The document examines the role of belief systems in religion, dividing them into instrumental and transcendental categories that address daily life and existential meaning, respectively. It discusses the universality of religion, citing psychological and sociological theories that view it as a response to societal needs and anxieties, as well as the roles of religious practitioners like shamans and priests. Additionally, it outlines the concept of magic in religious practice, describing types such as sympathetic, repetitive, and contagious magic.

1. BY
DR. U. A. Ojedokun

2. Introduction
 When anthropologists and sociologists study religion, they are
not trying to confirm whether God exist or not, or whether
certain religious beliefs are valid, or whether one religion is better
than the other.
 Nevertheless anthropologists agree that all religions are
characterized by the belief in supernatural beings and in their
powers to assist or harm man.
 Belief systems deal with everything that human beings perceive
and wish, everything they can imagine. It is through belief
systems that human beings give meanings to their experiences.

3. Types of belief systems
 Hunter and Whittens (1976) identified two kinds of belief systems:
 Instrumental belief systems: concerned primarily with practical life:
day-to-day subsistence activities, travel, nourishment, health and so
forth. concerned primarily with practical life: day-to-day subsistence
activities, travel, nourishment, health and so forth.
 Transcendental belief systems: take us beyond daily concerns. They
provide structure through which human beings give meaning and
purpose to existence. In other words, they address the central question
of human existence

4. The Universality of Religion
 Religious practices have been traced to Neanderthal man at
least 100, 000 years ago.
 Man’s view of the world has always included the natural and
supernatural.
 The natural order is that of the visible, the seen, the
ordinary or commonplace. The supernatural is invisible, the
unseen realm beyond the natural world, unobserved, hidden
from common sight, mysterious and unobservable (Stewart,
1973).

5. Theories on the Universality of
Religion
 Psychological theories: They suggested that religion is a response to
anxieties and uncertainties which affect all of us personally and as a
consequence, threaten to disrupt the social group. Carl Jung, a notable
psychoanalyst argued that religion can be used for therapeutic purposes
when emotional problems erupt.
 Sociological theories: suggest that religion is a reflection of society
and societal needs. Emile Durkheim, in his book, The Elementary Forms
of Religious Life, argued that religion’s primary function is to provide
human groups with the symbolic forms through which they can ritually
strengthen the group’s integration and thus, become more socially
integrated and stable. These theorists believe that religion is a creation
of the society to maintain group solidarity.

6.  Other theories: these are essentially a combination of
psychological and sociological approaches. In this context,
religion is seen as a means of cultural revitalization. In other
words, religion acts to recharge the batteries of a flagging
culture, particularly when the stability of a society is
threatened by internal or external forces. This means that
the threat of societal breakdown forces people to think of a
new way to survive.

7. Religious Practitioners
In all societies, there are certain individuals who are solely
responsible for performing certain activities by means of
which supernatural beings are propiated or influences.
It is a fact that prayers of individuals or similar activities form
the bulk of religious acts.
Nonetheless, these are often supplemented or guided by
religious practitioners who may be full-time or part-time
specialists, depending on the complexity of the society.

8. The Two Major Practitioners
 The two major practitioners recognized throughout the
world are: the shaman and the priest.
 The Shaman: otherwise known as healer or curer is a kind of
intermediary between man and the supernatural. In many societies, he
is usually a part-time religious practitioner. Shamans are generally older
and highly respected people, successful in other pursuits and very
religious. It is generally believed that to become a shaman, an individual
must be visited by a supernatural who teaches him all the acts,
techniques and functions of a shaman. The most important function,
however, is to cure disease. Two commonly known shamans in Nigeria
are Babalawo and Dibia (herbalist and traditional doctors).

9.  The Priest: unlike the shaman, gains his power largely through his
association with an organized group, not just through his ability to establish
contact with the supernatural. The priest like the shaman is also an
intermediary between man and the supernatural. Priests are sometimes marked
by their special clothing or hairstyle, as being different from other people.
Their training is very intensive and the performance of their role is often the
result of such training rather than the result of inspiration or possession by a
supernatural being, as often happens in the case of a shaman. Priests are
generally in charge of an established calendar ritual laid down by the
denomination to which they belong. Nevertheless, they too conduct rites or
ceremonies of a relatively private nature. Unlike the Shaman who manipulates
the supernatural and natural forces to obtain a desired result, priests generally
supplicate and pray for good results, accept the will of God, even if it means
failure and disappointment.
 The most orthodox are found in the well-established religions including those
of Christianity and Islam (Eckankar and Ghuru Maharatji).

10. Magic
 A lot of people believe that their actions can compel the
supernatural to act in a particular and intended way.
Anthropologists refer to such a belief and related practices
as magic.
 The main types of magic known to contemporary
anthropologists are:
 (i) sympathetic or imitative;
 (ii) repetitive; and contagious magic.

11. Sympathetic or Imitative Magic
 This type of magic is based on the principle of ‘like
produces like’. When you make an image of a person, for
instance and you damage or destroy the image, then it is
believed that the person will be destroyed. Another common
example is making a waxen image of one’s enemy and
sticking pins into it; again it is believed that the pins will
harm the body of the enemy.

12. Repetitive Magic
 This is based on the idea that things that have occurred
under a particular circumstance once will probably occur in
the same manner. For example, if a tragic event once
happened on a Saturday, say a naming ceremony ended
tragically, then one must always be careful to avoid naming
newborns on Saturdays. Also, supposing one has suffered a
misfortune after hitting one’s left toe on a stone in a market,
then one must be careful not to fall into a similar situation in
future. Generally, it appears that the idea of superstition is
based on repetitive magic.

13. Contagious Magic
 This is based on the belief that any part of an enemy’s body
like his nails or hair or any other object that he frequently
uses or has used like clothes or a handkerchief when
manipulated will affect the enemy in some intended way.
The idea of contagious magic is very old and has a wider
implication. (Samson and Delilah in the bible).

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