This document is a comprehensive guide for middle school students to learn about beasts of burden, particularly focusing on their functions, harnessing methods, and health care on the Oregon and California trails. It outlines various roles such as advertisers, yoke advisers, and veterinarians, each with specific tasks related to understanding and caring for these animals. Additionally, it provides resources, links, and evaluation criteria for students to explore the subject further.

1. Beasts of Burden
Erin L.
and
Carol T.

2. This presentation was done by Mr. Haskvitz’s Middle School
social studies classes Walnut, California. Some rights reserved—
contact information at http://www.reacheverychild.com

3. Objective
Learn about:
• animal functions, advantages, and how they
cooperate with each other on the trails
• the advantages, disadvantages, and functions of
the 3 major ox yokes in relation to the oxen used on
the trails
• yoking, harnessing, and shoeing trail animals and
being alert of animal discomfort and injuries
• the reactions of the people on the trail by ownership
of the animals
• Health and injury care for horses on the trail
• Ox, draft horse, and work and draft mule breeds
and crossbreeds (used on the trails and modern
breeds)

4. • Advertiser
Create authentic ads on at least 5 beasts of burden. Give an explanation of their functions, advantages, and
how they cooperate with one another. Interesting facts that will help persuade the buyer may also be added. Include a colored
picture and give the name of the store in which the animal can be purchased as well as any special offers it may offer.
Remember to include a price.
• Yoke adviser
Design a company’s brochure describing the 3 major ox yokes. Include their functions, advantages,
disadvantages, and any additional information or facts that may help someone looking for a yoke. Include a picture for each,
a website readers can go on for more information, and an email address for any questions or comments. (The website and
email address is made up).
• Carpenter/Blacksmith
Create a manual with instructions on how to construct a yoke, horseshoes, tacks, halters, hitches, straps, and
bells as well as harnessing it to the animal. Include diagrams and information on how to be aware of animal discomfort as
well as other injurious factors.
• Animal interactions manager
Make reviews of the pros and cons of owning a beast of burden as a person on the Oregon and California trails.
Model it on the online reviews of products (ex: name of person, star ratings, how many people found it helpful, etc.) Use trail
diaries to help.
• Veterinarian
In letter format, make a collection of letters from horse owners (written to you) regarding its health and injuries
(diseases, diet, medicine, poisonous plants, sore shoulders, etc.). Include the question the owner is asking and reply with an
answer, such as the cure or prevention to the problem mentioned, and some suggestions to make the work more efficient. Make
up a name for the owners who are writing to you.
• Breeds Expert
Create a fact book about ox, draft horse, and mule breeds and common crossbreeds. Give a brief explanation for
each breed and include a picture. For oxen and draft horses, bullet facts about their color, weight ranges, uses, and behavior. For
mule, explain the different kinds of mule and their functions.
Jobs

5. In a group of six, each player takes
a job: advertiser, yoke adviser,
carpenter/blacksmith, animal
interactions manager, veterinarian, or
breeds expert. For each job, there is a
task to be completed. To complete the
task, the players can use the links
provided on the next page.
Directions

6. Cow Power
http://motherearthnews.com/library/1998_August_September/Cow_Power
This site supplies you with insights of the real farm power of cows. The complaints of the farmers, types of equipment used to harness and
control the cows, yoking of the animals, and substitutions of cows for oxen are all provided in the site. The benefits of owning an ox and the characteristics of
cows and oxen in contrast can be learned in this site. The ability of cooperation of the animals is also included.
Yokes and Harnessing
http://www.taws.org/TAWS2004/TAWS04-Conroy-040419-A4-all.pdf
This site provides the three major ox yokes. Harnessing techniques are also shown to reinforce the background you have for yoking.
Caution tips are given for yoking. The relationship between the oxen’s body and how well a yoke may be able to fit on it is given as well. The ability for one
who puts on a yoke to understand the discomfort an animal being yoked is feeling and tips for him/her to know whether a yoke is inappropriate for the animal
is supplied.
Donkeys, Mules, Horses, and Ox
http://www.gaianar.com/
This site has information on the differences and similarities of donkeys and mules. Basic information about the animals is also provided,
along with averages of their lengths and sizes. The many uses of the donkey in comparison and contrast to the mule are described in detail. Donkeys and
mules, usually thought of as the same animal with various names, are actually different animals.
Categories of horses are shown in charts and have numerous facts about them. The uses each type of horse is used for are also provided. The
averages for horses are given and the pros and cons of the horses are shown.
Ox and buffalo, two other beasts of burdens with astounding characteristics that are usually not assumed, have many uses to the people
traveling west. To the travelers, these strong and bulky animals are an important part of their journey westward. The abilities of these animals cannot be
measured.
(click on DOMESTIC ANIMALS and then the animals mentioned above)
Diary Links
http://www.isu.edu/%7Etrinmich/00.n.dairies.html
http://www.octa-trails.org/TheLearningCenter/TrailStories/FuelingJourney.asp
These two links provide diaries of the owners of the beasts of burdens on the trail. The original travelers write the hardships and dangers the
people went through. Vivid detail and anguish is expressed through these diaries, along with their discoveries.
Mule, Horse, and Ox (in detail)
http://ruralheritage.com/
(Click: Mule Paddock, Ox Paddock, Horse Paddock, Tack Room, Village Smithy, Equipment Shed, Vet Clinic, Sale Barn)
This site provides a number of information regarding mules, oxen, and draft horses. It includes their definition, functions, advantages
over the other, health and feet care, hoof care and parts, and curing sores. The anatomy, breeds, behavior problems, housing, and sale is also provided on this
site. It also includes information on harnessing, tacks, shoeing, hitches, and halters, as well as straps and bells that can be attached to the animal’s harness.
Links

7. Rubric
Completeness: how complete was it? Did they follow the directions in their task?
Advertiser 1 2 3 4 5
Yoke Adviser 1 2 3 4 5
Yoke Carpenter 1 2 3 4 5
Animal Interactions Manager 1 2 3 4 5
Veterinarian 1 2 3 4 5
Breeds Expert 1 2 3 4 5
Total /30
Accuracy: how informative were they? Is it detailed?
Advertiser 1 2 3 4 5
Yoke Adviser 1 2 3 4 5
Yoke Carpenter 1 2 3 4 5
Animal Interactions Manager 1 2 3 4 5
Veterinarian 1 2 3 4 5
Breeds Expert 1 2 3 4 5
Total /30
Neatness: was it neat? Organized?
Advertiser 1 2 3 4 5
Yoke Adviser 1 2 3 4 5
Yoke Carpenter 1 2 3 4 5
Animal Interactions Manager 1 2 3 4 5
Veterinarian 1 2 3 4 5
Breeds Expert 1 2 3 4 5
Total /30
Creativity: how creative were they? Did they color it?
Advertiser 1 2 3 4 5
Yoke Adviser 1 2 3 4 5
Yoke Carpenter 1 2 3 4 5
Animal Interactions Manager 1 2 3 4 5
Veterinarian 1 2 3 4 5
Breeds Expert 1 2 3 4 5
Total /30
…………….
Grand Total
/120
Other
Beasts of Burden Worksheet /10
3 Major Yokes Worksheet /10
Ox Hoof Worksheet /12
Test /49
Total /81
Comments:

8. 3 Major Ox Yokes
Complete the table: List the advantages and disadvantages of the head yoke, neck yoke, and withers yoke.
Head Yoke Neck Yoke Withers Yoke
Advantages Disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages

9. Answer Key
Head Yoke Neck Yoke Withers Yoke
Advantages Disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages
Best animal control Discomfort on uneven
terrain
Comfort on uneven
terrain
Less animal control Simple and flexible Animals are hard to
control during training
Best for controlling carts
or wagons on hilly terrain
Animals have to have
rugged horns
Animal flexibility and
maneuverability in the
field of forest
Animals can fight
each other and pull
away from each other
in the yoke
Does not interfere with
movement and
comfort of animal
Break more easily
than other yokes
For short heavy hauls the
ox can more easily lift
and start the load
The yoke is more
complicated to make
and fit
Yoking time is fast Sore necks and
bruised shoulders can
easily develop if not
fitted properly
Easily constructed
with minimal hand
tools
Cannot be improved
or designed to widen
surface area on hump
or top of neck as
animal grows
No sore necks Yoking time is slow No need for horns Appropriate materials
or a flexible wood is
necessary for bows
Staves are easily and
quickly repaired
Frequently made with
narrow pole
Can be used to eliminate
problems like sore
necks, animals fighting
each other holding their
heads in the correct
position when in the neck
yoke
Nova Scotian yokes
are so precisely fitted
the yokes cannot
often be used on
another team
One yoke can be used
on many teams and
different bows can be
used to allow the
same yoke to be used
as animals grow
Difficult to control
animals pulling
wagons, carts, or
sleds on hilly terrain
Can be used on many
different teams
without special
equipment or
adjustments

10. Matching
Directions: Match each description with the corresponding word.
A. Some would say that these animals provide the best farm
draft-power.
B. These are used to keep control of cows and capture the
power of oxen.
C. Known for its temperamental tempers and have the ability to
climb steep hills.
D. A domestic animal with a friendly and docile characteristic and
can handle hostile environments and do not require special
feed.
E. A horse suitable for smaller people and is 75% of the regular
riding horse.
F. A horse used for war.
G. The regular horse used for riding.
H. Used to pull wagon trains or stagecoaches.
I. Are not usually ridden but are used to pull large objects
______ oxen
riding horses
______donkey
______draft horse
______ pygmy horse
______yokes and harnesses
______war horse
______cows
Answers:
I;G;C;H;E;B;F;A

11. Ox Hoof
Directions: Write the correct word on each line.
Claw Bones & Tendons
Cross Section of Claw

12. Answer Key
Claw Bones & Tendons
Cross Section of Claw
Coronary Band
Wall
Bulb
Coronary Band
Coronary Cushion
Wall
Coffin Bone
Lamellae
Sole Bulb
Digital Cushion
Coffin Joint

13. 1. For what reason have cattle been yoked for thousands of years?
2. Why do cattle work in pairs?
3. How do cattle differ from equines in their anatomy and physiology?
4. What is the reason that cattle are not likely to make good mates with horses in
a yoke?
5. Who suffers more when the donkey and ox are yoked together?
6. What are the anatomical differences of the oxen?
7. What provided cattle and sheep good protein?
8. How did the beasts of burden, such as cattle, sheep, or horses relate to lack of
feed?
9. What are the differences between the personalities of the donkey and mule?
10. How do you determine an Undead mule from a live mule?
11. Why can riding horses manage well in most temperate climates?
12. How much taller does a war horse stand than a regular riding horse? What
are the physical differences?
13. What are the pros and cons of the war horse?
14. What are draft horses used for? How are they usually sold?
Test

14. 15. List the similarities and differences between the oxen and the other beasts of
burden such as horses, mules, or donkeys.
16. What animal was most often used to pull the wagons of pioneers?
17. What complaints did pioneers show for these animals?
18. Which yoke works best on humped cattle? Why?
19. What is the most popular design of head yokes?
20. What is a “good” yoke or harnessing system for oxen?
21. What should you do before giving up on a yoke if the animals breakdown?
22. Why is it difficult for oxen to use a horse collar and the driving harness?
23. What is the neck yoke designed to do? What part of the neck yoke allows it to
do so?
24. What signs will an animal give if the yoke is uncomfortable?
25. What are the consequences for ignoring the animal’s comfort?
26. What is the best wood and log to make an ox yoke?
27. Why should all corners and edges be beveled or rounded?
28. What is an ox?
29. What was a disadvantage of the steer, compared to an ox?
30. What is an ox called in Australia or other places?
Test (continued)

15. 31. What are the average weight and appearance of an ox in contrast with a bull?
32. Name the different pure breeds of oxen.
33. Name the four common oxen crossbreeds.
34. What is a draft horse?
35. What is a mule?
36. Name five common classes of mule and their characteristics.
37. Name at least two advantages of draft animals.
38. What are the problems for fitting a mule or donkey halter?
39. Describe the head or face of a horse, donkey, and mule.
40. What should be used when working a horse with sore shoulders?
41. What are some of the standard rules when trimming draft horse hooves?
42. What are the common causes of chipping and cracking of the hoof wall between the
nail holes and shoe?
43. How do horseshoes benefit a horse?
44. What other things should you do besides trimming the hoof if a foal has knock-
knees?
45. Name three materials involved in shoeing.
46. Name the three styles of horseshoe.
47. Name the three common nail heads.
48. What are reasons why mule kick?
49. What can you do if a mule kicks when you trim or shoe it?
Test (continued)

16. 1. They easily adapt to training without complicated bridles, nose rings, bits, reins and harnesses. Trying to
adapt a harnessing system required for another species often shows ignorance toward the cattle being worked.
2. They are herd animals that are calmed and more easily controlled by the presence of another animal. Single
cattle can be worked, but it takes more effort in training and more complicated yokes to accomplish any task of
transport or plowing.
3. Cattle hold their heads lower, have more prominent and loosely attached shoulders, walk slower, and are more
deliberate and more tolerant in difficult environments. They are also thicker skinned, less likely to become lame,
and more likely to stand their ground, rather than run in fright.
4. Donkeys are more like cattle in their nature, but are still anatomically very different than cattle in the way
they are put together. Simply watching donkeys and cattle yoked together portrays the reasons you cannot expect
equines to wear yokes.
5. Donkeys and an ox yoked together can be forced to work, but the donkeys suffer miserably.
6. An ox has shoulders that protrude at a low angle from his body. These shoulders are highly mobile and more
loosely attached than those of a horse or donkey.
7. sagebrush; burned, sprayed or disked under to make way for grass species like crested wheat grass
8. Thousands of cattle, horses and oxen traveled the same route during the growing season for years on end.
9. While donkeys can be temperamental, mules are friendly and docile.
10. Undead mule is one of the fiercest of the Undead monsters, while live mules are harmless and good-natured.
11. Riding horses have good stamina and can manage in temperate climates.
12. They stand about a foot taller than a normal horse, and are strong enough to wear armor as well as an armored
rider. This is a faster, tougher, stouter version of the simple riding horse.
13. Warhorses handle mountains somewhat better than riding horses, but overheat quickly in the desert. They
also must be fed high quality grains and plenty of water. Simple grazing will not do.
14. This type of mount is often used serially to pull large objects such as a stagecoach or wagon train. These
animals are usually sold in pairs and are trained to function in groups.
Answer Key

17. 15. Oxen are less intelligent than horses but are also less skittish. Like mules, they can get by on grazing
alone. Their speed and carrying capacity are somewhere between that of a horse and a giant snail. They
are hardy and handle most climates. Like draft horses, they are often sold in pairs. They also make good
use in agricultural settings.
16. Oxen
17. "We had to risk our lives in roping them. After being kicked across the pen some half-dozen times and run over
as often, we at last succeeded in leading them out. It was laughable."
"What perverse brutes these mules are. The beasts! How I hate `em."
18. Withers yoke; the hitch point pulls the yoke up high on the withers.
19. the style that lies on the back of the head and ties to the horns
20. One that minimizes breakdowns of the animal and equipment. The system chosen must be comfortable for the
animal.
21. evaluate the comfort, design, and appropriateness of the yoking system
22. The horse collar on an ox must be lifted and pushed forward with each shoulder with every step it takes,
especially while doing heavy work such as logging or plowing. The driving harness squeezes the shoulders of the ox
under a heavy load when it needs them to move and maneuver with.
23. It captures the power of the ox through the use of its neck and shoulders. The dropped hitch point allows it to do
so.
24. throw their heads up and down, twist their heads back and forth, being reluctant to pull, not holding head up, or
straining in the yoke even under light work
25. The ox may have wounds, bruising and scar tissue development, and an unwillingness to work when poorly
fitted or improperly made yokes are used.
26. The best woods are hardwoods that are difficult to split and numerous softwoods but the strength is limited. The
best log is one that is free of knots and two to three times the diameter needed.
27. It will protect the yoke from weather, give it a smooth attractive appearance, and prevent any rapid moisture
escape and cracking.
28. An ox, to early American farmers who used the beast, was a mature castrated male belonging to the
domestic cattle family, or genus Bos, most likely trained to work, and at the end of its life inevitably used for
meat.
29. A steer may not be trained like an ox to work.
30. Bullock
Answer Key (continued)

18. 31. Most oxen weigh about the same as a mature bull of the same breed, but the ox grows taller and leaner in the neck
and chest.
32. American Milking Devon, Ayrshire, Brown Swiss , Charolais, Chianina, Dexter, Dutch Belted, Guernsey, Horned
Hereford , Holstein, Jersey, Lineback ,Milking Shorthorn , Scotch Highland, Texas Longhorn , Zebu (Brahman)
33. Chianina-Holstein , Devon-Holstein, Hereford-Holstein, Shorthorn-Holstein
34. a horse of any size trained to pull a load
35. A mule is the hybrid that results from mating a female horse (mare) with a male donkey (jack). The horse's breed
is used to designate the mule's breed. A mule inherits its size and strength from the horse, and its surefootedness and
supreme sense of self-preservation from the donkey.
36. (any three) Miniature mules: sometimes called "pony mules" because they are bred from pony mares, stand 40" to
48" at the withers. They are teamed for pulling small wagons and used as trick mules by rodeo clowns; Saddle mules:
usually 54" or greater in height. They are used primarily for riding; Pack mules: strong, sturdy, and usually short
legged. They weigh 1,000 pounds or more, making them capable of carrying a good deal of weight. They have no height
limit, but packers prefer short mules to tall ones because they are easier to load; Work mules: may be any weight, but
they usually range between 900 and 1,300 pounds. They are strongly built and are used to pull wagons and farm
equipment, and to do odd jobs around the farm, homestead, and garden. Soundness and working ability are all-
important for this animal. Less important are age, looks, conformation, and color—although they are most often a
dark color, such as bay, brown, or black; Draft mules: large and heavy but refined animals standing 60" high or
more, weighing 1,200 pounds or more, and coming in all colors depending largely on the color of the dam
37. (any two) Draft animals tread lightly on the land and do minuscule damage. They help plant and harvest
their own "fuel," making you less dependent on fossil fuels. They cost less than mechanized equipment, they
don't depreciate as rapidly, and they don't break down as often. They work well in hilly terrain that defies a
tractor. They can work soil that's wet enough to bog down machinery. They let you easily work without human
helpers—a properly trained team will follow voice commands. Their slower pace gives you plenty of time to think
while you work, making you less likely to get hurt in an accident. They offer companionship.
Answer Key (continued)

19. 38. When a halter is at the proper length, the noseband is too tight. When a noseband fits, the halter hangs off the
end of the nose even when buckled at the last hole.
39. Horse: long, relatively rectangular face; Donkey: deeper through the jaw, shorter in overall length, eye sockets are
D-shaped, which accounts for the prominent brow ridges and the characteristic "sad" or "patient expression; Mule:
combination of the boxy shape of horse’s head but with deeper jaw, head is slightly larger than a horse of the same
size
40. A vinyl-sided collar pad
41. The angle of the hoof depends and should match the angle of the horse’s shoulder and pastern. Toes should be
kept as short as possible. The toe or quarters should have no flares. The frog should always touch the ground. The
toe and edges may be rolled if necessary to prevent chipping.
42. Failing to shoe the horse on a timely schedule, failing to drive the nails high enough to get into good hoof wall,
and diet
43. It helps the horse stand structurally, improves the horse’s manner of movement, and controls interference
problems.
44. Exercise the foal twice daily by hand walking for 15-30 minutes. Massage the legs, top to bottom, for 10
minutes each leg. Ice-bag the knees for 15 minutes using one cup of isopropyl alcohol and three cups of water.
Options include using a knee brace, completing a surgery, epiphysial stapling, and casting.
45. (any three) horseshoe nails or frost nails, borium, calks, clinches, and clips
46. Scotched, rockered toe, and rolled toe
47. City, regular, and race
48. They are afraid, trying to defend themselves, just plain malicious, hurt and fighting the pain, or the possibility
of pain, or remembering a time when pain was inflicted
49. Have a vet administer medication to help it overcome its phobia, use a twitch to calm the animal while it is in
place, a pull on an attached stud chain to possibly change its ill ways, hobbles to tie up the legs, stocks to restrain it,
and desensitizing (having the animal get used to the fear stimulus so that he/she no longer takes notice)
Answer Key (continued)

20. Picture ThisPicture This
Hors
e
Mule Donke
y
The general skull shape of long-eared equines is the problem for fitting
halters and nosebands on a mule and donkey.
Horse
Mule
Donkey
Perfect!Perfect! Loose Small/Tight
Source: http://ruralheritage.com/tack_room/longhalter.htm
• Halters and Nosebands

21. Claw Bones & Tendons
Coronary Band
Wall
Bulb
Cross Section of Claw
Coronary Band
Coronary
Cushion
Wall
Lamellae
Coffin Bone Sole Bulb
Digital
Cushion
Coffin Joint
Coronary Band: area at top of hoof that is usually soft and
shiny and may be pink
Wall: consists of tough horn, in a shape of a tube, that is
smooth and shiny with faint ridges parallel to the coronary
band.
Bulb: back part of hoof that is continuous with coronary band,
made up of soft, rubbery horn
• Ox Hoof
Coronary Cushion: mass of elastic tissue and veins under
coronary band, pumps blood through foot back into body
when ox exercises
Lamellae: hundreds of tiny ridges attached to coffin bone
by strong fibers and covered by lower part of inside wall
Coffin Bone: triangular bone at end of digit (toe)
Sole: bottom of hoof that is rounded inward, thicker towards
heel and sloping away from outside wall
Digital Cushion: area within bulb, functions as elastic
shock absorber and may work as pump to force blood back up
limb as ox walks
Source: http://ruralheritage.com/ox_paddock/oxhoof.htm

22. • Ox Pure Breeds
American Milking Devon
Ayrshire
Brown Swiss
Charolais
Chianina
Dexter Dutch Belted Guernsey
Horned Hereford
Holtstein Jersey
Lineback
Milking Shorthorn
Scotch Highland Texas Longhorn Zebu (Brahman)
Source: http://ruralheritage.com/ox_paddock/oxbreeds1.htm#devon
(and following pages)

23. • Ox Common Crossbreeds
Chianina-Holstein
Devon-Holstein
Hereford-Holstein
Shorthorn-Holstein
Source: http://ruralheritage.com/ox_paddock/oxbreeds6.htm#chianholst

24. American Milking Devon: In early American and English agricultural books, the Devon has been frequently cited as one of the
best breeds for draft purposes. They are not recommended for beginning teamsters because of its livelier temperament than
other oxen. When trained, they make fine work animals. The Devon is red and is quick as well as being alert.
Ayrshire: It is easily recognized by its long horns and tends to be more active than many of the other breeds and may be
challenging. They carry more flesh and muscle than other dairy breeds, and their size makes them a good choice as an all-
around farm or woods team. The Ayrshire is red and white.
Brown Swiss: It tends to be calm, forgiving, and easy going yet slow in motion. This makes them a great choice for the novice
teamster. They grow faster and larger than many other breeds which may be a disadvantage for young teamsters or those
with limited facilities and small transport trailers. Their color ranges from a light to dark brown.
Charolais: It is a large, white beef breed with heavy muscling and a rugged frame. It is used often for draft purposes. They are
white, moderately alert, and active.
Chianina: They are among the world’st largest breeds of cattle. The true Italian Chianina is white with a black nose. Others
are polled, black or dark-colored, smaller in stature, and thicker in muscle than the original. They are alert and excitable.
When crossed with other breeds, the animal loses the horns, stature, and athletic build which are desired by ox teamsters.
Dexter: It is an Irish breed which has gained popularity with hobby farmers in the U.S. It is one of the smallest recognized
breeds. Because of its size, it makes it easy to feed and care for. These rugged animals are quick and alert. When untrained
while young or handled regularly, they can be helpful. The Dexter is usually black but may come as dark red or dun.
Dutch Belted: They are easily recognized by the white belt around their bellies. Their horns, short hair, and dairy character
distinguish it from the Belted Galloway. It is easy to work for being moderately docile but is quite rare.
Guernsey: They are not often used as draft animals, but their calm easy-going attitude makes them ideal for beginning
teamsters. Their good size makes them fine animals for the small farm or homestead. It is a lean dairy breed and is
recommended to choose rugged calves for strong feet and straight legs. They are brown or fawn with white patches.
Horned Hereford: It is favored by Nova Scotian ox teamsters who prefer the head yoke over the neck yoke. It is generally
calm, easy going, and tends to carry more flesh than dual-purpose or dairy breeds. The earlier the cattle is handled and
trained to the yoke the better. They are dark red with a white face.
Holstein: It is the most popular dairy breed in the U.S. which makes it easy for teamsters to find in most areas. They have an
agreeable disposition of being calm and get quite large. They are usually black and white but are sometimes red and white.
Jersey: It is a common first team for youngsters but is not often seen in yokes when young. They are curious by nature and
are more headstrong than other breeds. Their small size and light muscling make them unattractive to the teamster looking for
rugged, working cattle. They are easier to match than some other breeds and are inexpensive. The Jersey comes in any
shade of brown and is sometimes marked with black or white.
Source: http://ruralheritage.com/ox_paddock/oxbreeds1.htm#devon (and following pages)

25. Lineback: It is considered a dual-purpose breed. It is a rare breed of striking color that is desired by teamsters seeking
easily matched teammates. They are not as easy going as that of some breeds but are appreciated for being
moderately active and excitable.
Milking Shorthorn: It is easy to train especially when raised as calves and has a calm temperament. Many believe that
this breed is hard to beat for good all-around oxen. It is commonly crossed with the Holstein and may be larger and
more angular than animals in the past. They come in red, red and white, white, or roan.
Scotch Highland: It is easily recognized by its uniquely long, shaggy hair and long horns. It is a beef breed that is not
often trained as an ox and is active. They should be handled as calves. The long hair creates a challenge when
worked in warm weather. They come in all black, brown, grey, or white.
Texas Longhorn: Although it is a beef breed, it is leaner and more athletic than many other beef breeds. Their long
horns are impressive but can be a challenge when yoking, housing, and trucking the animals. They are smart and
require a little more effort in training than other breeds, especially when they had run around the pasture and little
handling as calves. It comes in any color or combination and is active and alert.
Zebu: Also called Brahman, they are the most common used cattle used for oxen globally. This active animal comes in
many breeds and colors but is usually gray or grayish brown. American Zebus are much larger than the same breed
seen abroad. Like other beef breeds, they are easier and more enjoyable to train when handled frequently.
Chianina-Holstein: Crossing the Holstein and the Chianina make the largest breeds in the dairy and beef industries.
The cross combines the height, athletic build, temperament, and strong feet and legs of the Chianina with the body,
easy-going attitude, and color of the Holstein. The cross is easier and cheaper to acquire than purebred Chianinas.
Calves born on dairy farms make it easy to acquire them and begin training and matching them up at a young age.
They come in a black or brownish black color and are moderately active.
Devon-Holstein: It is sometimes called the “black-Devon” and is popular for its striking solid black color, moderate
temperament of being quick and alert, and medium size. It combines the athletic ability and temperament of the Devon
with the size and black color of the Holstein.
Hereford-Holstein: It is a common cross in New England and is leaner than the Hereford and more muscular than the
Holstein. Its easy-going temperament makes it desirable among young teamsters. It is black and white with a white
head and face.
Shorthorn-Holstein: It may be almost all black, black and white, or blue roan. This is cross is common in New England
and both pure breeds are often seen in ox teams. They are attractive for its calm temperament, striking color, gentle
nature, and good muscling.
Source: http://ruralheritage.com/ox_paddock/oxbreeds6.htm

26. • Draft Horse Breeds
American Cream Spotted Draft
American Belgian (roan)
Clydesdale
Shire
Percheron (gray)
Suffolk
Ardennais
Comtois
Rhinelander
Morgan
Haflinger
Norwegian Fjord Source: http://ruralheritage.com/horse_paddock/breeds5.htm (and following pages)

27. American Cream: It is a rare breed for its unusual color that has a compact build, powerful shoulders, and
hindquarters, strong leg and feet, muscular back, and long, powerful neck. This horse appeals to people who need a
powerful yet not large draft animal. It is not energetic and bold to be intimidating to the novice horse handler. They are
calm, trustworthy and determined, commonly used for medium draft work, driving, carriage service, and riding.
Spotted: It comes in a flashy brown and white or black and white color. It sometimes has feathering on its legs. It is
used for logging, plowing, and other farm and ranch work, and riding. It is willing, docile, and quiet, usually used for a
medium to heavy draft work.
Belgian: It has been bred for its ability to efficiently convert feed to flesh and muscle. It has heavy muscling, a deep
chest, wide barrel, powerful hindquarters, and an active boldness, yet is eager and obedient. It is used for heavy draft
and farm work.
Clydesdale: In their home country, Clyde River Valley of Scotland, they are known for their size, power, and snappy
looks. They can pull heavy loads, but also look stylish while doing it. Because of its abilities and appearance, they are
not only called a farm horse, but also a freight horse. A trademark of this breed is the abundant white feathering on its
feet. It is active yet gentle and responsive.
Shire: It is used to draw heavy carts for farm markets and in large teams to plow the expansive fields of the English
Shires, which was the origination of the name of the breed. As the tallest horse breed in the world, it has a long,
muscular but refined back. The legs of a Shire are longer than those of most draft horse breeds and have dense, silky
feathering, and a snappy active way of going. The Shire has great strength and endurance, as well as a docile, kind,
and hardworking temperament.
Percheron: They are compact and muscular, have a crested neck, and have an elegance and active way of going.
Their face is refined with the large, dark eyes of an Arab. Colors may range from black to dapple gray or blue roan,
and some may eventually turn white. In some areas, sorrel is a common color. They have little feathering on the legs
and are used for farming and logging. They are active, energetic, good-natured, and intelligent.
Suffolk: They are the only draft horse originally developed as a plow horse. This agricultural horse is docile, has
power, stamina, health, and longevity. Its short conformation is strong for agriculture. Lack of feathering allows it to
work efficiently in heavy or wet grounds. Short cannon bones and muscular shoulders and forearms give them
excellent “pull” and efficient leverage for their size, as well as bringing them closer to the ground and making them
easier to harness, groom, and trailer than the taller draft horses.

28. Ardennais: They are also known as the Belgian Ardennais or Ardennes; a heavy-boned, yet still agile breed of horse.
They originate from the Ardennes region of France, Belgium, and Luxemborg. One of the earliest heavy breeds, the
Ardennais has a recent strong infusion of Brabant blood for its size and strength. It has a compact and small body,
with a short back, and massive legs usually covered with feathering. Having been developed in a harsh environment,
this breed of horse is easy to handle, naturally hardy and economical to keep. The color of this heavy breed is bay or
roan, sometimes chestnut or black. It is a docile and tolerant breed used for heavy draft, farm work, and logging.
Comtois: It came from the Jura regions of France. Earlier this century, this breed of horse faced the great and
dangerous possibility of becoming extinct. However, its population was revived by crossbreeding mares with small bay
Ardennais stallions, which was a practice stopped in 1925. This active horse has a square head, straight and muscular
neck, wide and deep chest, broad croup, and strong legs. The Comtois has been bred for hardiness, endurance, and
agility in rugged mountain areas. This breed is chestnut or bay, used for medium draft work, farm work, and logging.
Rhineland: Also known as Rhenisch-Deutsches Kaltblut, Rhenish-Belgian, Rhenish-German, or German Coldblood, it
is a rare horse breed that was once quite common in Germany but its population has been limited to 2000. It has a
short and strong neck, with a wide back, deep and broad chest, and short, powerful, lightly feathered legs. This
chestnut, bay, gray roan, strawberry roan, and sometimes brown or black breed is used for heavy draft, agriculture,
and forestry.
Morgan: This little bay stallion has been “improved” to a heavier, larger draft type in the early 1900s and later into a
taller, finer-boned saddle-type horse for show. The Morgan is powerfully built with a wide, muscular chest and
hindquarters, a long, arched, well-muscled neck, a small head with large nostrils, wide eyes and small, alert ears. The
legs are strong with no feathering on the pasterns and the hooves are medium-sized. Powerfully built with a wide,
muscular chest and hindquarters, the Morgan has a long, arched, well-muscled neck, a small head with large nostrils,
wide eyes and small, alert ears. The legs are strong with no feathering on the pasterns and the hooves are medium-
sized. This chestnut, bay, or black breed with white markings on its face and lower legs is used for driving and riding
and is active and good natured.
Quarterhorses: It is merited for its superiorities in western riding and working cattle. Commonly used for light draft, this
breed has been divided into two distinct types: racing Quarterhorses, and the old type of Quarterhorses. For light draft,
the old type of Quarterhorse is preferred, for its muscular build, and docile temper. The Quarterhorse is medium sized
with a compact body, muscular chest, short back with deep heart girth, and powerful hindquarters, giving it strength for
pulling, as well as a quick take-off in a race or when working cattle. It has a broad forehead and large eyes, and there
is no feathering on its feet.

29. Haflinger: Known in Austria as Edelweiss Ponies, their name comes from the village of Hafling in the Austrian Tyrolean
mountain region near Italy. For farmers of the Alps, it is a small, powerful, economical, and sure-footed tractor. It can
do two-thirds the work of a heavy horse for one-third the feed costs. It looks similar to a small Belgian horse but the two
are unrelated. Powerful for their size, they are used for draft work on many modern Amish farms. They can readily
navigate steep terrain and narrow paths because they evolved in the mountains. They are sturdy enough to carry adults
and easily handled, groomed, and harnessed by children and short adults because of its gentle nature and small size.
The Haflinger comes in a range of chestnut shades, is determined, and hardworking and used for light draft, driving,
riding, packing, and pulling.
Norwegian Fjords: They are close descendents of the ancient wild horses painted on cave walls by early humans.
Having been domesticated for over 4,000 years, this breed is sturdy, powerfully built, strong, and lives long. Because of
the dorsal stripe that runs from the forelock into the tail, the center hair of the mane is often black while the outer hair is
white. The mane is usually trimmed short but is wavy when grown out. This horse has a long, proud, stylish, and
cheerful way of walking. Because of their hardiness, common sense, willingness to work, and easy keeping, Fjords are
used in remote, rugged locations, from Norway to Alaska and areas in the South. They are quick learners, trained
easily, and rarely need retraining even after long periods of inactivity. They are one of the most docile and friendly
“people” horses around. They are dun in various shades of cream, silver, red, and gray. Fjords are usually used for
light draft and logging, riding, driving, and packing.
Source: http://ruralheritage.com/horse_paddock/breeds5.htm (and following pages)

30. • Work and Draft Mule Breeds
Fyord Quarterhorse
Shetland (black)
American Cream
Belgian (sorrel) Percheron (bay) Shire (black)
Suffolk
Source: http://ruralheritage.com/mule_paddock/mule_whatis.htm

31. Head Yoke Neck Yoke Withers Yoke
Advantages Disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages
Best animal control Discomfort on uneven
terrain
Comfort on uneven
terrain
Less animal control Simple and flexible Animals are hard to
control during training
Best for controlling carts or
wagons on hilly terrain
Animals have to have
rugged horns
Animal flexibility and
maneuverability in the
field of forest
Animals can fight each
other and pull away
from each other in the
yoke
Does not interfere with
movement and comfort
of animal
Break more easily than
other yokes
For short heavy hauls the
ox can more easily lift and
start the load
The yoke is more
complicated to make
and fit
Yoking time is fast Sore necks and bruised
shoulders can easily
develop if not fitted
properly
Easily constructed with
minimal hand tools
Cannot be improved or
designed to widen
surface area on hump
or top of neck as animal
grows
No sore necks Yoking time is slow No need for horns Appropriate materials or
a flexible wood is
necessary for bows
Staves are easily and
quickly repaired
Frequently made with
narrow pole
Can be used to eliminate
problems like sore necks,
animals fighting each other
holding their heads in the
correct position when in
the neck yoke
Nova Scotian yokes are
so precisely fitted the
yokes cannot often be
used on another team
One yoke can be used
on many teams and
different bows can be
used to allow the same
yoke to be used as
animals grow
Difficult to control
animals pulling wagons,
carts, or sleds on hilly
terrain
Can be used on many
different teams without
special equipment or
adjustments
3 Major Ox Yokes
Source: http://www.taws.org/TAWS2004/TAWS04-Conroy-040419-A4-all.pdf

32. Shoe Good Bad
Glued shoe: glued with tabs to
the outside hoof wall
- Allows to shoe a horse when there is no way
to nail a shoe to the hoof, because the walls
are broken or chipped away, or because the
horse is too young.
- Cost is about $200 over the cost of four
steel shoes
- Do not stay on well in cold or wet climates
because the glue will not hold
Two-piece shoe: steel shoe
with a removable plastic insert,
nail to the hoof with specially
designed nails, and insert a
plastic liner into the ground
side of the steel shoe
- Adds cushioning to the hoof - Costs about $150 over the cost of steel
shoes
- Hard to shape to hoof
- Cannot be put on hot
- Needs special tools to put on inserts and
special nails to nail the shoe to the hoof
Aluminum shoe - Lightweight
- Easy to work cold
- Can be worked hot with some practice
- Cost about $40 over four steel shoes
- Wear away and need to be replaced
more often than steel
- Bends readily if the horse is a trailer or is
a stall kicker
Plastic-coated steel or
aluminum shoe
- Adds some cushioning that is kind on horses
used on hard roads
- Four shoes cost about $100 over the cost
of steel shoes
- Difficult to shape to some feet
- Cannot be put on hot
- Too thick for some horses causing the
horse to stumble
Horseshoes
Source: http://ruralheritage.com/village_smithy/horseshoes.htm

33. Shoe Good Bad
Plastic shoe - Provides nice padding that cushions the hoof
from shock, aiding in the recovery of hoof
injuries and diseases that require cushioning
(bruises and soft tissue injuries of the hoof and
leg, or bone and joint problems)
- Easy to fit to the hoof and can be trimmed
with nippers, knife, or rasp
- Cost about $40 over the cost of four steel
shoes
- Slippery on grass and wet pavement, but
work better with grabs (traction devices on
the ground side of the shoe)
- Does not support the hoof equally, and
the hoof wall will sometimes chip under the
shoe, and mud or stones will collect
between hoof and shoe
- Nails are sometimes difficult to place
- Does not hold up worth a hoot in the forge
so cannot hot shoe
Steel shoe: has been around
for nearly 2,000 years, has a
proven track record, and is
inexpensive
- Easy to modify cold but easier hot
- Can be welded and made into any needed
shape
- Gives good support to the entire hoof wall
- Comfortable
- Can be reset (used more than once) most of
the time
- Nails up nicely
Horseshoes (continued)
Source: http://ruralheritage.com/village_smithy/horseshoes.htm

34. They are great… …maybe not?
• Tread lightly on land and therefore causes less
damage to it
• Help plant and harvest their own “fuel,” making
you less dependent on fossil fuels
• Cost less than mechanized equipment, do not
depreciate as rapidly, and do not break down often
• Work well in hilly terrain
• Can work soil that is wet
• Let you easily work without human helpers—
properly trained team follows voice commands
• Slow pace—gives you plenty of time to think while
you work, making you less likely to get hurt in an
accident
• Offer companionship
• Require training or needs to adjust to new owner
• Owner must be trained and never stops learning
• Owner needs patience—must understand the
animal even though it cannot tell the owner
• Must be worked regularly to keep their bodies in
condition and to remind them of their training
• Require health care, veterinary checks, and
vaccinations
• Need frequent hoof trimming and maybe shoes—
shoeing requires the skill of an experienced
professional
• Eats even though there is no work to be done
• Owners have to be with the animal everyday to
feed, exercises, or work them, and to make sure the
animal is okay
• Require land to live on and to work
Draft Animals
Source: http://ruralheritage.com/horse_paddock/horsepower.htm

35. Problem Solution
Becoming Stranded
When horses, mules or oxen came up
missing, the wagon party was left at the mercy
of the elements. If traveling alone, this could
mean death along isolated stretches of the
trail.
• Traveling in a wagon train had its
advantages. Pioneers rarely left a wagon train
party behind. The unfortunate pioneers could
trade or borrow animals from other wagon
large teams.
• If traveling as a lone wagon, the pioneer
would have to search for the missing animal in
hope of locating it before supplies ran out.
Riding a horse to speed the search would
increase the odds of success.
Livestock Theft
Animals were common targets for theft from
unfriendly Native Americans or trail robbers.
Horses were a favorite item. The slower and
larger Oxen were not deemed useful for the
native Americans, thus the least likely to be
stolen.
• Pioneers had to maintain watch when the
animals were resting or grazing. This meant
assigning armed men to keep watch over the
animals each night.
Lost Animals
Source: http://www.sd129.org/goodwin/journ-4.htm#lost%20animal