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Biodegradable Polymers
“A Rebirth of Plastics”
CHITRANSH JUNEJA
B.Tech (Plastic Technology), Final Year
Central Institute of Plastics Engineering & Technology (CIPET)
Department of Chemicals& Petrochemicals,
Ministry of Chemicals & Fertilizers
Govt. Of India
Lucknow, INDIA
chitranshjuneja@ymail.com
Abstract— In recent years, there has been a marked increase in
interest in biodegradable materials for use in packaging,
agriculture, medicine, and other areas in India. In particular,
biodegradable polymer materials (known as biocomposites) are
of interest. Polymers form the backbones of plastic materials, and
are continually being employed in an expanding range of areas.
As a result, many researchers are investing time into modifying
traditional materials to make them more user-friendly, and into
designing novel polymer composites out of naturally occurring
materials. A number of biological materials may be incorporated
into biodegradable polymer materials, with the most common
being starch and fiber extracted from various types of plants.
The belief is that biodegradable polymer materials will reduce
the need for synthetic polymer production (thus reducing
pollution) at a low cost, thereby producing a positive effect both
environmentally and economically. This paper is intended to
provide a brief outline of work that is under way in the area of
biodegradable polymer research and development, the scientific
theory behind these materials, areas in which this research is
being applied, and the major advantages of these biodegradable
polymer materials in India.
Keywords: biopolymer, biodegradable, plastic, agricultural
products, biomaterial, recycling, life cycle assessment,
environmental impact, economic impact, composite
I. INTRODUCTION
Advanced technology in petrochemical polymers has brought
many benefits to mankind. However, it becomes more evident
that the ecosystem is considerably disturbed and damaged as a
result of the non-degradable materials for disposable items.
As we listen daily that Plastics is doing harm to environment,
it is disturbing our natural habitat, ecosystem, since we know
this is true but this is also a fact that Life without plastics is
also not possible for we the humans. We for our necessities
have to go for plastics.
So we have to go for an alternative to plastics , which isn’t
possible , the thing we can do is that we can make plastic
greener i.e. development of Biodegradable Polymers . By
developing Biodegradable Plastics we can have an edge in our
very own and developing world of Plastics.
II. BRIEF HISTORY
Biodegradable plastics began being sparking interest during
the oil crisis in the 1970’s. As oil prices increased, so did
the planning and creating of biodegradable materials. The
1980’s brought items such as biodegradable films, sheets,
and mold forming materials. Green materials (or Plant-
based) have become increasingly more popular (Mohanty,
2004). This is due impart to the fact that they are a
renewable resource that is much more economical then they
were in the past (Mohanty, 2004).
III. WHAT ARE BIODEGRADABLE POLYMERS
The development of innovative Biopolymer materials has
been underway for a no. of years and continues to be an
area of interest for many scientists.
The American Society for Testing of Materials (ASTM)
and the International Standards Organization (ISO) define
degradable plastics as those which undergo a significant
change in chemical structure under specific environmental
conditions. These changes result in a loss of physical and
mechanical properties, as measured by standard methods.
Biodegradable plastics undergo degradation from the action
of naturally occurring microorganisms such as bacteria,
fungi, and algae. Plastics may also be designated as
photodegradable, oxidatively degradable, hydrolytically
degradable, or those which may be composted. Between
October 1990 and June 1992, confusion as to the true
definition of “biodegradable” led to lawsuits regarding
misleading and deceitful environmental advertising
(Narayan et al. 1999). Thus, it became evident to the ASTM
and ISO that common test methods and protocols for
degradable plastics were needed.
For biodegradable materials, it is generally regarded that
the product will degrade into water and carbon dioxide by
virtue of a naturally occurring organism, such as
microorganisms. Some industry sources have offered the
term compostable in place of biodegradable. To be
considered compostable, three criteria must be met:
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biodegradation—it has to break down into carbon dioxide,
water and biomass at the same rate as cellulose;
disintegration—the plastic must become indistinguishable
in the compost; and nontoxicity. Most international
standards (such as ISO 17088) require at least a 60%
biodegradation of a product within 180 days, along with
other factors, in order to be called compostable.
There are three primary classes of polymer materials which
material scientists are currently focusing on. These polymer
materials are usually referred to in the general class of
plastics by consumers and industry. Their design is often
that of a composite, where a polymer matrix (plastic
material) forms a dominant phase around a filler material
(Canadian Patent #2350112- 2002). The filler is present in
order to increase mechanical properties, and decrease
material costs.
Conventional plastics are resistant to biodegradation, as the
surfaces in contact with the soil in which they are disposed
are characteristically smooth (Aminabhavi et al. 1990).
Microorganisms within the soil are unable to consume a
portion of the plastic, which would, in turn, cause a more
rapid breakdown of the supporting matrix. This group of
materials usually has an impenetrable petroleum based
matrix, which is reinforced with carbon or glass fibers. The
second class of polymer materials under consideration is
partially degradable. They are designed with the goal of
more rapid degradation than that of conventional synthetic
plastics.
Production of this class of materials typically includes
surrounding naturally produced fibers with a conventional
(petroleum based) matrix. When disposed of,
microorganisms are able to consume the natural
macromolecules within the plastic matrix. This leaves a
weakened material, with rough, open edges. Further
degradation may then occur.
The final class of polymer materials is currently attracting a
great deal of attention from researchers and industry. These
plastics are designed to be completely biodegradable. The
polymer matrix is derived from natural sources (such as
starch or microbially grown polymers), and the fiber
reinforcements are produced from common crops such as
flax or hemp. Microorganisms are able to consume these
materials in their entirety, eventually leaving carbon
dioxide and water as by-products.
Materials must meet specific criteria set out by the ASTM
and ISO in order to be classified as biodegradable. In
general, the likelihood of microbial attack on a material is
dependent on the structure of the polymer. When examining
polymer materials from a scientific standpoint, there are
certain ingredients that must be present in order for
biodegradation to occur. Most importantly, the active
microorganisms (fungi, bacteria, actinomycetes, etc.) must
be present in the disposal site. The organism type
determines the appropriate degradation temperature, which
usually falls between 20 to 60 0
C (Shetty et al. 1990). The
disposal site must be in the presence of oxygen, moisture,
and mineral nutrients, while the site pH must be neutral or
slightly acidic (5 to 8).
Thus, we can conclude Biodegradable Polymers as “ The
polymeric material which is capable of being broken into
simpler units such as carbon dioxide, water etc. after
exposure of material into certain environmental conditions,
or by attack of microorganisms such as fungi, algae, &
bacteria.”
Now after gaining basic understanding of what
Biodegradable Polymer is we should get onto our next step
i.e. “Types Of Biodegradable Polymers”
III. TYPES OF BIODEGRADABLE POLYMERS
Biodegradable Polymers are divided into two classes
mainly:-
i. Naturally Occurring Biodegradable
Resins
ii. Biodegradable Synthetic Resins
Naturally Occurring Biodegradable Resins
This category of material includes:
• Polysaccharides e.g.- Starch from
potatoes and corn.
• Proteins e.g. –Gelatin, Casein from
Milk, Keratin from silk and wool, Zein
from corn
• Polyesters – Polyhydroxy alkanoates
formed by lignin, shellac, prolactic acid
• Materials such as jute, flux , cotton,
silk.
Biodegradable Synthetic Resin
While there are number of degradable synthetic resins,
including: polyalkylene , esters , polylactic acid polyamide
esters , polyvinyl acetate, polyvinyl alcohol,
polyanhydrides. The materials mentioned here are those
that exhibit degradation promoted by micro-organisms.
This has often been coupled to a chemical or mechanical
degradation step.
IV. APPLICATIONS OF BIODEGRADABLE POLYMERS
PACKAGING.
Biopolymers that may be employed in packaging continue
to receive more attention than those designated for any
other application. All levels of government, particularly in
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China (Chau et al. 1996) and Germany (Bastioli 1998), are
endorsing the widespread application of biodegradable
packaging materials in order to reduce the volume of inert
materials currently being disposed of in landfills, occupying
scarce available space. It is estimated that 41% of plastics
are used in packaging, and that almost half of that volume
is used to package food products.
BASF, a world leader in the chemical and plastic industry,
is working on further development of biodegradable
plastics based upon polyester and starch (Fomin et al.
2001). Ecoflex is a fully biodegradable plastic material that
was introduced to consumers by BASF in 2001. The
material is resistant to water and grease, making it
appropriate for use as a hygienic disposable wrapping, fit to
decompose in normal composting systems. Consequently,
Ecoflex has found a number of applications as a packaging
wrap.
Environmental Polymers (Woolston, Warrington, UK) has
also developed a biodegradable plastic material. Known as
Depart, the polyvinyl alcohol product is designed for
extrusion, injection molding, and blow molding. Depart
features user-controlled solubility in water, which is
determined by the formulation employed. Dissolution
occurs at a preset temperature, allowing the use of Depart in
a variety of applications. Examples include hospital laundry
bags which are “washed away” allowing sanitary
laundering of soiled laundry, as well as applications as
disposable food service items, agricultural products, and
catheter bags (Blanco 2002).
AGRICULTURAL APPLICATIONS
Agricultural applications for biopolymers are not limited to
film covers. Containers such as biodegradable plant pots
and disposable composting containers and bags are areas of
interest (Huang 1990). The pots are seeded directly into the
soil, and breakdown as the plant begins to grow. Fertilizer
and chemical storage bags which are biodegradable are also
applications that material scientists have examined. From
an agricultural standpoint, biopolymers which are 7
compostable are important, as they may supplement the
current nutrient cycle in the soils where the remnants are
added.
MEDICAL APPLICATIONS
The medical world is constantly changing, and consequently
the materials employed by it also see recurrent adjustments.
The biopolymers used in medical applications must be
compatible with the tissue they are found in, and may or may
not be expected to break down after a given time period.
Mukhopadhyay (2002) reported that researchers working in
tissue engineering are attempting to develop organs from
polymeric materials, which are fit for transplantation into
humans. The plastics would require injections with growth
factors in order to encourage cell and blood vessel growth in
the new organ. Work completed in this area includes the
development of biopolymers with adhesion sites that act as
cell hosts in giving shapes that mimic different organs.
AUTOMOBILE SECTOR
The automotive sector is responding to societal and
governmental demands for environmental responsibility.
Biobased cars are lighter, making them a more economical
choice for consumers, as fuel costs are reduced. Natural fibres
are substituted for glass fibres as reinforcement materials in
plastic parts of automobiles and commercial vehicles
(Lammers and Kromer 2002). An additional advantage of
using biodegradable polymer materials is that waste products
may be composted. Natural fibres (from flax or hemp) are
usually applied in formed interior parts. The components do
not need load bearing capacities, but dimensional stability is
important. Research and development in this area continues to
be enthusiastic, especially in European countries.
MISSELANEOUS APPLICATIONS
• Mulch film from biodegradable plastics
This kind of mulch film can be useful for farmers. Mulch
films are laid over the ground around crops, to control weed
growth and retain moisture. Normally, farmers use
polyethylene black plastic that is pulled up after harvest and
trucked away to a landfill (taking with it topsoil humus that
sticks to it). However, field trials using the biodegradable
mulch film on tomato and chilly crops have shown it performs
just as well as polyethylene film but can simply be ploughed
into the ground after harvest. It’s easier, cheaper and it
enriches the soil with carbon.
• Plantable Pots
Another biodegradable plastic product is a plant pot produced
by injection moulding. Gardeners and farmers can place
potted plants directly into the ground, and forget them. The
pots will break down to carbon dioxide and water, eliminating
double handling and recycling of conventional plastic
containers.
BIODEGRADABLE POLYMERS AS COMPOSITES:-
- According to Prashant Yadav, of Tata Technologies LTD,
today Tata Motors are using Biodegradable Composites in
there cars door trim, we can see its example in Indica Vista
only.
- Toyota Moto Corp. became the first automaker in the world
to use bioplastics in the manufacture of auto parts, employing
them in the cover for the spare tire in the new.
- Mitsubishi Motors Develops ‘Green Plastic’ , Bamboo-Fibre
Reinforced Plant-based Resin for use in Automobile Interiors;
Cutting CO2 emissions Throughout the vehicle Lifecycle
Tokyo, Japan, Feb 17,2006.
- Jute based bio-composite material is used in Parcel Shelf in
NANO and hood & firewall insulation in VISTA.
- Ford intend to replace 405 of Petroleum Based Polyol to be
replace with soya derived material. Ford Flex – this crossover
utility vehicle will be the first to have in its interior wheat
straw- reinforce plastic as part of the third-row interior storage
bins.
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In this way we can say that Biodegradable Polymers are
having wide range of applications, few of them are stated
above and many more can be listed.
V. CURRENT SCENARIO
There is room for growth and expansion in many areas of the
biodegradable plastic industry. Chau et al. (1999) estimates
that plastic waste generation will grow by 15% per year for
the next decade. Carbon dioxide emissions from the formation
and disposal of conventional plastics are reaching epic levels.
The complete substitution of petroleum-based feedstock
plastics by renewable resource-based feedstock ones would
lead to a balanced carbon dioxide level in the atmosphere
(Dahlke et al. 1998). However, it is ludicrous to expect a full
replacement of conventional polymers by their biodegradable
counterparts any time soon. Expansion into particular niche
markets seems to be the most viable option.
Researchers worldwide are interested in the area of
biopolymer development. The German government has
stringent regulations in place regarding acceptable emission
levels. In 1990, the German government published a call for
research and development of biodegradable thermoplastics
(Grigat et al. 1998). For this reason, many German material
scientists and engineers have focused their work on
environmentally stable biodegradable plastics. Various
materials have been created by these researchers, including the
Bayer BAK line which was introduced in extrusion and
injection moulding grades in 1996. Novamont, an Italian
company, introduced the Mater-Bi line for similar reasons.
Queen Mary University in London, England has a plastics
department which is actively working on biocomposite
development (Hogg 2001). As a whole, all European nations
are expected to follow the European Packaging directive,
which expects a material recovery of packaging waste.
Organic recovery (composting spent materials) is the most
commonly applied waste reduction method (Schroeter 1998).
European nations are also expected to incorporate 15% w/w of
recycled plastics into the manufacture of packaging materials.
Germany aims to better that level, as they set tier goal in 2001
for a 60% incorporation of recycled plastics into new
packaging materials (Fomin et al. 2001).
European nations are the front runners of biopolymer research,
but impressive developmental work has occurred, and
continues to occur, in other geographical areas. The Chinese
government is responsible for a large population on a small
land base. Therefore, the preservation of space, and
responsible disposal of waste are key considerations. For these
reasons, Chinese researchers are focusing on refinement of
microbially produced PHA (Chau et al. 1996). North
American researchers, including those at the University of
Saskatchewan, are also interested in biopolymer development,
as the agricultural industry will benefit from the potential
value added processing. The acceptance of the Kyoto Accord
by the Government of Canada is fueling a need for the
reduction of use of fossil fuel feedstock’s, and an increase in
the use of renewable resource feedstock’s. Biodegradable
plastics fulfill this requirement.
Standards organizations such as the ASTM and ISO have
published methods for material tests on biodegradable plastic
materials. A need for reviews and improvements of these tests
has come to light as industry expands its use of biopolymers.
In particular, non-homogeneities are created in polymer
materials by the clamps used for tensile tests (Nechwatal et al.
2003). The nature of natural materials requires different
considerations than those for synthetic materials.
Thus Biodegradable Polymers have achieved several targets
and several milestones are yet to be crossed, thus researches
are on and scientists are doing their best to make plastic
greener and more greener.
VI. STATISTICAL DATA ON USAGE OF BIODEGRADABLE
POLYMERS
(i) Despite the poor global economy, the biodegradable
polymers market grew in 2009 and will continue to expand at
an average annual rate of 13% through 2014, says report.
(ii) The report adds that the single-largest end use for this
material will be the “food packaging, dish, and cutlery
market,” which it says “will be the major growth driver in the
future.”
(iii) Despite the economic crisis, which hit the chemical and
plastics industry, the market for biodegradable polymers did
grow in 2009 in almost all regions. In Europe, the largest
global market, growth was in the range of 5% to 10%,
depending on products and applications, compared with 2008.
(iv)Europe continues to be the largest biodegradable
polymers-consuming region, with about half of the global
total. Major market drivers for biodegradable polymers in this
region include legislation, depleting landfill capacities,
pressure from retailers, growing consumer interest in
sustainable plastic solutions, fossil oil and gas independence,
and the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions.
(v) In Japan, there has been some growth in biodegradable
polymers use as a result of government and industry
promoting their use. The rising prices for petroleum and
petroleum-based products have also contributed to the
replacement of petroleum-based polymers with biodegradable
polymers. However, Japanese consumption of biodegradable
polymers has not increased as much as expected.
(vi) In Other Asian countries, biodegradable polymer demand
is expected to increase greatly in the next several years. In
China, high growth will be due to several factors: an increase
in production capacity, demand for environmentally friendly
products, and the government’s plastic waste control
legislation.
(vii) Because of the fragmentation in the market and
ambiguous definitions it is difficult to describe the total
market size for bioplastics, but estimates put global production
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capacity at 327,000 tonnes.[26]
In contrast, global consumption
of all flexible packaging is estimated at around 12.3 million
tonnes.
(viii) COPA (Committee of Agricultural Organization in the
European Union) and COGEGA (General Committee for the
Agricultural Cooperation in the European Union) have made
an assessment of the potential of bioplastics in different
sectors of the European economy.
(ix) Other data’s are as follows:-
- Catering products: 450,000 tonnes per year
- Organic waste bags: 100,000 tonnes per year
- Biodegradable mulch foils: 130,000 tonnes per year
- Biodegradable foils for diapers 80,000 tonnes per
year
- Diapers, 100% biodegradable: 240,000 tonnes per
year
- Foil packaging: 400,000 tonnes per year
- Vegetable packaging: 400,000 tonnes per year
- Tyre components: 200,000 tonnes per year
- Total 2,000,000 tonnes per year
VII. BIODEGRADABLE VS CONVENTIONAL POLYMERS
Biodegradable materials are beginning to be accepted in many
countries. These materials are thought to help the environment
by reducing waste issues. The two main reasons for using
biodegradable materials, according to Mohanty are, “the
growing problem of waste resulting in the shortage of landfill
availability and the need for the environmentally responsible
use of resources”. As the government and many organizations
are working to save the environment, there is a definite
advantage to making biodegradable plastics more of a reality.
Conventional plastics have widespread use in the packaging
industry because biodegradable plastics are cost prohibitive.
The key, bringing the costs down, is to have numerous
companies buy a large sum of biodegradable materials. Laws
of supply and demand state that increasing demand will drive
costs down.
Like conventional plastics, biodegradable plastics must have
the same structural and functional qualities, in addition to
reacting the same as conventional plastics when used by the
consumer. The biodegradable plastics also must be inclined to,
“microbial and environmental degradation upon disposal,
without any adverse environmental impact” (Mohanty, 2004)
The world's production of plastics will surpass 300 million
tons by the end of this year, Halden writes, consuming 8
percent of the world's annual oil production. Approximately a
third of those plastics are used in disposable goods like
takeout containers, plastic bags, and product packaging,
leading to a pretty huge pile of plastic trash. About half a
pound of plastic trash is produced per person per day, and the
disposal of all that garbage is creating huge problems,
considering that most municipalities recycle only two out of
dozens of types of plastic. Non-recycled plastics wind up in
landfills or, increasingly, in the Great Pacific Garbage Patch, a
swath of ocean the size of Texas in the North Pacific
completely covered with trash, most of which is plastic. If
plastics don't wind up in landfills or the ocean, they're
incinerated, releasing cancer-causing compounds
called dioxins and furans into the atmosphere.
But the disadvantages of plastic go beyond its environmental
impact. More and more research is finding that the chemical
additives in plastics— used to make plastics harder or softer,
to keep them from breaking down too quickly when exposed
to light and heat, and to keep them from absorbing bacteria—
are causing severe human health problems. The two most
researched, and worrisome, additives are BPA and
phthalates. BPA is a hormone-disrupting chemical used to
keep polycarbonate plastic food containers rigid, but it has
been linked to a variety of problems, including obesity, early
puberty in girls (which itself is a precursor to obesity),
decreased levels of testosterone and lowered sperm counts in
men, lowered immune responses, and aggressive behavior in
children—all at levels lower than what the EPA deems "safe."
Like BPA, phthalates are hormone disruptors, though they're
used to keep plastics—usually vinyl—soft and pliable.
They've been definitively linked to increased rates of asthma,
and a number of studies have found they interfere with male
reproductive development and could possibly play a role in
obesity and insulin resistance. While phthalates have been
banned in products marketed to children, they're still widely
used in other household products, such as shower curtains and
vinyl flooring, as well as medical products like IV bags and
medical tubing.
VIII. CHALLENGES AHEAD
Acceptance of biodegradable polymers is likely to depend on
four unknowns:
(1) Customer response to costs that today is generally 2 to 4
times higher than for
conventional polymers;
(2) Possible legislation (particularly concerning water-soluble
polymers);
(3) The achievement of total biodegradability; and
(4) The development of an infrastructure to collect, accepts,
and process biodegradable polymers as a generally available
option for waste disposal. In a social context biodegradable
plastics call for a re-examination of life-styles. They will
require separate collection, involvement of the general public,
greater community responsibility in installing recycling
systems, etc. On the question of cost, awareness may often be
lacking of the significance of both disposal and the
environmental costs, which are to be added to the processing
cost. Biodegradability is tied to a specific environment. For
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instance, the usual biodegradation time requirement for
bioplastic to be composted is 1 to 6 months.
The development of starch-based biodegradable plastics looks
very promising given the fact that starch is inexpensive,
available annually, biodegradable in several environments and
incinerable.
The main drawbacks the industry is running into are
bioplastics' low water-barrier and the migration of hydrophilic
plasticizers with consequent ageing phenomena. The first
problem together with the cost factor is common to all other
biodegradable plastics. These challenges have to be faced and
solved accordingly to enter the niche market.
Challenges and oppurtunities in India:
According to Mr.Sunder Balakrishnan of Harita NTI LTD,
Chennai,
In recent years, a combination of market drivers such as
higher petroleum prices, a desire to reduce dependence on
foreign oil, increased environmental awareness at the
consumer level, and favorable regulations banning the use of
regular plastics, have led to widespread interest in sustainable,
renewable resource based and compostable alternatives to
traditional plastics. This presentation explores the key
opportunities and challenges for adoption of biodegradable
and biobased plastics in India, and provides an overview of
the products and applications for bio plastics. The specific
areas covered will include:
Implementation of Sustainable Packaging initiatives from
major corporates in driving the need for innovative,
environmentally friendly packaging solution. Increasing
concern about the impact of Global Warming and the need to
reduce Green House Gas (GHG) emissions, and how that is
prompting companies to replace conventional plastics made
from petroleum feedstock with plastics made from bio
feedstocks/renewable resources. Examples of products and
applications will demonstrate the value proposition for
biobased plastics.
Need for “zero waste” organics diversion programs as a way
to deal with waste management issues. A case study will
highlight the importance of integrating the use of
biodegradable plastics with appropriate end-of-life disposal
methods to implement sustainable, cost effective waste
management programs
Thus we can say there is very emergent situation in need of
Biodegradable Polymers.
IX. FUTURE OF BIODEGRADABLE POLYMERS
The future of biodegradable plastics shows great potential.
Many countries around the world have already begun to
integrate these materials into their markets. The Australian
Government has paid $1 million dollars to research and
develop starch-based plastics. Japan has created a
biodegradable plastic that is made of vegetable oil and has the
same strength as traditional plastics. The mayor of Lombardy,
Italy recently announced that merchants must make
biodegradable bags available to all of their customers. In
America, McDonald’s is now working on making
biodegradable containers to use for their fast food (“Plastics”,
1998). Other companies such as Bayer, DuPont, and Dow
Cargill are also showing interest in biodegradable packaging.
According to Dr. Mohanty, “demands for biodegradables are
forecast to grow nearly 16% per annum.” This increasing
interest will allow the technology needed to produce
biodegradable plastics became more affordable and the falling
production costs will eventually lead to an increase in
producers (“Plastics”, 1998). America and Japan show the
greatest potentials for the biodegradable markets. The
estimated amount of biodegradable plastics produced per year
is about 30,000-40,000 tons over the next five years
(Mohanty, 2004).
X. CONCLUSIONS
From the long discussions and studying several data’s and
researches , there is no hesitation in accepting the fact that
Biodegradable polymer are giving a solid edge to growing
Plastic industry of today.
As we know that prices of Petroleum products are on a hike,
and also on the way to scarcity , since plastic is also a product
of petroleum therefore at this moment of time Biodegradable
Polymers are emerging as miracle to upgrowing Plastic
Industry. In addition to that Plastic is facing a terrible
opposition from society due to its non degradability and
causing hazards to this beautiful nature & to human too as
stated previously.
Biodegradable Polymers don’t only fulfill the purpose of
degradability but also gives Plastic Industry a new positivity.
Development of Biodegradable Polymers makes plastic more
ecofriendly, greener and user friendly.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
I would specially like to thank Dr. Vijai Kumar, Professor
& Centre Head, Higher Learning Centre, Central Institute of
Plastics Engineering & Technology (CIPET), Lucknow for his
kind support and guidance for preparation of this paper. My
vote of thanks next goes to all faculty members without whom
this was an difficult task for me.
Finally, yet importantly, I would like to express my
heartfelt thanks to my beloved parents and my family for their
blessings and wishes.
REFERENCES
I. “Biodegradable Polymers” by Shellie Berkesch of
Michigan State university
II. “Biodegradable Polymers” by M. Kolybaba, L.G.
Tabil, S. Panigrahi, W.T. Crerar, T. Powell, B. Wang
of University of Sastachewan, Canada.
III. Article published in Science Tech Entrepreneur
magazine August 2006 issue.
IV. “Biodegradable Polymers” by A. Ashwin Kr. ,
Karthick K, & A. Arumugum.
