skull, vertebral column, thoracic cage, and their functions in supporting the body and vital organs. Key bones mentioned include the cranium, ribs, sternum, and vertebrae.
Reflexes
Reflexes are automatic responses to stimuli that occur without conscious thought. Simple reflexes are handled by the spinal cord alone, while other reflexes involve the brainstem. When a reflex occurs in the spinal cord, a signal is sometimes also sent to the brain by an interneuron. This allows the brain to interpret the stimulus and react in addition to the reflex response. Examples of reflexes include the knee jerk response controlled by the spinal cord, sneezing controlled by the brainstem, and withdrawing a hand from a hot stove initiated by a spinal cord reflex and followed by a brain response.
Tissue
Nerve tissue consists of the brain, spinal cord, nerves and sensory organs. It contains neurons, which come in three types - sensory, interneuron and motor neurons. Nerve tissue also contains neuroglia cells which outnumber neurons 10 to 1 and support and nourish them. Nerve tissue is specialized in irritability, responding to stimuli like touch, and conductivity, carrying signals between the brain and body. It appears as either gray matter containing neuron bodies or white matter containing myelinated axons.
Neuroglia
Neuroglia are cells that provide support and protection for neurons in the central nervous system. There are several types of neuroglia, including astrocytes which provide energy and structural support for neurons, microglia which remove dead material, and oligodendrocytes which myelinate axons in the central nervous system. Schwann cells perform a similar role of myelinating axons in the peripheral nervous system. Myelination allows for faster nerve impulse transmission along myelinated axons.
Reflexes
Reflexes are automatic responses to stimuli that occur without conscious thought. Simple reflexes are handled by the spinal cord alone, while other reflexes involve the brainstem. When a reflex occurs in the spinal cord, a signal is sometimes also sent to the brain by an interneuron. This allows the brain to interpret the stimulus and react further. Examples of reflexes include the knee jerk response controlled by the spinal cord, sneezing controlled by the brainstem, and withdrawing a hand from a hot stove initiated by the spinal cord but also sending a signal to the brain. Reflex arcs involve sensory receptors, sensory and motor neurons, and an effector like a muscle.
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