BOOK FINAL

i
International Research and Technical Symposium 2015
21st
November 2015
Symposium Proceedings
The Institute of Automotive Engineers of Sri Lanka
120/20, VidyaMandiraya,VidyaMawatha,
Off WijeramaMawatha, Colombo 07, Sri Lanka
Email :secretariat@iaesl.lk, Web:www.iaesl.lk

ii
November 2015
The views expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily
reflect the views of the Institute of Automotive Engineers of Sri Lanka
No: 120 / 20, “VidyaMandiraya”, VidyaMawatha, Off WijeramaMawatha,
Colombo 7, Sri Lanka.
Email: secretariat@iaesl.lk Web: www.iaesl.lk
ISBN 978 - 955 - 7955 - 00 - 1
Compiled by:
Maj Gen UpulPerera (rtd)
MrSudammaKolithaChandrasiri

iii
The Institute of Automotive Engineers-Sri Lanka marks a very
significant milestone not only in the history of the Institute
but also in the history of the automotive field in Sri Lanka, by
organizing an International Research & Technical Symposium
in Automotive Engineering. As the President of IAESL, it gives
me a great pleasure to pen this message for the proceedings
booklet with compiled research papers.
I must appreciate everybody involved directly and indirectly in
the discipline of Automobiles by maintaining the latest models
of Motor Vehicles with sophisticated electronic and digital
components in a country, where Automobile manufacture is yet to become a developed
industry.
The Motor Industry and Automotive Engineering are major areas of our economy in the
context of a vast number ofAutomobiles and a large number of personnel engaged, where the
Institute can play a leading role. I am convinced that in the 21st century Asia will become the
hub of the Automobile Industry with its outstanding human resources and we in Sri Lanka
should move along with the trend.
It is relevant to mention that one of the objects for which this Institute was established in 1988
was to assist the Members to acquire recognized qualifications in Automotive Engineering
and to develop their “Techniques & Skills”. IRTS-2015 would be a further step towards this
goal.
I take this opportunity to thank the Chief Guest Hon. Susil Premajayantha, Minister of
Science, Technology and Research, Guest of Honor Dr. T.A. Piyasiri, Vice Chancellor -
University of Vocational Technology and our Special Invitees for attending IRTS-2015 in
the midst of their busy schedules.
I further wish to thank our Sponsors,Advertisers, well wishers for their valuable contributions
towards this event.
My special thanks go to the Panel of Judges, Session Chairpersons andAuthors of the research
papers for their valuable services rendered.
Last but not least, I thank the Council of Management of IAESL for their dedicated work in
making IRTS-2015 a reality and a success.
W.Y.N.de. S.Kulasekera FIAE(SL),FIMI(UK),FSOE(UK)
President-IAESL
Message From the President - IAESL

v
It is indeed a matter of pride and honour for me to present this
book with compiled research papers as a part of the inaugural
International Research and Technical Symposium (IRTS)
organized by the Institute of Automotive Engineers of Sri
Lanka (IAESL)
Innovation is a phenomenon that has become increasingly
important for both practice and theory over the past few years in
the automotive industry hence automobile manufacturers have
historically invested in their own research and development to
boost their innovativeness. To cater for the volatile demand of the customers that is changing
very rapidly with their needs and wants that are unique to each individual and heavy backed
by the vast technology advancement, automotive industry, nowadays, is trapped by cost and
innovative pressure. Certain researchers have already predicted that the world is about to
experience a revolutionary discontinuity in generating innovations as a consequence of the
cost increase and the need of the customers who demand the same vehicle for the same
old price. On the other hand, as per the present context, some scholars argue that there is
no future in any industry without innovations. They simply say that any industry will die
with no innovations. Therefore, talking about innovation and technological advancementand
their impact towards sustainability is the need of the hour and of special significance. I
am confident that IRTS - 2015 organized by IAESL will create a platform for a fruitful
discussion on innovations and advancement of technology to enhance sustainability with
regard to automotive engineering.
Conducting an IRTS was a long felt requirement of the Institute and identifying it as an
item in our annual agenda could be explained as a result of realization of our cardinal
responsibility as a professional institute in our country. The Institute ofAutomotive Engineers
is the National Apex body in the field of Automotive Engineering dedicated to promoting,
facilitating and developing the aspect of Automotive Engineering and related activities in Sri
Lanka. IAESL was inaugurated in 1988 and incorporated by Act of Parliament of Sri Lanka
in 1992 with an objective to safeguard the interest of all those engaged in the profession of
Automotive Engineering. In keeping with the Vision and Mission of the institute and with
an objective to provide its members to further education and opportunity to enhance their
knowledge and career, conducting an IRTS was felt necessary to include as an event in the
Annual Calendar of IAESL and today I am extremely delighted to witness the inaugural
IRTS organized by IAESL shaping in to a grand success and personally feel proud of being
the Chairman of the Steering Committee that worked towards its success.
Message from the Chairperson of the Steering Committee – IRTS 2015
/ Vice President - IAESL

vi
The task of organizing an International Research and Technical Symposium is complex
and challenging. Yet, with the assistance of all the stakeholders who extended their fullest
supportwhich was the strongest strength in doing my work, this gigantic task was never felt
difficult. As such, today I am humbly proud and would like to confess with confidence that
the brand name IRTS will carry a long way and will be the Main Icon of theAnnual Calendar
of Events of IAESL in the future. Also, I would like to, with pride and glory, describe IRTS –
2015 as another attempt of walking towards the Vision of IAESL in keeping with our Motto,
‘Fostering the automotive sphere for national prosperity’.
I sincerely express my heart felt gratitude to all the stakeholders who assisted me in various
ways and means in organizing the IRTS – 2015and would like to conclude by wishing all of
them best of luck, with a special mention about the scholastic authors who expressed their
willingness to contribute and share their research papers with the others, well backed by
eminent gurus who came forward to guide us in the proper path to make this event a success.
I would also like to appreciate Maj Gen Anukul Chandra,AVSM (rtd) from Indian Army,who
has had an illustrious career as an Indian Army Officer as well as an Automotive Engineer,
who consentedto jointhe IRTS from India to share his vast knowledge and experience in the
field of Automotive Engineering at the symposium.
Finally,IamconfidentthatIRTS-2015wouldturntobeaneducativeandinformativeprogramme
in the years to come and all the participants will benefit immensely from the deliberations of
the symposium and experience a fruitful encounter.
I wish all participants a nostalgic and satisfying reading of the IRTS - 2015.
Maj Gen UpulPerera (rtd) USP,
MBA, PGDCPS, PGDM, FIAE (SL), FIM (SL), FIMI (UK), MISMM
Chairperson - Steering Committee - IRTS 2015/
Vice President - IAESL

vii
International Research and Technical Symposium (IRTS-2015)
is organized by the Institute of Automotive Engineers Sri
Lanka. The Symposium brings together automotive experts,
engineers, practicing managers and seniors in automotive field,
business leaders, franchises dealers and other academicians
from different universities and colleges local and overseas.
The symposium is open to discuss various development and
technological advancements in the engineering field with
industry experts, engineers, professors’, doctors’ and share the
research findings from undergraduate students from various universities. The IRTS-2015 is
being held at Grand Ballroom, Galadari Hotel in Colombo, Sri Lanka on 21st November
2015.
You may be aware that the Institute of Automotive Engineers was established in 1988 to
safe guard and promote the interests of all those engaged in the profession of Automotive
Engineering in Sri Lanka. This institute provides our members numerous facilities to enhance
their carrier development.
The theme of the IRTS-2015 is “Innovation and Technological Advancement to Enhance
Sustainability”. One of the main objectives of this international symposium is to provide and
exchange information to promote sustainable development with three sessions onAlternative
Fuel and Air Quality, Safety and development & Sustainability where papers are presented
by leading academic/research professionals from the participating universities and countries.
The response to call for papers was overwhelming and out of number of topics/ abstracts
received from different universities, the evaluation panel carried out a rigorous selection and
25 papers were selected to symposium publication of which only10 best papers were selected
to be presented at the symposium sessions.
Finally, we have provided an opportunity for eminent persons involved in research in the field
of Automotive Engineering and other related disciplines to present their research findings for
the benefit of others. I wish to thank all the presenters of research papers for the effort they
have made to make this event a success. We have published a book containing all research
papers which would help the participants to enrich their store of wisdom.
I wish to take this opportunity to pay my tribute to our chief guest, all invitees and the
participants for their gracious presence at this occasion. Finally let me pay my sincere
gratitude to our organizing committee, reviewers, authors, sponsors, IAE members and all
others who contributed in numerous ways to make this event a reality.
Sudamma Kolitha Chandrasiri
B.Eng (Hons) Automotive Systems Engineering
MIAE (SL), LCGI (UK), MCPM (SL), AMIMI (SL), MCGA (UK)
Chairperson - Symposium CommitteeIRTS 2015 /
Assistant Secretary - IAESL
Message from Chairperson of the Symposium Committee- IRTS
2015 / Assistant Secretary - IAESL

ix
CONTENT
PROCESS DEVELOPMENT, DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF BIODIESEL
PRODUCTION PLANT USING WASTE COOKING OILAS A SME.
Chithral Ambawatte1*, Lokuliyana R.L.K.2, T.K.K.S.Pathmasiri 3...............................................................1
NUMERICAL MODELLING FOR SHOCK ABSORBER HEALTH MONITORING
OF PASSENGER CARS UNDER HARSH DRIVING CONDITION.
S.Abeygunasekara1,T.Weerasinghe2, E.I.A. Virantha3..................................................................................2
FAULT DETECTION AND DIAGNOSIS OF AUTOMOBILES WITHOUT OBD SYSTEMS
L.U. Subasinghe, K.D.T. Mendis, P.K.T. Chandima, N. Jayaweera, S. De Silva............................................3
AUTOMATED HEADLIGHT DIM/BRIGHT CONTROLLER
LakshanBuddika..............................................................................................................................................4
VEHICLE TRACKING AND FUNCTION MONITORING AND CONTROLLING
SYSTEM BY USING MOBILE PHONE
Navod K, Rajeevan A......................................................................................................................................5
FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED WHEN PURCHASING PLANT AND EQUIPMENT
FOR PROMOTING SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
S.M. Ratnaweera.............................................................................................................................................6
AUTOMOTIVE AC SYSTEM BASED ON AN AMMONIAABSORPTION
REFRIGERATION CYCLE POWERED BY EXHAUST WASTE HEAT
SudammaKolithaChandrasiri.........................................................................................................................7
AUTOMATED ROTATIONAL MOULDING MACHINE FOR BUCKET MANUFACTURING
LahiruChathurangaKamalasooriya................................................................................................................8
VEHICLE OVERLOAD MONITORING SYSTEM
K.J Banuka Kularatne.....................................................................................................................................9
IMPROVEMENT OF AIR BRAKE SYSTEM OF COMMERCIAL VEHICLES
T.M.S.K. Tennakoon......................................................................................................................................10
A SUSTAINABLE COMMERCIAL HUB IN SRI LANKA: THE ROLE OF
AUTOMOBILE INDUSTRY
aLalith Edirisinghe, bA. W.Wijeratne...........................................................................................................11
DEVELOPMENT OF AN ELECTRIC DRIVE SYSTEM FOR
CONVENTIONALAUTOMOBILES
Vimukthi Randeny1,AnuradhaHerath2,Nirosh Jayaweera3, Sasiranga de Silva4.......................................12

x
DEVELOPMENT OF AN ELECTRIC HYBRID VEHICLE USING A SUPER
CAPACITOR AND A BATTERY UNIT
W.M.C.E. Gunarathna, A.K.P.D.M. Priyasad, R.K.C.M. Ramanayake,.......................................................13
ASBESTOS DUST FILTERING SYSTEM WITH BRAKE FADE
REDUCING SYSTEM FORDISC & DRUMBRAKE ASSEMBLIES.
G.P.DeshanPerera.........................................................................................................................................14
INTELLIGENT TRAFFIC LIGHT SYSTEM
M.Weerasinghe1............................................................................................................................................15
W CONCEPT FOR FATIGUE REDUCTION IN PASSENGER VEHICLES
D.D Liyanage 1, , A. A. K. Kumbalatara 2, , Sanjeeva Witharana 3............................................................16
GSM CALLING BASED MULTI-TASKING ROBOT
T.D.K.U.CHATHURANI...................................................................................................................................
17
WIRELESS GESTURE CONTROL VEHICLE
S.M.B.P.B. Samarathunga and W.K.I.L. Wanniarachchi..............................................................................18
SIMULTANEOUS WALL FOLLOWING MAP
BUILDING ROBOT
D. M. WITHANAWASAM..............................................................................................................................19
ROTOR DYNAMIC CONSIDERATIONS IN REFURBISHING TURBO MACHINERY...............20
DRIVER BEHAVIOUR AT NON SIGNALIZED INTERSECTIONS
K.L.L.U.Lekamge, B.L.T.R.Balasooriya, Dr.A.G.H.J.Edirisinghe...............................................................21
STRAIN WAVE GEARS (HARMONIC DRIVE) AND THEIR APPLICATION
Maj Gen Anukul Chandra, AVSM (Retd) ....................................................................................................22

1
PROCESS DEVELOPMENT, DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF BIODIESEL
PRODUCTION PLANT USING WASTE COOKING OIL AS A SME.
Chithral Ambawatte1*
, Lokuliyana R.L.K.2
, T.K.K.S.Pathmasiri 3
1. Senior Lecturer, Faculty of Engineering, University of Ruhuna, Galle, Sri Lanka. chithral1966@gmail.com
2. Lecturer, Faculty of Engineering, University of Ruhuna, Galle, Sri Lanka. ravindu.lokuliyana@gmail.com
3. Lecturer, Faculty of Engineering, University of Ruhuna, Galle, Sri Lanka.
kalpani@mme.ruh.ac.lk
ABSTRACT
Biodiesel or Fatty Acid Methyl Ester is a fuel that can be produced using lipid sources
such as non-edible oils, animal fats and waste cooking oils (WCOs). It is popular as a
totally renewable, nontoxic and biodegradable alternative fuel for fossil based diesel
due to its numerous environment benefits associated with. In Sri Lanka, it is estimated
that about 500,000 litres of waste cooking oil is generated per day and this is a
considerable amount of disposal of available energy. According to the health
regulations of WCO, it is not supposed to be reused in the food industry. This is highly
regulated particular in star-class hotels and restaurants. In this research, a pilot scale
unit for the production of biodiesel from WCO was designed and fabricated. The
project mainly focused on process development, design and fabrication of biodiesel
production plant using waste cooking oil as a SME (Small and Medium-sized
Enterprises). The product can be used behalf of petroleum diesel for the automotive
and industrial level applications without any environmental effect and it ensures same
performances with required modifications.
Keywords: Bio Diesel, Design, Fabrication, Pilot-plant, Waste Cooking Oil
1. INTRODUCTION
During the last decade, energy crisis for petroleumfuel is
considerably increases due to change in life style,
technological advance through the vehicles and related
machineries. This increase of energy demand leads to
fossil fuel depletion, which directly caused to increase
fossil fuel price and grievous environment impacts on
global warming, acidification, deforestation and ozone
depletion. Due to these, it is important to discover
alternative sources of energy that would be economically
efficient and environmental friendly. The transport sector
is a major consumer of petroleum fuels such as diesel,
gasoline, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and compressed
natural gas. Biofuel can be considered as one of a
preferable solution to substitute the fossil fuel which has
the major advantage of economical production compare
to the fossil fuels. Biodiesel production is a very
significant area of reseach interest as the alternative fuel
for diesel engines. It can be produced using renewable
sources such as vegetable oil, animal fat and used
cooking oil. Biodiesel has comparable energy density,
cetane number, heat of vaporization, and stoichiometric

2
air/fuel ratio with respect petro diesel. Biodiesel has a
higher cetane number than diesel fuel, no aromatics, no
sulfur, and contains 10–11% oxygen by weight. The large
molecular size of the component triglycerides result in
the oil having higher viscosity compared with that of
mineral diesel. Instead of using virgin vegetable oil,
waste cooking oil can be used as raw material for
biodiesel production. In most of hotels, restaurants, and
in other food industries, the waste cooking oil is either
simply discharged into the river or dumped into the land.
Other than that, the waste cooking oil can be used
effectively for the biodiesel synthesis. As per the health
regulations of WCO is not supposed to be reused in the
food industry, which is highly regulated particular in star-
class hotels and restaurants. Our research based on the
process devolopment, design and fabrication of bio diesel
production plant using waste cooking oil as a SME(Small
and Medium Enterprises). In this research, a pilot scale
unit for the production of biodiesel from WCO was
designed and fabricated. The unit was tested for WCO
source from several places in Galle district such as KFC
Restaurant and Jetwing Lighthouse Hotel. For this work,
the conventional alkali-catalyzed trans-esterification was
used without free fatty acids (FFA) pre-treatment since
the initial FFA content of used vegetable oil was less than
2% by weight. Reduction of FFA depends on alcohol to
oil molar ratio, reaction time, catalyst amount, agitation
speed and temperature. Portable reactor was designed
and fabricated for pilot-scale studies and the designed
unit can facilitate bio diesel production process from the
initial oil filtration to the final drying of the produced
biodiesel. The main reactor was designed to have
automatic temperature controlling and its structure was
designed with the aid of CAD applications to ensure the
strength and durability. Finally various properties of
biodiesel such as FFA, Viscosity, Specific Gravity,
Calorific Value, .etc. were measured and compared with
standard biodiesel.
2. METHODOLOGY [2]
2.1. Background
The biodiesel system was examined from the feedstock
and fuel aspects. The process requirements were initiated
with the laboratory experiments using both fresh
vegetable oil and waste vegetable oil. In there, different
samples were testified to find out the exact amount of
ratio and the desire properties of bio diesel which may
result to design the model of the plant with efficient
manner. Feed-stocks that contain triglycerides are used as
reactants in the transesterification reaction that produces
biodiesel.
2.2. Procedure for Analysis
Biofuels are mostly derived fromedible oil, nonedible oil,
fats, waste cooking oil, and algae. However, the waste
vegetable oils extracted from restaurants and domestic
uses can be used for the project because it contains
similar fuel properties to diesel fuel except the
higher viscosity and low oxidative stability that must
be encountered before being converted into biodiesel.
Figure 01: Biodiesel production process
[1]

3
The process consists of the steps: Collecting WCO,
Calculating the FFA content, Esterification,
Transterification, Washing, Drying and Measuring
physical properties (Fig. 01).
2.3. Calculation for FFA
The critical step of the biodiesel production from waste
cooking oil is the measurement of exact quantity of FFA
content. Procedure of titration leads to find the FFA
content where the phenolphthalein, isoprophly alchol (10
ml) and WCO(1 ml) mixture tritrate with NaOH
solution(1gram/litre).
Here V1 is titrate control NaOH level, V2 is titrate WCO-
NaOH level and doil is the density of the oil.
H2SO4 requirement for the esterification is calculate using
following eqation.
NaOH requirement for the transesterification process is
calculated using following equation.
2.4. Esterification Process and Separation
Most of the times WCO consisted with higher FFA
content (more than 2%). To reduce FFA content, an acid-
catalyzed esterification process should be conducted
before the base-catalyzed transesterification process. In
this process sulphuric acid is used to decrease the FFA,
where it processes with methanol before adding to the
waste cooking oil. This has to be conducted about 60 °C
and 2 hours of time with 125 rpm until they become
murky. Esterification reaction results to eliminate
saponification reaction (formation of soap when FFA
reacts with homogenous base catalyst).
After the completion of esterification reaction the
mixture needed to be contained more than 3 hours to get
the top methanol layer and the bottom layers of
tryglyceride product with water. Esterification process
reduces the free fatty acid level to below 2%.
2.5. Tranesterification Process
This is the main process of the biodiesel production
which directly results to reduction of the viscosity in
biodiesel. This process can be conducted directly without
esterification if FFA level is less than 2% of its weight.
Here NaOH used as the catalyst for the transesterification
reaction with calculated methanol volume. This reaction
should be carried out using 1% of catalyst concentration.
This also conducted under the same conditions of the
esterification process where 60 °C of temperature and 2
hours of agitation with 125 rpm. The vegetable oil
consisted with triglycerides with its majority. When the
triglycerides react with alcohol in the presence of base
catalyst, it is called “transesterification.” In this reaction,
triglycerides are converted to diglyceride,
monoglyceride, and finally converted to glycerol.
Figure 02: Separation of Bio Diesel and Glycerol
[5]
[2]
[3]
[4]

4
Remaining FFA in oil will react with homogenous base
catalyst to formsoap and water.
2.6. Separation Process
Resultants of Transesterification process were left for at
least 8 hours. Separations were used to separate the
top (methyl ester) and bottom (glycerol) layers of the
biodiesel samples (Fig.02). Two layers could clearly be
seen in the successful basic transesterification biodiesel
samples. The top layer was mainly composed of free fatty
acid methyl esters. The bottom deposit was mostly
made up of glycerol, salts, soap, other impurities and
excess methanol as it is a very polar compound i.e. it
partitions more with polar glycerol as opposed to the
non-polar methyl esters.
2.7. Washing Process
Top layer of the separation process mixed with the water
and pumped fine air bubbles to remove the existing
impurities in the bio diesel sample. This should be
conducted several times until the bottom water layer of
the mixture is clear.
3. MODELDESIGNAND FABRICATION
3.1. Model Design
The identified mixing ratios and results of the lab
experiments applied to design a model using solid works
and simulated its capability for a real world application
(Fig.03). Applying the developed process to the model
was very important step where the all steps should
precisely processed with required environmental
conditions. The figure shows the designed model of the
bio diesel production as a SME (Small Medium-Sized
Enterprises).
3.2. Simulation Study for the Main Reactor
Main reactor of this model considered as the prime
operation equipment of the process which processes
heating, cooling, pressurizing, stirring and sustaining
against the varying loads. Because of that it was
important to identify the stress-strain concentration,
capability against loads and fixtures, material
properties...etc.
Figure 03: Solid Work Model Design
3.3. Fabrication of the Bio Diesel Plant
The results of the simulations were within the desired
ranges, because of that the model was initiated to
fabricate with the required materials. The main
components of the fabricated plant are listed below.
1. Oil Container
2. Catalyst + Methanol Mixing reactor
3. Condenser (Heat exchanger)
4. Main Reactor
5. Separator
6. Feed Pump
[7]
[6]

5
7. Control Unit
Figure 04: Fabricated Bio Diesel Production Plant
4. RESULTS
Using the identified mixing ratios and results of the
laboratory experiments, 215 ml of biodiesel was obtained
from 300 ml waste cooking oil which yields 71.6% and
245 ml of biodiesel obtained from 300 ml fresh vegetable
oil which yields 81.6%. Following are the comparison of
results obtained from the produced bio diesel samples
with respect to the EN14214 standards.
Criteria
Bio Diesel
EN14214
Bio Diesel
Sample of
B100
Density at 15
o
C g/cm3
0.86-0.9 0.88
Viscosity at 40
c mm/sec
3.5-5 3.6
Flash point o
C <136 138.7
Sulphur % 0.01 0
Water ml/kg Less than 500 427
Calorific Value 37.27 38.22
Table 01: Comparison with the Standards
5. CONCLUSION
Our main objective of the project expedited to fabricate
SME pilot scale unit of bio diesel production plant and
achieve the desired properties of the final product. It was
successfully completed with the total budget of 290$ (Rs.
40,000).This unit has capability of producing 22 litres per
batch out of 25 litres of WCO and it will take average
time of 15 hours for whole production process. The
fabricated model was designed as a continuous process of
production. This prototype can be implemented with
required modifications for a large scale production of bio
diesel plant which will lead to decrease the energy crisis
of the fossil fuel production. The average cost for the
volume of 1 litre of bio-diesel is 0.7$ (Rs. 100) with
respect to the laboratory experimental results. But the
process can be optimized with the advance technologies
to reduce the cost per unit production of bio diesel. One
of the critical parameter of this process is that the
recovery of methanol which can be increased by using
electric condensers having its ability to condensate 70%
of methanol [3]. Use of ethyl alcohol (ethanol) and
potassium hydroxide (KOH) can use other than the main
contaminants which increases the production efficiency,
but it results to higher cost. When the FFA content is
lower than 2% of its weight, the pre-treatment process
(esterification) can be eliminated, if there is possibility of
having separate oil refinery plant. It’ll be a considerable
advantage of reducing cost for a unit production. This has
the by-product of glycine which has the capability of
producing soap for general purposes. Using biodiesel
instead of petro diesel will significantly reduce unburned
hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, and particulate matter
from tail pipe emissions. It will also virtually eliminate
sulphur oxides and sulphates which are major
contributors to acid rain. Pure biodiesel, B100 (100%
biodiesel) does not contain petro diesel. Biodiesel can be
blended with petro diesel and is frequently sold as B20
(20% biodiesel, 80% petrodiesel blend) or B5 (5%
biodiesel, 95% petro diesel blend). The engine emission
of the various types of biodiesel is shown in Fig. 05 [1].
This research based on Process Development, Design and
Fabrication of Biodiesel Production Plant using Waste
Cooking Oil as a SME. The process results can be
developed for a large scale production with required
modifications and technologies.

6
Figure 05: Emission of the Bio Diesel Grades
6. REFERENCES
1. Islam, S., Ahmed, A.S., Islam, A., Aziz, S.A., Xian,
L.C. and Mridha, M. (2014). Study on Emission and
Performance of Diesel Engine Using Castor Biodiesel,
Journal of Chemistry, ID 451526.
2. Omar, W.N., Nordin, N., Mohamed, M. and Amin,
N.A. (2009). A Two-Step Biodiesel Production from
Waste Cooking Oil: Optimization of Pre-Treatment Step.
Journal of Applied Sciences, 9(17), 3098-3103.
3. Omidkhah, M.R., Najafi, G., Ghobadian, B. and
Ahmad, A.M. (2015). Design, Fabrication and
Evaluation of a Novel Biodiesel processor system:
International Conference on Sustainable Energy
Technologies, İstanbul, Turkey, 2011.
4. Rabiee, M., Najafpour,G.D., Hassani, M. and Amini,
G. (2013). A Two-step Catalytic Production of Biodiesel
from Waste Cooking Oil. International Journal of
Engineering, 26(6), 563-570.

7
NUMERICAL MODELLING FOR SHOCK ABSORBER HEALTH MONITORING
OF PASSENGER CARS UNDER HARSH DRIVING CONDITION.
S.Abeygunasekara1
,T.Weerasinghe2
, E.I.A. Virantha3
1. Senior Lecturer, Faculty of Engineering & Technology, Colombo International Nautical Engineering Collage
(CINEC),Sri Lanka. Email: sampath@cinec.edu,
2. Undergraduate student, Faculty of Engineering & Technology, Colombo International Nautical Engineering
Collage (CINEC), Sri Lanka. thalathw@yahoo.com
3. Lecturer, Faculty of Engineering & Technology, Colombo International Nautical Engineering Collage
(CINEC),Sri Lanka. virantha@ cinec.edu
ABSTRACT
Shock absorber is a critical component of the vehicle suspension system designed to
absorb shock loads. It is of great interest and importance to be able to observe the
condition of them to make sure proper functioning. This system could be used to check
the behavior (condition) of the shock absorbers or dampers while it is fixed on the
vehicle. It is provides a reliable, convenient, economical, and compact method and
device for monitoring health of suspension system without dismantling from the vehicle
and without fixing to any machine. However some kind of latest models are having such
systems to observe the condition of it’s suspension system controlled by electronically.
But no method is available in vehicles which are having conventional suspension
systems. This paper present the overview of propose suspension health monitoring
systemfor conventional automobiles.
Keywords: Automobile, Damper, Shock absorber, Suspension.
1. INTRODUCTION
The primary requirement of springing in a vehicle
suspension system is to permit the vertical oscillation
of the vehicle body relative to other parts of the
vehicle while supporting the static weight of the
vehicle body. The body of a vehicle has six degrees of
freedom (6 DOF) as shown in the figure 1.a [1] and
can perform six different oscillations. Due to the
complexity of investigating a system with 6 DOF and
in order to simplify the calculations of the suspension
system, the body of the vehicle is simplified to a
system with 2 DOF considering only the vertical
oscillation and the pitch oscillation. Vertical
oscillations of the body occur mainly when the wheels
go over the road irregularities.
(a) (b)
Figure 1: a. Degree of oscillations of an
automobile suspension system, b. Quarter
car model [2]
The vehicle suspension system is help to isolate the
vehicle body from the road surface and hence do
isolate tyre irregularities and wheel out-of balance
forces so that the passengers, goods and the vehicle
body do not suffer undue disturbances. Further, they

8
keep the wheels in close contact with the road surface
to ensure adequate adhesion for accelerating, braking
and cornering. The spring supports the static weight of
the mass of the body and the shock absorber (damper)
dissipates the energy from the road disturbances. The
main purpose of shock absorbers is to limit overall
vehicle body movement Depending on road conditions
or driving style, a vehicle can go from smooth and
controlled to bumpy and erratic in a short time period.
Shock absorbers stabilize the overall vehicle ride,
preventing an excess of vehicle body lean or roll in
any one direction, especially when cornering or
navigating sharp turns. This stabilization [3] allows for
greater vehicle control and stability
2. METHODOLOGY
2.1. Procedure for Analysis
The method use to modify the system is the quarter car
systemand described as follows.
Using the above figure 1.b, the below calculation has
been used to design the system. By the equations taken
through the calculations the maximum and minimum
movement points could be found and using a suitable
sensor [5] it can be used in the cars practically.
2.2. Calculation
As per the figure 3 using F=ma, upwards
m1 ẍ1 = k1 (x2 – x1) + c1 (ẋ2 - ẋ1)
m1 ẍ1 + k1 (x1 – x2) + c1 (ẋ1 - ẋ2) = 0 ----- (1)
Considering the motion of m2 mass by applying same
m2 ẍ2 = k2 (x3 – x2) + c2 (ẋ3 - ẋ2) – k1 (x2 – x1) – c1 (ẋ2 -
ẋ1)
m2 ẍ2 + k2 (x2 – x3) + c2 (ẋ2 - ẋ3) + k1 (x2 – x1 ) + c1 (ẋ2 -
ẋ1) = 0 ------- (2)
Now
ẍ1 + (x1 – x2 ) + (ẋ1 - ẋ2) = 0 ------ (A)
ẍ2 + (x2 – x3 ) + (ẋ2 - ẋ1) + (x2 – x1) –(B)
Fromequation (1)
m1 ẍ1 + k1 x1 – k1 x2 + c1 ẋ1 - c1 ẋ2 = 0
m1 ẍ1 + c1 ẋ1 + k1 x1 – k1 x2 - c1 ẋ2 = 0
m1 (ẍ1 + ẋ1 + x1) – c1 (ẋ2 + x2) = 0 – (3)
By neglecting tire damping fromthe tyre fromequation
(2)
m2 ẍ2 + k2 (x2 – x3) + c2 (ẋ2 - ẋ3) + k1 (x2 – x1) + c1 (ẋ2 -
ẋ1) = 0
c2 (ẋ2 - ẋ3 ) = 0 because c2 = 0,
m2 ẍ2 + k2 (x2 – x3) + k1 (x2 – x1) + c1 (ẋ2 - ẋ1) = 0
m2 ẍ2 + c1 ẋ2 + (k1 + k2 ) x2 - c1 ẋ1 – k1 x1 – k2 x3 = 0
m2 [ẍ2 + ẋ2 + ( ) x2 ] – c1 (ẋ1 + x1) – k2 x3 = 0
(4)
Fromequation (3), substituting the numerical values
m1 = 250 kg, m2 = 40 kg, k1 = 28000 N/m, k2 = 125000
N/m, c1 = 2000 N s/m, c2 = 0.(Reference)
Substituting themon equation,
250 (ẍ1 + ẋ1 + x1) – 2000 (ẋ2 + x2) = 0
250 (ẍ1 + 8 ẋ1 + 112 x1) – 2000 (ẋ2 + 14 x2) = 0--- (5)
Fromequation (4), substituting the numerical values
40 [ẍ2 + ẋ2 + ( ) x2 ] – (ẋ1 + x1) –
125000 x3 = 0
40 (ẍ2 + 50ẋ2 + 3825 x2) – 2000 (ẋ1 + 14 x1) – 125000 x3
= 0 --- (6)
By equation (5)
250 (ẍ1 + 8 ẋ1 + 112 x1) – 2000 (ẋ2 + 14 x2) = 0 ---- (5)
ẍ1 (t) = 8 ẋ2 (t) + 112 x2 (t) - 8 ẋ1 (t) - 112 x1 (t)
By equation [6],
40 [ẍ2 (t) + 50ẋ2 (t) + 3825 x2 (t)] – 2000 [ẋ1 (t) + 14 x1
(t)] – 125000 x3 (t) = 0 --- (6)
By taking Laplas transformation of Equation (5)
250 (s2
+ 8 s + 112) x1 (s) – 2000 (s + 14) x2 (s) = 0 ---
(7)
By taking the Laplas transformation of equation (6)
40 (s2
+ 50 s + 3825) x2 (s) – 2000 (s +14) x1 (s) –
125000 x3 (s) = 0 ---- (8)
250 ẍ (t) + 2000 ẋ1 (t) + 28000 x1 (t) – 2000 ẋ2 (t) –
28000 x2 (t) = 0
250 ẍ (t) = 2000 ẋ2 (t) + 28000 x2 (t) - 2000 ẋ1 (t) -
28000 x1 (t)
ẍ1 (t) = 8 ẋ2 (t) + 14 x2 (t) – 8 ẋ1 (t) – 14 ẋ1 (t)

9
According to the equations a MATLAB simulator is
designed and using the simulator and assuming the
damping co-efficient of the shock absorber varies from
4000 Ns/mto 0 Ns/m, the below values were taken.
See the graph 1 according to the results.
Figure 2: Vehicle movement against damping co-
efficient.
2.3. Measuring the movement
The most important part of this exercise is to measure the
movement of the vehicle with respect to the floor and
transferring those data to the meter panel. For this
purpose it can be used low cost laser sensors. [4]
Figure 3: Min imu m / ma ximu m move ment
Now, the minimum sensor reading when the damper is
just about to fail (X) can be calculated as follows.
X= Y- X2
Now if we consider the 2012 Toyota Camry [6]
Y = 180 mm
X1 = 0.009819 m = 9.819 mm at damping co-efficient
400 Nm/s.
Therefore;
X= (180 – 9.819) mm
= 170.181 mm
Therefore the minimum sensor reading should be
170.181 mm for this particular vehicle and if the
reading goes lower than this value it should be
illuminated the dash board indicator showing that the
shock absorber is defective.
Now, the maximum sensor reading when the damper is
just about to fail (X) can be calculated as follows.
X= Y+ X1
Now if we consider the same vehicle, 2012 Toyota
Camry,
Y = 180 mm
X1 = 0.0625 m = 62.5 mm at damping co-efficient
below 200 Nm/s.
Therefore;
X= (180 + 62.5) mm
= 242.5 mm
Therefore the maximum sensor reading should be 242.5
mm for this particular vehicle and if the reading goes
more than this value it should be illuminated the dash
board indicator showing that the shock absorber is
defective. The shock absorbers cannot be checked at
each and every road condition by using this system.
Therefore a test track has to be designed. The test track is
designed as per the values used for the MATLAB
simulation.
3. RESULTS
The readings taken after simulating in MATLAB are
as per the below table.
c1 (Ns/m) Max (m) Min (m)
4000 0.07962 -0.022750
3800 0.07820 -0.020370
3600 0.07660 -0.018080
3400 0.07517 -0.015850
3200 0.07360 -0.013140
3000 0.07168 -0.010610
2800 0.06961 -0.008218
2600 0.06785 -0.005915
2400 0.06521 -0.003535
2200 0.06317 -0.001544
2000 0.05983 -0.000986
1800 0.05707 -0.001142
1600 0.05368 -0.001393
1400 0.05053 -0.001788
1200 0.04670 -0.002263
1000 0.04247 -0.003078
800 0.03746 -0.00431
600 0.03182 -0.00624
400 0.02576 -0.00976
200 0.02695 -0.01695
0 0.04564 -0.04563
Table 1: Min & Max values for different damping co-
efficient

10
4. CONCLUSION
The goal of this project was to design & manufacture a
Shock absorber condition warning indicating system
for automobiles while the vehicle is being driven.
Before taking the actual car details it was assumed
some data and those data were simulated by using
MATLAB simulation and plotted a graph. According
to the graph it was identified the variation of the graph
according to the condition of the shock absorber. Then
those data were taken as a base and the actual data of
vehicles were fed in to the MATLAB simulating
system and plotted the graph. According to the graph
the minimum and maximum condition of the shock
absorber was found.
However this system is not matching for each and
every road condition and therefore a special test track
had to be designed and did the tests. According to the
test it will be possible to find whether the shock
absorber is in good condition or whether it has to be
replaced.
Observing above graph, it can be decided that the
general shape of the graph is as above and it does not
vary for a decided vehicle with mass and the other
spring constants etc. Further it can be said that if the
damping ability of the shock absorber is in good
condition the values of the maximum & minimum
movement of the vehicle body is limited to certain
value and if the damper is defective the said value will
be varied. Therefore this particular value could be
taken as maximum and minimum movement can be
observed in the particular vehicle and if the movement
is more than these two values it can be decided that the
damper is defective and the warning lamp will be
illuminated in the vehicle meter panel. Generally for a
good shock absorber, the co-efficient of damper is
about 2000 Ns/m. As per the graph if the co-efficient
of damper is “0”, the movement of minimum and
maximum is very much higher than other stages. Even
the damping co-efficient is higher then also the
movement of the vehicle body is comparatively higher.
Therefore the best value for the damper is about 2000
Nm/s.
5. REFERENCES
[1] A yaw rotation is a movement around the yaw
axis.Available from : <
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yaw_% 28rotation% 29
> [13th
Feb 2014]
[2] Images.Available
from<https://www.google.lk/search?q=quarter+car+m
odel&tbm=isch&tbo=u&source=univ&sa=X&ei=cwD
UsfEJYazrgfMnoGICA&ved=0CCQQsAQ&biw=136
6&bih=664> [13th
Feb 2014]
[3] Monroe's Technical Support will help you.
Availablefrom<http://www.monroe.com/support/Sy
mptoms/Tire-Wear > [3rd March 2013]
[4] Laser Triangulation Displacement Sensors.
Available from : < http://www.micro-
epsilon.com/download/products/cat--optoNCDT--
en.pdf> [3rd March 2013]
[5] Understanding your vehicle's weight is an essential
part of automotive safety.Available from :
<http://cars.lovetoknow.com/List_of_Car_Weights
[6th March 2013]

11
FAULT DETECTION AND DIAGNOSIS OF AUTOMOBILES
WITHOUT OBD SYSTEMS
L.U. Subasinghe, K.D.T. Mendis, P.K.T. Chandima, N. Jayaweera, S. De Silva
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Moratuwa, Katubedda, Sri Lanka.
ABSTRACT
Early fault diagnosis for automobile engines is very important to ensure reliable operation of
the engine. Most of the faults in an automobile engine cannot be detected externally. Detecting
faults and its’ location, without dismantling the engine is very difficult. On-board diagnostic
(OBD) systems in modern vehicles can be used to detect engine faults up to some extent.
However, OBD systems are not accurate enough in certain conditions and technicians having
difficulties when interpretation of information. OBD method cannot be used for old vehicles.
Hence, these factors necessitate the development of intelligent and accurate diagnosis method
for troubleshooting automobile engine faults. Therefore, a mathematical model is developed to
identify engine faults through the simulation of Instantaneous Angular Speed Fluctuation
(IASF) of crank shaft. Three force components created by gas pressure, inertia of the moving
parts and friction of the moving parts are used to generate the mathematical model. The
parameters of the model are modified according to the potential faulty condition and IASF
waveform is recorded and compared in different fault scenarios. Type of the fault and the
severity of the fault are identified through the comparison. Experiments are conducted using a
healthy automobile engine to validate the simulation results. The characteristic parameters for
representing potential faults in an automobile engine and their relationship with IASF of the
crank shaft are obtained for fault diagnosing. Furthermore a graphical user interface is
developed to analyse instantaneous angular speed waveform which can be used as a real time
engine condition monitoring system.
I. INTRODUCTION
ngular speed of the crank shaft contains huge amount of
information about the internal condition of an engine.
Pistons, connecting rod and other rotating and
reciprocating components are directly connected to the
crank shaft therefore crank shaft dynamics can be used to
identify abnormal conditions in the engine [1]. Mean
angular speed data does not provide any significant
information about the internal condition of the engine
because the speed fluctuations are hardly seen. Therefore
studies were concentrated on post processing technique of
the instantaneous angular speed signal. Instantaneous
angular speed fluctuation ratio (IASFR) was taken as a
good estimation factor for an engine to identify faults and
more advance model was developed taking tangential
forces induced by gas pressure and vertical imbalance
inertia [2,3]. It is identified that gas pressure and vertical
imbalance inertia force have great influence for the
angular speed. Therefore assumptions have been made for
the engine and have been neglected
some factors like friction forces. The equation had two
main components for instantaneous angular speed as
fluctuations induced by the gas pressure and reciprocating
imbalance inertia force. The IASFR waveform was
plotted using ‘MATLAB’ software.
Angular speed based fault detection methods are
closely connected with mathematical models. Fluctuation
of angular speed of the engine is identified as a best
estimation to develop a mathematical model. Dynamic
models [4,5,6,7,8] are very effective in simulating
instantaneous angular speed because instantaneous
angular speed is directly related to piston-crank dynamics.
Energy models are commonly used to detect cylinder
misfire related faults [9,10,11,12] because the energy
fluctuations are significant when the cylinders tend to
misfire. In this paper, a mathematical model for
simulating the instantaneous angular speed fluctuations is
presented, and the instantaneous angular speed
waveforms on a single cylinder petrol engine, four
cylinder petrol engine and four cylinder diesel engine are
simulated. The simulated results of the instantaneous
angular speed fluctuations based on the mathematical
model are validated by the experimental results
commenced on few automobile engines. The influences
A

12
on the instantaneous angular speed waveforms produced
by the gas pressure torque and the inertial torque are
analysed for various mean engine speeds. The essential
characteristics of the instantaneous angular speed are
discovered from the simulated results. The experiments in
the case of cylinder misfiring are carried out on a four
cylinder petrol engine which is attached to a Mitsubishi
L200 double cab. The instantaneous angular speed signals
under various misfiring conditions at various mean engine
speeds are measured and processed. The characteristic
parameters for diagnosing the faults relating to the
cylinder misfire at different mean engine speeds are
obtained. The presented mathematical model and
experimental results illustrate the potential of the
instantaneous angular speed in diagnosing misfiring
related faults. A graphical user interface is developed to
analyse instantaneous angular speed fluctuations which
can be used as a real time engine condition monitoring
system to detect faults relating to misfiring conditions of
different cylinders.
II. MATHEMATICALMODEL
Before analysing the instantaneous angular speed, it is
essential to find the mathematical representation of the
instantaneous angular speed waveform. Therefore
kinematics of the engine is used as the foundation for
developing equations. Piston, Connecting rod, Crank
shaft, Crank pin and Wrist pin are main components of
the engine which help produce engine rotation. Linear
motion of the piston is converted into rotary motion of the
crank shaft. This mechanism is known as slider-crank
mechanism. It is a one degree of freedom (1-DOF)
mechanism. For ease of study, most of the linkages in the
slider-crank mechanism are represented in lines. The
mathematical model is based on the kinematics of the
slider-crank mechanismas shown in figure 1.
Fig. 1. Slider-Crank mechanism
By the definition of the relationship between Torque and
Angular Acceleration
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 ∗ 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃̈ → (1)
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 = 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼ℎ𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃̈ = 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇
There are three torque components acting on the crank
shaft identified as gas pressure torque (𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 ), inertia torque
(𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 ) and friction torque (𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 ). Gas Pressure torque is a
torque increasing components while Inertia torque and
Friction torque are both torque reducing components.
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 ∗
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑2
𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼2
= 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 − 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 − 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 → (2)
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 = 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
By the definition of the slider-crank mechanism,
𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 = (𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇) − [𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 cos 𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃 + 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 cos 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽] → (3)
𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 = 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼ℎ𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎ℎ
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 =
𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇
𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃 = 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇
𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽 = 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼ℎ𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼ℎ𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼ℎ𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
By the derivation of equation 4.3 with respect to time, the
linear acceleration of the piston is derived by,
𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥̈ =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑²𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼²
= 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟² �cos(𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃) +
cos 2𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
� → (4)
𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣
A. Inertia Torque
For single cylinder,
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 =
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥̈ sin(𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽 + 𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃)
cos 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽
→ (5)
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 = 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚ℎ𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷

13
By substituting 𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥̈ and 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽 using previously derived
equations, Inertia torque for a single cylinder,
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 = 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 ∗ 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇2
𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟2 �cos(𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃) +
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
� �
1
2𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
sin2𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃
+ sin 𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃� → (6)
For multiple cylinders,
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 = � 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇2
𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟2 �cos(𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃 + 𝜙𝜙𝜙𝜙𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
)
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 =1
+
cos 2(𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃 + 𝜙𝜙𝜙𝜙𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
)
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
� �
1
2𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
sin2(𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃 + 𝜙𝜙𝜙𝜙𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
)
+ sin(𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃 + 𝜙𝜙𝜙𝜙𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
)� → (7)
𝜙𝜙𝜙𝜙 = 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃ℎ𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇
B. Gas Pressure Torque
By the definition of polytrophic process,
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 = 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 ∗ |𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶|𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾
→ (8)
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 = 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 ∗ sin 𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃
𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 = 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 ℎ𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 ≈ 1.4
Note: Volume of the cylinder is not constant throughout
the process. Therefore 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 is defined as a sinusoidal
function of the compression ratio of the engine.
Gas pressure torque for a single cylinder is derived as,
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 = 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 ∗ 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 = 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 �sin(𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃) +
1
2𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
sin2𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃� → (9)
For multiple cylinders,
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 = 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇
|𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶| 𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 � �sin(𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃 + 𝜙𝜙𝜙𝜙𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
) +
1
2𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
sin2(𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃 + 𝜙𝜙𝜙𝜙𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼)�
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 =1
→ (10)
C. Friction Torque
Fig. 2. Friction Forces acting on Slider-Crank Mechanism
Referring tofigure 2.and equation (7),
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇² �cos(𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃) +
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
� �
1
2𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
sin2𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃 + sin 𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃� → (11)
𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 = 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇
Friction torque for a single cylinder is derived by,
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 sin 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽 cos 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽 sin(𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃 + 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽) → (12)
𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇 = 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇
𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏
Friction torque for multiple cylinders,
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = � 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 sin 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽 cos 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽 sin(𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃 + 𝜙𝜙𝜙𝜙𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 + 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽)
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 =1
→ (13)
D. Total Torque
For single cylinder engine, total torque can be calculated
by referring equation 4.1 and 4.2.
∴ 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 − 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 − 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 → (14)
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 �sin(𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃) +
1
2𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
sin 2𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃�
− 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇²𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟² �cos(𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃) +
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
� �
1
2𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
sin2𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃
+ sin 𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃� − 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 sin 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽 cos 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽 sin(𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃 + 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽)
→ (15)
For multi cylinder engine,

14
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇
|𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶|𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 ��sin(𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃 + 𝜙𝜙𝜙𝜙𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
) +
1
2𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
)�
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼=1
− � 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇2
)
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 =1
+
)
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
� �
1
2𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
)
)�
− � 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 sin 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽 cos 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽 sin(𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃 + 𝜙𝜙𝜙𝜙𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 + 𝛽𝛽𝛽𝛽)
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 =1
→ (16)
Instantaneous Angular Speed
Fromequation (1)and (2),
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃̈ = 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇
|𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶|𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 ��sin(𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃 + 𝜙𝜙𝜙𝜙𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
) +
1
2𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
)�
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼=1
)
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 =1
+
)
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
� �
1
2𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
)
)�
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼 =1
→ (17)
By integrating both sides with respect to angle of rotation,
𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃̇ =
1
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
�� 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇
|𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶|𝛾𝛾𝛾𝛾 � �sin(𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃 + 𝜙𝜙𝜙𝜙𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
) +
1
2𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
)�
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼=1
)
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼=1
+
)
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
� �
1
2𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
)
)�
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼
𝐼𝐼𝐼𝐼=1
�
→ (18)
Where, 𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃̇ can be defined as Instantaneous Angular Speed
when the integration domain is the angle of rotation(𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃).
Mean engine speed (𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟) does not vary with 𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃 since it is a
time domain variable.
III. SIMULATION
In order to validate the mathematical model, simulation
is carried out using MATLAB. Gas pressure torque,
inertia torque and friction torque is simulated
independently and the resulting instantaneous angular
speed waveform is generated for different mean engine
speeds in both healthy and faulty conditions.
Fig. 3. Healthy engine at 1000 rpm (maximum)
Fig. 4. Healthy engine at 1800 rpm (maximum)

15
Fig. 5. Fault in cylinder one at 1000 rpm (maximum)
Fig. 6. Fault in cylinder two and three at 2000 rpm
(maximum)
A. Graphical User Interface
A graphical user interface (GUI) is very much useful in
analysing the IAS of an engine. Only the required inputs
have to be entered to the system and the outputs will be
displayed accordingly. It helps user to manipulate the
variables easily and the variation of IAS can be identified
rather than going through the codes. Therefore user
doesn’t need a programming background and he/she can
only focus on the results. It’s based on the MATLAB
Graphical User Interface Design Environment (GUIDE)
and MATLAB programming language.
The inertia, pressure and friction sections of the
mathematical model can be individually plotted using the
GUI. The imported practical data can also be plotted
using the GUI. Therefore the GUI is able to acquire real
time data and compare those data with its experimental
results database. Figure 7 shows a graph plotted using
mathematical model data.
Fig. 7. A graph plotted using mathematical model data
IV. EXPERIMENTS
The experiment was incorporated with the spark
ignition engine. The test was performed at Automobile
Engineering Training Institute (AETI) at Orugodawatta.
This experiment is conducted on actual Mitsubishi L200
double cab equipped with a Mitsubishi 4G32 petrol
engine. Technical details of Mitsubishi 4G32 engine are
as follows.
• Engine Manufacturer : Mitsubishi
• Engine Model : 4G32
• Number of cylinders : 4
• Number of strokes : 4
• Fuel type : Petrol
• Cylinder Capacity : 1.6 litres
• Firing order : 1-3-4-2
• Bore : 76.9 mm
• Stroke : 86.0 mm
Angular speed can be measured using a tachometer which
is commonly used in most of the vehicles. Tachometer is
good when measuring the mean rpm within a given period
of time. Stroboscope is another speed measuring
instrument but not very common in automobile
applications. However in this research, more advanced
measuring devices are needed in order to measure angular
speed accurate up to several decimal places within a very
small period of time. Rotary encoders are the most
common solution for measuring high accurate rotary
movements unfortunately they are very expensive. The
circuitry is accurate up to one revolution per minute. Still
the measuring device can be built using standard
electronic components for cheaper price. Therefore sensor
circuit as shown in figure 7.1 incorporated with a
programmable microcontroller is used to acquire data.
The sensor circuit is designed by the authors. A laptop
computer is used to display and analyse acquired

16
data.Experiments were carried out for many number of
engine cycles and taken the average values.
Fig. 7.1. Sensor circuit
V. RESULTS
Fig. 8. Healthy engine at 1000 RPM
Fig. 9. Healthy engine at 1400 RPM
Fig. 10. Fault in cylinder one at 1000 rpm
Fig. 11. Fault in cylinder one and two at 1000 rpm
VI. COMPARISON BETWEEN SIMULATION AND
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
When comparing the graphs generated from the
mathematical model, they are very much similar to the
experimental data. In healthy condition, IAS fluctuation
of a four cylinder engine shows four peaks within 720°
crank rotation. Figure 8 is the best example of how the
engine torque of a four cylinder engine varies within one
thermodynamic cycle. Instantaneous angular speed
variation is also very similar to the engine torque
variation in shape.
Figure 8 illustrates the IAS waveform of a healthy SI
engine at 1000 RPM. The shape of the curve is very
similar to figure 3 which illustrates the IAS waveform
generated by the mathematical model. Both graphs show

17
four peaks within 720° crank rotation. However in figure
3, the difference between maximum and minimum IAS is
larger when compared to experimental data. But both
graphs show nearly same maximum IAS. This large
difference between maximum and minimum IAS (max-
min IAS) can be observed in all the graphs generated by
the mathematical model. Therefore the max-min IAS
difference at each RPM can be measured and used as a
standard when diagnosing faulty conditions. Otherwise
the model can be fine-tuned by refining the constant
parameters.
When increasing the engine speed, the effect of the
inertia torque becomes larger therefore inertia peak is also
visible in the IAS waveform. Take figure 3 and 4 as an
example. Figure 3 is generated by the mathematical
model at 1000 RPM. Figure 4 is generated by the
mathematical model at 1800 RPM. By observing the
shape of those 8 graphs, the effect of inertia torque can be
clearly identified. This effect is also visible in
experimental graphs (figure 8 and 9). Therefore the
mathematical model is accurate in representing the inertia
effect at higher engine speeds.
When it comes to faulty condition modelling, figure 5
illustrates a fault in cylinder one because there is no gas
pressure peak visible in the graph. But still there is some
kind of peak visible within 180° angle of rotation. It can
beidentified as the inertia peak. Even though cylinder one
is misfiring, other three cylinders provide energy to rotate
the crankshaft therefore inertia torque is still applied on
all four cylinders. In this situation, the engine is running
at 1000 RPM so the inertia peak should not be visible as
in figure 3. However when there is no gas pressure peak
available, inertia peak will be visible. Another faulty
condition is modelled using the mathematical model by
reducing the gas pressure in cylinder two and three at
once (figure 6). This phenomenon shows a partial
misfiring in cylinder two and three. Whencylinder two
tends to misfire, the kinetic energy produced by the
cylinder will be reduced. Therefore the inertia torque
produced by cylinder two will be reduced. This affects the
cylinder three as well. When cylinder three tends to
misfire, it produces even lesser inertia torque due to less
inertia available fromsecond cylinder firing.
Faulty conditions are experimentally induced on the
four cylinder SI engine by disconnecting spark plugs.
First experiment was conducted by disconnecting high
tension wire from the spark plug and engine was
accelerated up to 1000RPM and the resulting graph is
illustrated in figure 10. There are four peaks can be
identified in 720° angle of rotation including one
comparatively small peak situated near the beginning of
the graph. Small peak can be identified as the inertia peak
while other three large peaks can be identified as gas
pressure peaks. Therefore the experimental graph is
validated by the experimental graph by comparing the
basic shape of the graph. Figure 11 illustrates a faulty
condition induced by disconnecting two spark plugs at
once. Cylinder number one and two were not working in
this experiment. Since the firing order is 1-3-4-2 of this
engine, there are two small inertia peaks visible on either
ends of the graph within 720° angle of rotation. Cylinder
three and four are working properly therefore two gas
pressure peaks are visible in between two small inertia
peaks.
VII. CONCLUSION
A mathematical model is developed to identify engine
faults through the simulation of Instantaneous Angular
Speed Fluctuation (IASF) of crank shaft. Three force
components created by gas pressure, inertia of the moving
parts and friction of the moving parts are used to generate
the mathematical model. The parameters of the
mathematical model are modified according to the
potential faulty condition and IASF waveform is recorded
and compared in different fault scenarios. Type of the
fault and the severity of the fault are identified through
the comparison.
Finally, an experiment is conducted using a healthy
automobile engine to validate the simulation results. IASF
waveform of the crank shaft is recorded using a rotary
encoder circuit. A potential fault is manually induced into
the engine and the IASF waveform is recorded. The
practical recordings are compared with the simulated
results to measure the accuracy of the mathematical
model.
The characteristic parameters for representing potential
faults in an automobile engine and their relationship with
IASF of the crank shaft are obtained for fault diagnosing.
Furthermore a graphical user interface is developed to
analyse instantaneous angular speed waveform which can
be used as a real time engine condition monitoring
system.
REFERENCES
[1] BronisławSendyka and MarcinNoga, “Advances in
Internal Combustion Engines and Fuel
Technologies”, Chapter 2: Combustion Process in
the Spark-Ignition Engine with Dual-Injection
System.
[2] J. Li, X. Lu, M. Yang, “Wavelet analysis of
instantaneous angular speed in an automobile
engine,” Journal of Chinese Mechanical
Engineering 10, 1999.

18
[3] J. Yang, L. Pu, Z. Wang, Y. Zhou and X. Yan
“Fault detection in a diesel engine By analysing
the instantaneous Angular speed,” Mechanical
Systems and Signal Processing, 2001.
[4] P. A. Panse “Dynamic Modeling and Control of
Port Fuel Injection Engines,” Indian Institute of
Technology Bombay, July 2005.
[5] P. Gyan, S. Ginoux, J. Champoussin and Y.
Guezennec “Crank angle Based Torque
Estimation: Mechanistic / Stochastic,” SAE
Technical Paper 2000-01-0559, 2000.
[6] S. Liu, F. Gu, A. Ball, “The on-line detection of
engine misfire at low speed using multiple feature
fusion with fuzzy pattern recognition,”
Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical
Engineers Part D: Journal of Automobile
Engineering 216 (2002) 391–402.
[7] M. Desbazeille, R. Randall, F. Guillet, M. El
Badaoui and C. Hoisnard “Model-based diagnosis
of large diesel engines based on angular speed
variations of the crankshaft,” Mechanical Systems
and Signal Processing 24, 2010.
[8] Z. Li, X. Yan, C. Yuan and Z. Peng “Intelligent
fault diagnosis method for marine diesel engines
using instantaneous angular speed,” Journal of
Mechanical Science and Technology 26 (8), 2012.
[9] B. Lim, I. Lim, J. Park, S. Pae, Y. Yoon, E. Kim,
“SI engine misfire detection through the energy
model,” SAE Reference 942059, 1994.
[10] M. Rizvi and A. Bhatti “Hybrid Model for Early
Detection of Misfire Fault in SI Engines,” IEEE,
978-1-4244-4873, 2009.
[11] M. Rizvi, S. Zaidi, M. Akram and A. Bhatti
“Misfire Fault Detection In SI Engine Using
Sliding Mode Observer,” IEEE, 978-1-4673-2421,
2012.
[12] F. Tinaut, A. Melgar, H. Laget and J. Dominguez
“Misfire and compression fault detection through
the energy model,” Mechanical Systems and
Signal Processing 21, 2007.

19
AUTOMATED HEADLIGHT DIM/BRIGHT CONTROLLER
Lakshan Buddika
INTRODUCTION
Car safety is the prevention of automobile accidents or the
minimization of destructive consequences of accidents, in
particular as affecting to human life and health. Special
safety features have been built into cars for years, some
for the safety of car's occupants only, and some for the
safety of others. I have the pleasure of introducing
“AUTOMATED HEAD LIGHT DIM/BRIGHT
CONTROLLER”, which is equipped by a circuit with a
sensor and dim/bright light. It is an authentic project
which is fully equipped and designed for Automobile
vehicles.
PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION
Most of the headlight systems nowadays still relies on the
‘Dimmer switch’ that needs to be adjusted manually by
the driver. Forgetting to adjust this switch at the required
moment sometimes causes critical accidents and deaths
also. An automated system that can change the dimmer
switch is the answer. This idea is based on BMW
‘Adaptive Light system’.
OBJECTIVE OF STUDY
• To introduce the low-cost Automatic Headlight
dimmer system using simple electronic circuitry
methods.
• To gain knowledge on simple electronic circuits.
• To get an understanding about ultrasonic sensors and
its operation.
• To design a sensor circuit that can monitor
oncoming objects on the road and make the dimmer
switch change accordingly to the amount of light
falling on the LDR.
• Propose this system into local accessory market for
vehicles and with that helping to reduce the accident
rate.
SCOPE OF STUDY
I. Gathering required information about light sensors,
Ultrasonic sensors and circuits.
II. Designing a circuit.
III. Constructing the circuit.
IV. Varying the light intensity for the sensor to ensure
accuracy of the dimmer switch. All the calibration
are done manually.
V. Testing of circuit.
VI. Finalizing and finishing the unit.
VII. Final testing using vehicles.
DATA COLLECTION
• Books written about electronic circuitry
• Internet
ORGANIZATION OF STUDY
• Chapter One: Introduction
• Chapter Two: Literature review
• Chapter Three: Fundamental Theory
• Chapter Four: Methodology – Sensor interface
• Chapter Five: Methodology – Monitoring device
interface
• Chapter Six: Testing & results
REFERENCES
• Ultrasonic Sensors - TR Electronic . 2013.
Ultrasonic Sensors - TR Electronic . [ONLINE]
Available at:
http://www.trelectronic.com/ultrasonics.php.
• Ultrasonic sensor - Wikipedia, the free
encyclopedia. 2013. Ultrasonic sensor - Wikipedia,
the free encyclopedia. [ONLINE] Available
at:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultrasonic_sensor.
• Paul Horowitz, 1989.The Art of Electronics. 2
Edition. Cambridge University Press.
• Forrest M. Mims III, 2003.Getting Started in
Electronics.Edition. Master Publishing, Inc.

20
Vehicle tracking and function monitoring and controlling system
by using mobile phone
Navod K, Rajeevan A
ABSTRACT:
Integrated engineering is a latest trend to solve problems. To be able to
design a product using an integrated technology will be beneficial to any
engineering problems and a huge contribution to the community. This paper
presents the design and implementation of vehicle tracking, vehicle function
(such as door locks, parking lights) monitoring, controlling and vehicle status
(status about the engine, door and temperature) notification at anywhere by
using mobile phone applications. The system consists of two separate
modules sensor and actuator module and communication module. Sensor and
actuator module used to acquirethe input signals from vehicle to monitor and
control the relevant functions by through actuators. This module design and
implemented by using vehicle sensors such as limit switch, reed switches,
shock sensor and actuators. PIC microcontroller used as a controller in the
module to interface the sensors and actuators. Communication
moduledesigned by interfacing GPS and GSM units with microcontroller via
USART protocol. In the module GPS technology used to track the vehicle
positions and GSM technology used to communicate between the mobile
phone and the communication module. However both the modules are
interconnected by using Radio Frequency (RF) technology, therefor modules
can place it in to the vehicle separately. Communication unit design and
implemented in a smaller size and this will able to hide the module inside the
vehicle for more security. PIC microcontroller used as a controller in
communication modules due to cheap cost and easy interface with GSM and
GPS units. An android application used as a main interface between user and
the mobile phone.Password protection is being used in the application to only
allow authorised users from accessing the mobile phone. Modules are
powered by vehicle power supply and backup batteries.A relay is used to
switch the vehicle power supply to backup battery; therefore if vehicle supply
is removed, still system can work through backup battery for a limited time.
A dedicated portable affordable cost and flexible vehicle tracking, function
monitoring and controller implemented catered with automobile, electronic
and mobile technologies. To demonstrate the feasibility and effectiveness of
the proposed system, vehicle door, parking lights and side mirrors are
monitored and controlled by the mobile phone along with vehicle tracking by
using Google map and status notification for vehicle engine, temperature and
door have been implemented and evaluated with vehicle.

21
FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED WHEN PURCHASING PLANT AND EQUIPMENT
FOR PROMOTING SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
S.M. Ratnaweera
Consultant Management System,Colombo International Nautical Engineering Collage (CINEC)
Sri Lanka. Vice President and Course Director Institute of Automotive Engineers, Sri Lanka
Email: ratnaweera@cinec.edu,
1. Introduction
It has been found that a vast majority of organizations in
this country do not have proper guidelines for the
selection and purchase of plant and equipment. As a
result, such organizations suffer in their business activities
and incur heavy losses. Only a few organizations have
any clear idea of the factors that have to be taken into
consideration when purchasing plant and equipment. As
we all know the need of the era is sustainable
development which meansthe development that meets the
needs of the present without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs. Accordingly
we should consider the three factors economy,
environment and society when we purchase plant and
equipment for our organization.
This paper is a result of my vast experience as an
Engineer, Manager and Consultant, involved in improving
the performance of industrial organizations with respect
to the quality and productivity. The paper introduces
guidelines indicating factors for the selection of plant and
equipment for industrial organizations.
2. Methodology
The following eight factors should be considered when
selecting plant and equipment for any industrial
organization.
1. Fitness for the purpose
This is the most crucial factor. There is no point in
going for equipment of high quality, high efficiency
or low cost if the equipment cannot fulfill the
desired purpose.
2. Cost
The cost of equipment includes several factors as
outlined below.
(a) Purchase Cost – The selling price of the equipment.
(b) Transportation Cost – The cost incurred to get it
down from the place where it is available for sale
(CIF value)
(c) Installation & Commissioning Cost – The expenses
incurred to install the equipment in the required
location and commenceoperations.
(d) Training Cost – The cost incurred to train the
operators in order to operate and maintain the
equipment.
(e) Operational Cost –The cost of operation which
includesthe cost of electricity, fuel or gases which
are necessary for its operation.
(f) Maintenance Cost – Special skills may be necessary
to maintain the equipment and also the cost
ofmaterials required for maintenance and repairs.
(g) Disposal Cost – The cost incurred to dispose the
salvage item. This might be a legal requirement in
future. The salvage also has to be disposed in an
environment friendly manner.
3. Durability
It is the depreciation of the equipment, the loss in value
due to wear and tear.
If the equipment can be used only for a short time, the
loss in value due to wear and tear would be very high.

22
4. Guarantee& Warranty
Guarantee means the assured period of fitness for the
equipment to function without failingprematurely. If it
fails before the guaranteed period due to manufacturing
faults,the supplier will have to compensate the customer
for the loss incurred.
Warranty means compulsory maintenance which is done
by the supplier free of charge. However,it is an obligation
of the customer to get such services done as
recommended by the manufacturers as stated in the
related service catalogues.Ifan equipment fails for not
complying this requirement the customers will not be
compensated for any losses suffered.
5. Risk of Obsolescence
It is the risk of becoming outdated. Although equipment
could be used for several more years, thenew equipment
that is introducedto the market could be much
moreproductive and could give better qualityproducts or
services at a lesser cost. If our competitors use them, they
can offer much better products or services at a lessor cost
with more quality and efficiency than us and they could
become a threat to our business.
.
6. Ergonomic Factors (Human Factors)
Ergonomics is the scientific discipline concerned with the
understanding of interactions among humans and the
profession that applies theory, principles, data and
methods to design in order to optimize human wellbeing
and overall systemperformance.
Such factors would enable to operate and maintain the
equipment easily,efficiently and economically which is
known as an “user friendly” approach.
7.Environmental Factors
The equipment should be environmental friendly. This
means that there should be less emissions such as dust,
fumes, gases, smoke, noise, vibration and waste. The cost
of energy such as electricity, fuel or gases should also be
minimized. After the usage the salvage should be easily
disposable without causing any environmental pollution.
Environmental Management System is a set of processes
and practices that enable an organization to reduce its
environmental hazards and energy cost. This is an
important factor that has to beconsidered in the
modernindustry.
8.Occupational Health & Safety Focus
International labor standards on occupational health
&safety specify that all equipment used in the industrial
sector should be safe & less hazardous in order to protect
the occupational health and safety of employees. Such
requirements have to be looked in toduring the design
stagesA systematic approach for managing safety has to
be taken into consideration when purchasing equipment.
It is also essential to consider the following two factors
when purchasing plant and equipment which are also
categorized under safety requirements.
9. No Load Protection
The power supply to the equipment should not turn on
without a load which is part of its protection. Any derives
connected to it should also satisfy the load requirements.
10. Over Load Protection
Every electrical circuit in the equipment must be
protected against overloads.
3. Overall Equipment Effectiveness (OEE)
Quality rate indicated as OEE measurement is made up of
three elements, each one expressed as a percentage and
accounting for a different kind of waste in the
manufacturing process:
1. Availability
2. Performance
3. Quality Rate
OEE = Availability x Performance x Quality Rate

23
Availability: Is a measure of the time the plant was
actually available for production compared to the
manufacturing requirements. Any losses in this area
would be due to major breakdowns or extended set up
time.
Availability= (Running Time–Stoppage Loss Time)X100
Running Time
Performance:It is the rate that actual units are produced
compared to the designed output. Losses in this area
would be due to slow speed, minor stoppages or
adjustments.
Performance= Theoretical Cycle Time x Processed Amount X
100
Productive Working Time
Quality Rate = Items AcceptableX 100
Total Output
If the exact values are not available, the assessed values
could be used instead to determine the OEE.
Conclusion
All industrial organizations should use guidelines by
emphasizing the above factors which mustbe considered
when purchasing plant and equipment.
All relevant staff should be educated about the use of the
above guidelines. Such an approach would be essential to
promote sustainability which includes the
promotion of economy of the organization and also to
comply with the related statutory and regulatory
requirements. After purchasing the equipment they have
to be maintainedas per the guidance laid downby the
manufacturers in their service catalogues and other related
literature.
By implementing the requirements mentioned in the
proposed guidelines, industrial organizations would be
able to perform their technical operations efficiently,
effectively and economically.
The measure of the overall effectiveness of the equipment
should be monitoredannually and their values should be
displayed on the equipment. Such information should be
included in the annual fixed asset verification reports and
discussed at the management meetings.
References
www.niosh.gov.lk (Accessed date 2015/11/04)
www.ergonomics.org.lk (Accessed date 2015/11/04)
www.eham.net (Accessed date 2015/11/05)
www.google.lk (Accessed date 2015/11/05)
www2.epa’gov.lk (Accessed date 2015/11/05)

24
AUTOMOTIVE AC SYSTEM BASED ON AN AMMONIA ABSORPTION
REFRIGERATION CYCLE POWERED BY EXHAUST WASTE HEAT
SudammaKolithaChandrasiri
Faculty of Engineering, University of Wolverhampton,UK.
Email:sudammack@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Most of new automobile engines used all over the world utilize about 30 – 35% of the
available energy for developing power. The balance is covered by the cooling and
exhaust systemetc. conventional air conditioning systemof automobile is consumes 15 –
20% of the total energy developed in the engine. As a result it effect for running cost,
environment pollution and overall efficiency of automobile. This designed is couple the
vapor absorption cycle with automotive air conditioning system instead of vapor
compression cycle. Here use exhaust waste heat as power source and it may not consume
engine developed power for run the air conditioner. On the other hand in this design used
ammonia as a refrigerant. It may be causes to reduce the environmental impact. Existing
components other than the compressor can be used as usual with this modification.
However an economical heat exchanger/generator should be introduced to proper
functioning the system. This paper presents the overview of test result.
Key words: Air Condition, Exhaust system, Vapor compression cycle, vaporize Ammonia
1. INTRODUCTION
With considering AC systemof conventional automobile,
powered by internal combustion engine is utilized the
engine developed power to drive the compressor. This
may take around 15 to 20% of engine powerto drive the
piston or rotary compressor. Approximately it consumes
of 20% total fuel consumption on the other hand the R12
used as refrigerant (Or R134a) and it is affected to ozone
layer depletion. [1].
However many passenger vehicle engine utilizes only
about 35% of total energy and rests are lost to various
form of energy losses [2]. If one is adding conventional
air conditioning system to automobile, it further utilizes
about 15% to 20% of the total energy. Therefore most of
existing automobile becomes uneconomical and less
efficient. In addition conventional air conditioner is
causes to decreases the life time of engine also.Hence
considering of the above factors in this research
introduce an alternative solution for automobiles AC
system as based on ammonia absorption refrigeration
cycle using exhaust waste heat of the engine. The
advantages of this system over conventional air-
conditioning system are that it does not affectoriginal
design of the whole system. But overall fuel
consumption of engine significant amount reduction&
therefore, the running of the engine efficiently and
economically. On the other hand it showed comparatively
less environmental pollution. Furthermore life time of
engine optimized due to less load capacity of engine.
2. METHODOLOGY
Vapor compression system requires mechanically or
electrically driven compressor to operate the air
conditioning process. But absorptiontechnology is
basedon heat source to drive the system. Therefore, it can
be easilyused waste heat of the engine to drive the
system. The absorptioncycle is similar to vapor
compression cycle.Thereforeboth cycles can use same
evaporator, condenser and pipe lines,as a result it is more
convenience to new modification and cost
effectivedesign and installation. In this modification
replaced the compressor with heat exchanger
andabsorber.

25
Considering of the heat rage of the exhaust system of an
automobiles, identified the maximum possible heat range
provided between the exhaust manifold and flexible joint.
Hence, the heat exchanger is designed to install in
between the exhaust manifold and flexible joint of
exhaust system.Ammoniavapor is extracted from the
NH3 strong solution at high pressure in the generator by
an external heat source. In the receiver the water vapor
which carried with ammonia is removed and dried
ammonia gas enters into the condenser and it is
condensed. The pressure and temperature of cooled NH3
is then reducing by throttle valve below the temperature
of the evaporator. Then NH3 at low temperature enters to
the evaporator and absorbed the required heat from
passenger compartment and leaves as saturated vapor out
from the evaporator.The low pressure NH3vapor is then
passed to the absorber, where it absorbs by the NH3 weak
solution. After absorbing NH3vapor by weak NH3
solution (aqua-ammonia), the weak NH3 solution
becomes strong solution and then it to pumpto generator
through heat exchanger [4].Heat is supplied to the
generator from the exhaust system, which generates
ammonia gas from a liquid water ammonia mixture.
Ammonia gas flows to the condenser allows the
ammonia gas to dissipate its thermal energy and
condenses into liquid. The liquid ammonia flows to
evaporator via the expansion valve, it is vaporized and
cooling load generated by absorbing the heat from the
vehicle’s passenger compartment.
3. CALCULATION &RESULTS
State
Points
Temperature
in o
C
Pressure
in bars
Specific
Enthalpy h in
KJ/Kg
1 54 10.7 1135
2 54 10.7 200
3 2 4.7 200
4 2 4.7 1220
5 52 4.7 0
6 52 10.7 0
7 120 10.7 255
8 120 4.7 255
Table 01: Pressure & Temperature [3]
Q = UAF(LMTD)
Q = Total Heat Transfer
U = Overall heat transfer coefficient
A = Heat transfer area
LMTD = Logarithmic mean temperature difference
a
b
Mean Temperature Difference (MTD) formulation for
this design of heat exchangers. The MTD is related to the
logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD) by
the equation, [6]
MTD = F (LMTD)
Where the LMTD is defined as counter current flow
arrangement,
LMTD =
(𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓−𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭)−(𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭−𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓)
𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥(
𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓−𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭)
𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭−𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐓𝐓𝐓𝐓
)
F = 1
T1 =Inlet temperature of the tube(0
C)
t1 =Inlet temperature of shell side(0
C)
T2 =Outlet temperature of tube(0
C)
t2 =Outlet temperature of shell side(0
C)
Data
Considering the average size car existing air conditioner
capacity and logically comparing the cooling requirement
with new design based on the theoretical values,
Required capacity for designed system = 12000
Btu(British Thermal Units)
System designed for the 1500CC four stroke diesel
engine vehicle and considers the exhaust smoke at idle
speed,
Engine rpm = 720 rpm
= 720 / 60
= 60 rps
Exhaust Volume = (1500 / 4) * 2 * 12
= 9000 cm3
= 0.9 * 10-2
m3
/s
By measuring,
Hot air temperature of exhaust = 200o
C
Per one second hot air produce,
M = dv
Air density = 1.29 Kg/m3
[8]

26
Hot air produce = 0.9 * 10-2
* 1.29
= 1.16 * 10-2
Kg/s
1 KW = 3412.124 Btu/h
∴ Cooling load requirement
= (1/3412.142) * 12000 = 3.5 KW
Neglecting thermal losses and assuming efficiency of the
generator is 90%;
Required heat energy to drive the system = 3.8
KW.Therefore, designed the size of the heat exchanger
with considering heat transfer requirements;
3.1Calculating of LMTD;
T1 =200o
C measured data
t1 = 52o
C by standard data sheet
T2 =120o
C Theoretical assumption of the cycle
t2 =120o
C
LMTD =
(200 −120)−(120−52)
ln (
200 −120 )
120 −52
)
=
(12)
ln (1.176 )
LMTD =73.83o
C
= 346.83 K
Overall heat transfer coefficient for unit area;
Assume by considering engineering data;
U = 300 ,Q = 3.8 KW
Therefore area of the heat exchanger;
Q = U A (LMTD)
3.8 * 103
= 300 * A * 346.83
A = 0.0365 m2
∴A = πdl
D = outer diameter of the tube
D = 8 mm ,= 8 * 10-3
m, l = A/πd
l = 0.0365/ π * 8 * 10-3
l= 1.45 m
4. DISCUSSION
Proposed system has been saveconsiderable amount of
power of engine as it replaces the engine driven
compressor by absorber and generator with liquid pump
which consumes very low power compared with
compressor. This also helping to saving fuel and prevent
using of engine power to drive the air conditioner.This
system also can be introduced to commercial vehicles
including which are involved in the transportation of
perishable goods such as fruits, fish pharmaceuticals
etc(refrigerated vehicles).
At the same time there is some drawbacks also identified
and further developments are also introduced to overcome
such kind of drawbacksthrough suitable improvement.
However, this is very economically and user friendly
design to the automobile air conditioning system to
become cost effectively and as energy conserving
technology. As the major limitation of the system is the
use of ammonia which is a life causing gas if inhaled in
large amounts, so to overcome this problem it can be
introduce ammonia leak detection system by installing
ammonia detecting sensors in passenger
compartment.Which detects leakage will occurs inside the
passenger compartment and allows operating the power
windows automatically or the indication of warning
buzzer or the lamp in instrument panel notified the leak to
driver and passengers. At initial condition if lack of heat
supplied hearing coil will be arranged to maintain high
cooling efficiencythe operating pressure should be
controlled to prevent undue damages to the system,
suggest arranging pressure control valves with expansion
device. Mixing with some color with ammonia easily
detects the leaking points
Where the system and can rectify and prevent some
damage to other components.
This research introduces the economical and echo
friendly alternative solution to utilize waste energy of
automobiles. Cost for the modification is approximately
Rs.55500.00. As reference, theoretical calculation and
studies found that it is possible to design alternation an
automobile air conditioning system based on vapor
absorption refrigeration cycle by utilizing exhaust waste
heat. This is also environmentally friendly system.
Because existing air conditioning system of automobile
Component Status Cost (Rs.)
Evaporator Used Existing Unit -
Condenser Used Existing Unit -
Absorber New requirement 12500.00
Receiver-Drier Used Existing Unit -
Pump New requirement 4500.00
Glass Cloth Tape New requirement 2000.00
Insulation FoamTube New requirement 2500.00
Heating Coil New requirement 6500.00
Generator New requirement 15000.00
Connection Tubes New requirement 7500.00
Other cost 5000.00
Total Cost 55500.00

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