bioarch paper (6) (1)

Running head: HISTOTAPHONOMIC ANALYSIS AND MORTUARY CONTEXT 1
Histotaphonomic Analysis and Mortuary Context
Ian Skinner
Appalachian State University
Dr. Schug
Keywords: Bioturbation, Histology, Taphonomy, Histotaphonomy, Diagenesis

HISTOTAPHONOMIC ANALYSIS AND MORTUARY CONTEXT 2
The topics briefly coveredin this paper include histological analysis, taphonomic processes
and analyses, destructive methods in histo-taphonomic analysis, and ethical issues. Three case
studies are presented. The first case study involves highly fragmented, cremated remains in South-
East Arabia. The second case study is a histological and elemental analysis of diagenesis among
early Holocene skeletons from North India. The last case study presented focuses on the Donner
Party, Alder Creek camp site. Each case study is followed by an analysis and represents different
ways that histo-taphonomic analysis can help researchersmake sound inferences about mortuary
context.
Clark Spencer Larsen, a bioarchaeologist, claims, “There are multiple levels of context, including the manner
in which the remains were recovered via excavation and during curation, the cultural and social processes
and events of the interred and of the surviving members of the community during the burial event, the
environmental setting in which the individual lived, and behavioral reconstruction ofthe interred, all of which
are informed by ethnographic,historical, archaeological, and other sources” (Larsen, 1997, p.422).
This research paper will not take into consideration all of the “multiple levels of context”
that Larsen mentions nor will it be nearly as extensive and comprehensive as his works are on the
subject. This paper also will not necessarily dwell on the most important aspects of mortuary
context.
In their book, Bioarchaeology, Debra Martin, Ryan Harrod, and Ventura Perez write, “Deciding on the
most important aspects ofmortuary context can be difficult because ofthe variability in the specifics of when
the bodies were interred (or not interred), how the bodies were prepared and dealt with, where they were
placed, and what kinds of rituals or practices were carried out by the living” (Martin, Harrod, & Perez, 2013,
p.122).
It is the purpose of this paper to present the argument that post-mortem microstructural
change and histo-taphonomic methods of analysis can help the bioarchaeologist to make
inferences regarding mortuary practice and social context either directly or indirectly. Case

studies and other academic research will be utilized to support this rhetoric as well as other
publications on the general subjects incorporated.
Histological Analysis
I will briefly discuss in a very rudimentary nature, bone biology, for the sake of the
audience since this research paper will be dealing primarily with microscopic features of bone
tissue for analytical purposes. Cortex or compact bone which makes up the hard, smooth, exterior
surface of bone is comprised of lamellar bone, a well-organized tissue, composed of many layers
running parallel to a bone’s long axis. A bone’s interior is made up primarily of cancellous or
trabecular bone which is also known as “spongy bone” due to its sponge-like structure. In long
bones there is another structure called the medullary cavity. In living individuals it is filled with
fatty tissues (Byers, 2002, p.46).
In order to study microscopic features of bone tissue, bone must be sectioned into very
thin slices so that it can be observed through a microscope. Through a microscope, osteons or
bone cells may be seen in the lamellar bone as well as primary vascular canals. Blood vessels
travel through the center of osteons. At first, bone is made up of primary osteons but as
maturation occurs primary osteons are replaced by secondary osteons. Original lamellar bone as
well as vascular canals decrease as the age of an individual increases (Byers,2002, p.47).
Microscopic analysis makes it possible to distinguish between bone and non-bone in
cases where materialis highly fragmented. Douglas Ubelaker (2002), a forensic anthropologist
was aware of the value of this type of analysis and he used a method in which small slices of bone
were scanned with a scanning electron microscope (SEM) and energy dispersive x-ray
microanalysis (EDXMA) to evaluate chemical composition of the material in question. The
chemicals found were then compared to about 1800 other chemicals in an FBI database called
SLICE (Spectral Library for Identification and Classification Explorer) (Byers, 2002, p.53).
Even more importantly, microscopic histological analysis allows researchers to
differentiate between human and non-human bone in an archaeological context in which the

bones are fragmented. According to Maria Hillier and Lynne Bell (2007), human bone is
characterized by more clusters of Haversian canals, whereas mature mammal bone is composed
of Haversian systems as well as plexiform bone, and immature mammal bone is composed
primarily of plexiform bone. Plexiform bone is only present in human fetal remains or in the
event that an individual experienced trauma; it will occur at the site of injury. Another method of
distinguishing between human and non-human bone, according to the two researchers,is to take
into consideration the diameter of the Haversian systems and their canals which differ in regard to
human and non-human bone. However,much more study in this area is necessary to firmly
establish this method’s accuracy (Byers,2002, p.54).
One example of the manner in which histological analysis can be informative regarding
social context presently is that of fracture analysis via histological methods. Such methods have
enabled researchers to approximate bone healing rates in children to a limited extent (Steadman,
2003, p.215). In fatal abuse cases,it is possible to create a timeline of when traumatic injury was
inflicted as most sites of injury in post-mortem analysis are healed or display differential stages of
healing. (Kleinman, 1995). Such cases provide evidence that child abuse is still a problem in
American society which may be on the rise (Cramer and Green 2003:587).
Taphonomic Analysis
“The objective of the science of taphonomy is to recognize the variables that can affect
bone in order to reconstruct the environment that the animal or human occupied during its life.
This includes human and animal manipulation along with soil acidity levels, erosion, soil
compaction, and fluvial action” (Martin, Harrod & Perez,2013, p.106). The beginning of the
taphonomic process is marked by the breaking down of soft tissues by both macro- and micro-
organisms. Next, remains are continuously broken down or disintegrated by a range of abiotic and
biotic factors. Some examples of biotic factors that affect bone include insects, soil acidity,
plants, and animal bioturbation. Plant bioturbation may also affect bone as roots expand or plant
decay changes acidity levels in the soil. Abiotic alterations to bone are largely due to prolonged

exposure to the surrounding environment in which case protein collagen of the bone begins to
deplete. Some examples of abiotic factors include earthquakes,erosion, hydrolic processes,
fluvial action, temperature, seasonality, and soil pH. If, however, remains are buried then
diagenesis occurs or rather chemical reactions between soil and components of bone and the bone
becomes corroded. Bone can also be affected by the excavation process itself, laboratory testing,
and in the curation practice. This has been referred to as “laboratory taphonomy.” Other
taphonomic effects caused by humans may be the result of cultural or mortuary practices such as
secondary burial, cannibalism, and/or ancestor veneration (Martin, Harrod, & Perez,2013, p.107-
109).
The first processes that occur during decomposition of remains include autolysis and
putrefaction. During autolysis, the body begins essentially to digest itself. In other words,
digestive fluids which previously occupied the intestinal tract begin to digest the body.
Putrefaction involves the degeneration of the body caused by micro-organisms that reside inside
of the body. These organisms proliferate exponentially and further break down the body (Maples
& Browning, 1994). Due to microbial activity, the body begins to release gases such as ammonia,
nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and methane. This causes the body to bloat. Following this, insects
begin to feed on the remains and lay eggs creating a cycle of feeding and reproduction. This in
turn, attracts other arthropods who will also lay eggs and larvae. Larger, carnivorous animals such
as dogs or coyotes may also participate in the consumption of the remains. They can also remove
limbs, disarticulating the skeleton (Haglund, 1997). Growing plants, roots, and different kinds of
molds can also affect decomposition or dislocate skeletal elements. Non-biological agents that
affect decomposition of remains include soil acids, fire, light, wind, sandblasting, accumulation
of sediments, freeze-thaw cycles,and water (Douglas Ubelaker, 1997). The most influential
factors in taphonomic alteration are temperature,humidity, and accessibility of the remains
(Robert Mann et. al., 1990). Once the remains are fully skeletonized, bleaching and longitudinal

cracking of bones may occur due to sun exposure. There may also be extensive evidence of
rodent gnawing and exfoliation of cortical bone may occur (Bass,1997).
Destructive Methods and Ethical Complexities
Histological and molecular techniques of analysis, as well as isotopic and genetic
analyses, are destructive, altering, and/or transforming to bone which can lead to tissue loss. As
previously mentioned, histological analyses involve the thin cross-sectioning of bone in order to
observe it through a microscope. In molecular analysis, a small sample of bone must be turned
into powder form which is then demineralized and distilled until a dry gelatin is obtained with
which mass spectrometric analysis can be conducted.
Such analyses can lead to complex ethical issues. For example, some Native American
tribes even have a “no destructive analyses” clause in their policies for the study of ancient
remains (Harry, 2009: 162). While DNA analysis has been used to help tribes obtain federal
recognition by “proving their ancestry,” unfortunately, DNA analysis has also been used to stop
tribes from repatriating the remains of their ancestors. The cases of Kennewick Man and Spirit
Cave Man are just two examples of this.
There is distrust of anthropologists and scientists and their research due to a racist and
colonialist history from which they emerged. This has been referred to as “scientific colonialism”
(Zimmerman, 2001: 169). Ultimately, it is important to collaborate with descendant groups in
order to facilitate a more integrated approach that includes native scholarship, oral histories, and
different but valid perspectives (Martin, Harrod, & Perez,2013).
Case Study: Neolithic Cremation in South-East Arabia
(Human vs. Non-Human)
The first case study that will be discussed involves small fragments of human bone found
in a cave at Jebel Faya in the Central Region of the Emirate of Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
near the Persian Gulf (Sometimes referred to as the “Arabian Gulf”), dating to the Neolithic era.
This area borders Saudi Arabia to the south. The fragments are believed to have been cremated

and radiocarbon dates of the horizon places them between 6500 and 5800 B.C.E. Identification
was achieved through morphological and histological analysis. The authors of this research
include Adelina U. Kutterer,Stefanie Doppler, Margarethe Uerpmann, and Hans-Peter
Uerpmann. The project was undertaken by the Joint Archaeological Project of the Institute of
Scientific Archaeology of the University of Tubingen (Germany) and the Directorate of
Antiquities in the Department of Culture and Information of the Government of Sharjah (United
Arab Emirates). The project began in 1996 and excavations at the cave site FAY-NE10 were
carried out during 2006, 2007, and 2010.
The researchers were unable to obtain radiocarbon dates from the bone fragments
directly. Some of the fragments were less than 2mm and the largest measured 25.5 mm in length.
Only three fragments could be identified as human macroscopically, therefore,histological
analysis was necessary to distinguish human from non-human bone. The ten bones sampled for
the first examination from FAY-NE10 displayed no primary vascular plexiform bone tissue and
there was dense packing of Haversian bone that is characteristic of human bone tissue. For
verification purposes 193 images, 2302 osteons, and 4424 Haversian canals were studied via
histo-morphometric analysis. (Specimen 20078-4 was not analyzed due to poor preservation).
The area,perimeter, and major and minor axes of the Haversian canals were analyzed and found
to be of human size and morphology and quantitative analysis of the osteons also indicate that the
bones are of human origin.
Sample Number
20094-6.1
20058-5
20072-2
20073-2
20421-4
20436-4
20487-4
20467
20065-6
Total
Area
3301.8
3072.7
5350.0
3865.1
4150.9
4592.9
4387.2
2882.9
6029.0
Perimeter
203.1
201.0
257.0
219.0
232.1
237.4
229.0
191.0
265.4
Major Axis
67.9
72.0
88.9
74.6
80.1
81.9
80.4
66.4
93.5
Minor Axis
55.0
48.7
65.3
57.2
59.1
60.9
56.9
48.7
65.7
No. of Analyzed
Haversian Canals
148
52
548
470
739
621
706
755
385
4424
Quantitativecharacteristics of the Haversian canals of the bone fragments from FAY-NE10.

Sample Number
20094-6.1
20058-5
20072-2
20073-2
20421-4
20436-4
20487-4
20467
20065-6
Total
Area
33838.1
43303.2
48324.3
45004.7
42602.5
41460.7
33134.5
28585.7
50425.3
Perimeter
685.1
789.6
820.8
792.2
780.5
768.7
679.9
636.1
836.3
Major Axis
227.5
270.5
274.6
263.2
266.2
260.6
229.8
216.3
285.9
Minor Axis
181.6
200.1
214.3
210.3
197.7
195.0
174.5
163.6
213.0
Number of
AnalyzedOsteons
79
18
268
231
353
347
432
379
195
2302
Taphonomic analysis suggested based on the coloration and cracking of the bone
fragments that corpses were cremated around approximately 500-800 degrees Celsius aside from
a few fragments which were thought to have been burned about 300 to 500 degrees. Although
osteon shrinkage may occur during cremation, Cattaneo et al. (1999) corroborates that
temperatures ranging between 800 and 1200 degrees Celsius, do not destroy the macroscopic
structure of the bone beyond recognition and osteons can still be identified.
The researchers conclude that the burned bone fragments from FAY-NE10 are of human
origin and interpretation of the mortuary context leads them to infer that only certain bones were
Examples of histological sections of cremated bone samples from FAY-NE10 (from top left
to bottomright: 20072-2; 20065-6; 20421-4; 20073-2; 20487-4; 20436-4).
Quantitativecharacteristics of the osteons of bone fragments from FAY-NE10.

cremated and not entire corpses. Other partial burning of human skeletons has been found to have
occurred at the Final Neolithic site of RH5 in Oman (Santini 2002). The same custom seems to
have been carried out around the same time in the Levant (Verhoeven 2002; Tsuneki 2010; 2011)
as well as in Turkey (Hürriyet Daily News 2008.)
www.hurriyet.com.tr/english/domestic/10320203.asp?scr=1; accessed 21/04/2012). According to
histological age estimation, the individuals ranged between 40 to 60 years of age.
Analysis
The south-east Arabian case study emphasizes the importance of incorporating
histological methods for analysis and interpretation and it was necessary in order to establish
whether the remains were human or non-human. The combination of taphonomic analysis with
that of histological analysis allowed the researchers to make inferences regarding mortuary
practice. For instance, macroscopic taphonomic analysis of the specimens revealed that the
remains were cremated and that only certain parts of the individuals were treated in this manner.
This could potentially suggest that these people participated in some sort of secondary mortuary
practice for veneration purposes or that these acts were meant to be transformative in nature. It is
also possible, however, that what was discovered were the remnants of a sacrificial offering of
some sort. Much more difficult to fathom from the context are the original sensory aspects the
individuals involved experienced which are just as important, for example, the implementation of
incense in the burning of the remains could indicate another facet of the ritual process. This
information when coupled with site history could lead to a better interpretation of mortuary
practice within this culture.
Dehydration, tissue contraction, and shrinkage occur during cremation and blood cells are
destroyed as carbon monoxide binds preferentially to erythrocytes or red blood cells (RBCs). This
is accompanied by inversion of crystalline structures and fusion of hydroxyapatite crystals. The
degree to which the remains were burned was determined based on color, extent of shrinkage, and

bone texture. Different stages of cremation were based off of Wahl (1981: 273; 2008). Ultimately
the researchers concluded that the fragments were burned at approximately 500 to 800 degrees
except for a few fragments which appear to be burned between about 300 and 500 degrees.
Unfortunately, cracking and coloration were primarily linked to temperature,whereas other
factors were seemingly not taken into consideration in the paper such as an approximation of the
remains proximity to the flames, general humidity levels in the region around the Neolithic era,
and chemical influences.
Case Study: A Histological and Elemental Analysis of Diagenesis among Early Holocene
Skeletons from North India
This study involves the analysis of skeletal remains from Damdama and Lekhahia in
North India. Damdama resides on the Gangetic Plains and is described as relatively rich in
deposits. The researchers have not confirmed if this Mesolithic site is sedentary because it may
have been occupied on a seasonalbasis. Lekhahia resides in the Vindhyan Hills, which are 360
km south of the Gangetic Plain. It is believed that this site was primarily for seasonaloccupation
since there are less lithic deposits at this site. Although the central focus of this study is for the
most part reconstructing past dietary patterns, it is applicable to this discourse because
information regarding dietary practices can enable researchers to infer geographic location as
some resources are specific to a particular environment and this is valuable in regard to
reconstructing mortuary context. This period is also particularly interesting to study as it includes
the change that took place in subsistence patterns from that of hunting and gathering to that of
agriculture.
This study is composed of two parts. The first portion of the study focuses on histological
analysis and the second portion concentrates on trace element analysis. Trace analysis is useful
because it is an indicator of both dietary patterns and diagenetic processes. Histological analysis
takes into consideration the alteration that takes place due to microbial activity. The results

obtained from this study are compared to a control sample of skeletons from Harappa that have
been subjected to similar analysis. This site was chosen as the control due to the greater extent of
knowledge involving the geo-morphology and geo-chemistry of the site.
Histological Analysis
A histological analysis was conducted first as it takes into consideration the taphonomic
effects that microorganisms can have on bone and bone chemistry which could have altering
effects on trace elements and therefore trace element analysis by causing the addition or
subtraction of elements to occur. Both fungi and bacteria have an altering effect on bone. Some
fungi that interact with bone include Mucor, Penicillium, Aspergillas fumigatus,Aspergillas
niger, Pythium, Hunicolar, Curvularia interseminata,Culvularia lunata, and Chaetomiun firneti
(Marchiafava et al., 1974). Fungi leave behind them traces of tunneling. Some bacteria that
interact with human bone include Actinomadura madurae, Pseudomonas fluorescens (Grupe and
Dress-Werringloer, 1993), Bacillus (Child 1995), and Stachybotrys (Piepenbrink, 1989). Bacteria
have been associated with linear, budded, and lamellate tunneling (Hackett,1981). The amount of
microbes as well as the type are highly correlated with soil pH which in turn is affected by the
surrounding geographic environment. Soil microbes begin to affect bone after decomposition of
the soft tissue (Child 1995). The break down of organic material in bone due to enzymes and
metabolites ultimately results in bone shrinkage and subsequent cracking. Histology is useful
when comparing remains from two different sites in regard to taphonomic change that has taken
place.
This study utilized 26 adult bones altogether, 20 of which were from Damdama and 6 of
which were from Lekhahia. All of the specimens are femora except for one element. Cross-
sectional analysis of the bones included sections that range from 8 to 10mm in thickness. The
sections were analyzed with transmitted light microscopy and subjected to this same treatment
once again 3 months later with a reliability of 90 percent. Normal and polarized light microscopy

were also utilized and periosteal, mid-cortical, and endosteal portions were of primary focus.
Quantitative analysis consisted of recording the frequency of taphonomic changes and each bone
section was given an index number.
While all of the bones exhibited taphonomic changes, the degree and type of alterations
were highly dependent on mortuary environment. It was also found that periosteal bone was
affected the most followed by endosteal bone, followed by mid-cortical bone. Wedl, linear,
budded, and lamellate tunnels were all present with linear tunneling as the most frequent type of
tunneling. Most of the linear tunneling activity was found in the mid-cortical region. It appears
that the individuals from the Lakhahia site were more taphonomically altered than those from the
Damdama site. Work carried out by Hanson & Buikstra (1987) has indicated that the immediate
context of the burial can have a significant effect on histological preservation. Some inclusions or
“infiltrations” in the bone included iron expressed as pyrite crystals, quartz, and brushite crystals.
As the disaggregation and destruction of osteons occurred fissuring and bone cracking increased
affecting the integrity of the bone. As diagenesis further progressed so did the size and frequency
of vacuoles. When compared to the Harappa control group it was found that there was very little
evidence of bone tunneling activity, however, the Harappa specimens were not as well preserved
with much of the bone having been missing or periosteal or endosteal bone has been removed.
There seemed to be a greater prevalence of tunneling in the North Indian sites than in
other European and North American sites. This may be due to site differences which affect
microbial activity (Hackett,1981; Hedges et al., 1995). It is also possible, however, that as bone
degrades so does evidence of tunneling. The mid-cortical area of bone exhibited the best
preservation although tunneling was most common in this area,therefore,it seems that this area
may be the best focus for chemical analysis. Linear tunneling was observed to be of the greatest
frequency. This may be because the specific microbes that cause this type of tunneling infiltrate
bone sooner than other microbes or because the microbes that cause linear tunneling are some of
the last to compromise bone. If the latter is true then other types of tunneling may not be as

apparent as bone degenerates. The histology index values corroborate that the remains from
Lekhahia have a greater extent of bone degeneration than those of Damdama. Because specimens
from Damdama experienced better preservation, histology index values for this site were higher
and values for mid-cortical bone area were high for both sites. It may be significant to note,
however, that the remains at Lekhahia had been disturbed prior to excavations (Varma et al.,
1985). On the other hand, the specimens from Harappa yielded histology index values of 0.
Type of
Tunneling
Wedl Linear Budded Lamellate Total
Periosteal 25 336 10 59 430
Mid-
Cortical
87 834 13 77 1011
Endosteal 22 646 6 38 712
Total 134 1816 29 174 2153
Trace Element Analysis
The trace elements focused on in this study include strontium, barium, zinc, zirconium,
uranium, arsenic, and silver. Strontium, barium, and zinc have been associated with dietary intake
most commonly. Zirconium and uranium have been utilized to infer contamination. However,
arsenic and silver are not as commonly used as indicators but in this study they are implemented
to make inferences regarding diagenesis.
Young to “middle-aged” skeletons were selected for this analysis in order to control for
age changes that occur in bone such as the change in the ratio of cancellous to compact bone
(Bratter et al., 1977). All of the specimens, except one (LKH-6),originate from femur mid-shafts.
(LKH-6 comes from a tibia shaft). Because different portions of bone may be differentially
susceptible to diagenetic alteration, all of the samples were extracted from the proximal portions
of the femoral shafts (from 5.5 – 10cm distal to lesser trochanter) excepting LKH-6 (Dr. J.R.

Lukacs, pers. Comm. 1995). The samples used for trace element analysis differ from those used
in the histological analysis due to the addition of LKH-6 and the exclusion of the Damdama 1
sample (DDM-1). DDM-1 was excluded from this analysis because of the indistinguishable
histological morphology of the sample and because the specimen was not large enough so as to
extract the amount necessary for trace element analysis (1 gram). Once again the samples from
Harappa were used as the control. In this second part of the study though three samples were
obtained from just two individuals from the Harappa group and used as controls (HARAPPA
147a & HARAPPA 148a). Soil samples were collected from the medulla of the femurs of
specimens DDM-12, DDM-20b, and DDM-39. These particular specimens were chosen because
they are representative of the early, middle, and late phases in the stratigraphic record and may be
indicative of changes in depositional environment. The soil was analyzed via instrumental
neutron activation analysis (INAA) and the soil studied was in a solid state.
Portions of the periosteal and endosteal bone surfaces (about 3mm) were cut away with a
diamond-tipped jeweler’s saw based on the methodology supported by Lambert et al (1989) in
order to eliminate contaminants which are most prolific within 5mm of the bone surface.
Therefore,chemical cleaning was not applied to the samples and a correction factor was
implemented for soil contamination. This method was used because chemicalcleaning may have
eliminated trace elements. Because the soil samples from the sites were not found to be different,
the Damdama soil samples were analyzed for trace elements and the bone samples from Harappa
and Lekhahia were normalized to the Damdama soil samples. It was found that only four samples
experienced notable degrees of soil contamination to their endosteal portion (LKH-4, H-148a, &
DDM-25). The values for zirconium were significantly high, however, the researchers believe the
values were increased due to the instrumental neutron activation analysis and the zirconium
values are not useful for interpretation since uranium was present in all of the samples to some
degree. (Zirconium results due to uranium fission.) In five samples (DDM-3, DDM-12, H-
147(M), H-148(0), and H-148(M/I)) uranium and strontium levels were significantly high.

However,if strontium levels become too high, it becomes apparent that strontium has been
affected by diagenesis (Radosevich, 1989). Therefore,these elements were not used for dietary
analysis. The specimens from the Harappa site have significantly high strontium values. This
suggests that all of the samples from Harappa were diagenetically altered, however, samples from
the Damdama site did not experience alteration to the same extent. Altogether, mean strontium
values were greater in Damdama (487.07) than in Lekhahia (398.66).
Although silver is present in small amounts in human tissue, it is found in much greater
amounts in plant materials. Because silver concentrations are much higher in fungi, it could be
indicative of microbial activity. For instance, in LKH-4 and DDM-25, silver concentrations were
discovered in both the periosteal and endosteal portions of bone. It is thought that this may,
therefore,be due to fungal activity. Significant concentrations of arsenic were present in the
Damdama specimens (15.66 ppm), whereas,the Harappa specimens reported average
concentrations of arsenic (4.93 ppm) but a high concentration of selenium. Lekhahia had arsenic
concentrations of 9.39 ppm. This is fascinating because the samples from Harappa seem to have
such high values for strontium and uranium. (Because selenium does not reside in human bone
(Levander, 1986), it is indicative of contamination or diagenesis where it is present (Bowen,
1966: 38)). Mean barium values for Damdama were 171.35 ppm and those for Lekhahia were
230.36 ppm. The periosteal portions of the bone had greater amounts of barium than the endosteal
and mid-cortical sections. Mean zinc values for Damdama were 107.02 ppm and mean values for
Lekhahia were 65.44 ppm. Zinc has been associated with the relative amount of meat that is a
part of an individual’s diet, however, four of the samples from the Damdama site suggest that
they possessed 0 ppm of zinc. This is most likely inaccurate though since zinc is necessary for the
human metabolism. The researchers inferred that this meant that the immediate geo-chemical
profile of the environment has greater diagenetic implications than the larger site environment.
This could mean that only certain elements may be helpful when indicating diagenesis in
particular environments.

Analysis
The preceding case study illustrates how histo-taphonomic analysis could
potentially yield information about the local environment of certain mortuary contexts. The first
part of the study focuses on histological analysis of the specimens from the Damdama and
Lekhahia sites. The researchers analyzed the frequencies of the different types of bone tunneling
that resulted due to infiltration by certain micro-organisms and how these frequencies differed in
respect to what portion of the bone was infiltrated predominantly, such as periosteal, mid-cortical,
or endosteal. In this case,linear tunneling was much more prevalent, however, it is possible that
as bone degenerates,other types of tunneling may not be as apparent and therefore,assessment of
other types of tunneling such as Wedl, lamellate, and budded tunneling, may be taphonomically
biased. The researchers found that linear tunneling was much more prominent in the mid-cortical
portion of bone. This may suggest that the mid-cortical section should be the primary area of
focus during testing and analysis. Other implications, due to the greater prevalence of linear
tunneling, are that the specific microbes which cause this type of tunneling infiltrate bone sooner
than other microbes. Or, contrastingly, that the microbes that cause linear tunneling are some of
the last to compromise bone tissue. Much more research is needed in regard to whether certain
microbial activity is specific to particular environments.
In second part of this case study trace element analysis was carried out in order to make
inferences about the dietary patterns of the individuals at the two sites and compare these results
to the Harappa control group also used as the control in the first part of the study. “One major
assumption of trace element analysis is that the elements displacing hydroxyapatite ions reflect
dietary intake of elements” (Sanford, 1992). The researchers in this study used a “multi-elemental
approach.” Carnivores should have the highest strontium values with omnivores having the
second highest and herbivores having the lowest. Although plants contain greater amounts of
strontium, the amount of strontium that is apparent in an individual’s diet is “inversely related to
its position on the trophic pyramid” (Sanford 1992). However,if a carnivore consumes marine

foods then strontium levels for this individual would be greater than for a carnivore that just
consumes terrestrialfoods. This is because molluscs and crustaceans have strontium and
strontium/calcium values that mirror those of plants. Therefore, more elements are taken into
consideration. For example, barium/strontium ratios can be used to differentiate marine from
terrestrial diets in which lower ratios would implicate a marine based diet.
Only a few samples were significantly contaminated by soil (LKH-4, H-148a, and DDM-
25). According to the researcher’s findings it seems that the endosteal portion of bone may be
more susceptible to soil contamination. Alternatively, the samples from Harappa did not display
more susceptibility in the endosteal portions of bone to soil contamination, however,these
samples display much less bone integrity. Samples in Damdama and Lekhahia expressed low
amounts of selenium and high amounts of arsenic. Contrastingly, the Harappa samples express
low amounts of arsenic and high amounts of selenium. The researchers have concluded that this
may imply that arsenic is an appropriate diagenetic indicator for Damdama,or in relatively dry
locations residing in interfluvial plains and selenium is an appropriate indicator where water
fluctuates such as in Harappa. On the other hand, in Lekhahia, which resides in the highlands,
neither prove to be appropriate indicators. It may be interesting to note that the results the
researchers obtained for the Harappa sample differ from results in earlier publications but this is
attributed to a difference in methodological practices. Based on barium and strontium values that
were acquired, which were significantly higher than those for zinc, it seems that the individuals
from the Damdama and Lekhahia sites had a primarily plant-based diet. Of course it must be
taken into consideration that barium values have been associated also with fungal activity and that
some of the samples from Damdama were found to have zinc values of 0. Once again, much more
research is necessary in order to determine if certain elements indicative of diagenetic alteration
are specific to particular environments and if those elements that aren’t indicative of diagenesis
are informative regarding diet in particular environments.

Case Study: The Donner Party Alder Creek Camp Site
The Donner Party was made up of two generations of the Donner family and 80 other
travelers. They began their western migration in April, 1846. The group became stranded when a
snowstorm hit as the group decided to take a short-cut over the Sierra Nevada mountains in late
October in order to get to California (Johnson, 1996; Stewart,1988). This short-cut was known as
Hasting’s Cutoff and was characterized by uncharted terrain and rugged landscape (Hastings,
1845). The larger portion of the group took camp at the more well-known lake site, now known
as Donner Lake. Written records from this site suggested that the group resorted to cannibalism.
Interestingly, many people who are familiar with the Donner Party story are unaware that there
was a second, smaller camp site. Unfortunately, no written accounts were found at the Alder
Creek camp site where a smaller portion of the group and the Donner family took camp. Twenty
people resided at this site and they stayed in tent-like structures that were meant to be temporary
but they ended up staying there for more than four months due to harsh weather conditions that
made evacuation nearly impossible (Hardesty,1997; McGlashan, 1940; Wendell, 1945).
Because bones excavated from the Alder Creek site are so fragmentary, the researchers
had to carry out both macroscopic and histological analyses. The researchers found that the
surviving bone tissue was mostly representative of cattle, horse, deer,rabbit, and rodent bone
tissue. Because some of the bone fragments were so affected by degeneration, there were a couple
of elements that could not be identified conclusively. Thus, the researchers determined that it is
inconclusive whether or not the group at Alder Camp practiced survivor cannibalism. However,
of the fragments that were analyzed and identifiable in this study, they were determined to be
animal in origin. While this study also emphasizes the usefulness of histological analysis when
distinguishing human from non-human remains, taking into consideration butchering and
processing scars can be indicative of the tools that were utilized by this group in order to extract
marrow from the bones. Furthermore, extensive pot-polishing suggests that these individuals
were boiling these bones in order to extract bone grease and any nutrients possible. By repearedly

boiling the fractured bits of bone, trace vitamins, minerals, and calories in lipid form could be
extracted (Church & Lyman, 2003).
Scar Type Fragments
n=673
# Scars Range
Cut Marks 11.4% 319 1-20
Chop
Marks
8.6% 80 1-7
Saw
Marks
2.2% 16 1-2
Percussion
Pits
15.9% 234 1-8
Pot Polish 47.4%
Because some of the bone fragments could not be identified and not all of the fragments
have been analyzed as of yet (673 bone fragments were randomly selected from 16 excavation
units), the researchers concluded that it remains inconclusive whether the group that resided at the
Alder Creek site practiced survival cannibalism which is in contrast to conclusions drawn from
previous sensationalized popular sources (King & Steed, 1995).
Analysis
For the purposes of this paper, data involving butchering and processing marks found on
the bone fragments in the Alder Creek sample are of primary focus. Specifically, the frequency of
the various types of alterations were taken into consideration. These alterations include cut marks,
chop marks, saw marks, percussion pits, and pot-polishing. This data was incorporated into
this study because it exemplifies the manner in whichhisto-taphonomic analysis can be
used to make inferences regarding mortuary practices. In this particular case it was used to
assess potential survivor cannibalism among the Donner Party Group that resided at Alder
Creek. There is evidence of extensive processing of the bone fragments by tools in order to

extract marrow. A high frequency of pot-polishing whichindicates that these people were
trying to obtain as many nutrients as they could from these bones because their resources
were exhausted, has its ownsocial implications. It is clear at least that if survivor
cannibalism was practiced, it was avoided until all other options were gone.
Conclusion
All of the case studies presented in this paper incorporated histo-taphonomic
analysis in order to enable researchers to make sound inferences regarding mortuary context. It is
exemplified in the first case study that in instances in which skeletal remains are highly
fragmentary histological analysis can be utilized in order to distinguish human from non-human
bone. Potentially these methods could even be informative regarding the mortuary site
environment if certain microbial and tunneling activity is specific to particular environments. In
some instances, such as the case study about the Donner Party Alder Creek camp site, these
methods may even yield information about social practices. The utilization of multiple lines of
evidence is essential when making inferences about mortuary context. Histo-taphonomic methods
of analysis can be invaluable in terms of an approach when integrated with archaeological and
socio-cultural data.

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