This document summarizes research on formative assessment and motivation. It discusses how formative assessment can improve student motivation by fostering autonomy, relatedness, and competence. Formative assessment encourages self-directed learning and provides feedback to help students improve. When implemented properly with teacher support and opportunities for social interaction, formative assessment can enhance students' self-esteem and engagement by addressing their psychological needs. The document reviews several motivation theories and how formative assessment aligns with socio-cultural perspectives on the development of interest and engagement in learning.
This article proposes a conceptual model that positions formative assessment and feedback as processes that can help students develop self-regulated learning. The model views students as actively involved in monitoring and regulating their own learning and performance. It identifies seven principles of good feedback practice that support the development of self-regulation in students. Examples of strategies are provided for implementing feedback aligned with these principles. The conceptual model and principles aim to address limitations of viewing feedback solely as information transmitted from teachers to students.
THE INFLUENCE OF PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING COMMUNITIES ON RESEARCH LITERACY AND ...ijejournal
The current study investigates two Problem-Based Learning (PBL) processes that were carried out in two different Online Learning Communities of 62 pre-service teachers who took a Research Literacy course as a part of their academic obligation. The first one was combined with the moderator based learning
scaffoldings (OLC+M), and the other one with the social based learning scaffoldings (OLC+S). The study seeks to map the differences between these two OLCs in terms of Achievement Goal Motivation and Research Literacy skills as a result of the PBL intervention, and the correlation between these aspects as is expressed in each group. The findings indicated that PBL had a significant positive effect on AGM in both groups, while only the OLC+S showed the significant outperforming in some of the Research Literacy skills, as well as the positive correlation between them and the Mastery Approach component of AGM. The discussion raises possible interpretations of theoretical and practical relationships between Research Literacy skills in the educational field and motivational factors among adult students, as they are expressed in online communication environments.
1) The document discusses self-directed learning (SDL) in the context of higher education. It explores the relationship between SDL, student performance, engagement, and preferences for instructional techniques.
2) The results of a study of 188 college students suggest that SDL is not directly related to academic performance or preferences for instructional techniques. However, increasing levels of SDL may be associated with disengagement from formal higher education structures.
3) The document also discusses theories of SDL and the interaction between student characteristics, instructional methods, and academic motivation. It suggests academic motivation may mediate the relationship between SDL and academic performance.
20151107 - The Influences on Motivation in Online Educational EnvironmentsWilliam Harding
This document summarizes a research paper on the influences on student motivation in online educational environments. It discusses five key components that impact motivation: the student, instructor, educational content, teaching methods, and learning environment. It proposes that instructors play the most important role by expressing prosocial behaviors, clearly communicating expectations, and creating engaging content and environments. The paper also notes limitations, such as instructors lacking technology skills or the ability to implement all proposed solutions. Overall, it concludes that instructors must be properly trained to positively influence student motivation and reduce attrition in online programs.
The impact of homework on self-directivity and self-efficacy among adult lear...Gabriela Zazpe Fernández
The document analyzes the impact of homework on self-directivity and self-efficacy among adult learners in Uruguay. It surveys students, teachers, school principals, mentor teachers, and supervisors. Most students do homework regularly and believe it helps them learn independently and improve results. However, some feel they lack time or see no connection to class lessons. Teachers were split on whether homework assignments align with their teaching. Overall, the study examines how homework may influence self-directed learning and self-efficacy among adult students.
Fedynich, bain, martinez faculty perspectives on graduate student successWilliam Kritsonis
Published by NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS - A group of national refereed, peer-reviewed, scholarly, academic periodicals. William Allan Kritsonis, PhD, Editor-in-Chief, NFJ (Since 1982)
This document summarizes research on college student learning environments. A survey of 23 Portland State University students found that they prefer a hybrid learning approach combining traditional and online methods. Physically, students favored classrooms with natural lighting, comfortable mobile chairs, and temperatures suited for learning. They also preferred smaller class sizes allowing for interaction. While some distractions exist, students felt attributes like lighting, furniture and acoustics impacted their ability to learn. The research concluded an optimal environment includes aspects supporting individual work, group interaction, and traditional/online supplemental materials.
Factors Affecting Learning Islamic Science in Developing CountriesAI Publications
The main objective of Islamic religious education in Kurdistan schools is to inculcate Islamic teachings and values in Muslim students. However, recent studies indicate that students had interest to learn the subject. In response to this phenomenon, this study was carried out to identify the factors that affect students’ interest in learning Islamic education in schools in Kurdistan. The concern of this study is to identify the factors that influence students’ interest in learning Islamic education. Based on the findings, students’ interest in learning Islamic education was influenced by five major factors; i.e. age, gender, background education, previous experience and family role. All factors are interrelated whereby an initial interest in any individual can be developed or deepened by situational interest that provides meaningful learning experience for each student.
This article proposes a conceptual model that positions formative assessment and feedback as processes that can help students develop self-regulated learning. The model views students as actively involved in monitoring and regulating their own learning and performance. It identifies seven principles of good feedback practice that support the development of self-regulation in students. Examples of strategies are provided for implementing feedback aligned with these principles. The conceptual model and principles aim to address limitations of viewing feedback solely as information transmitted from teachers to students.
THE INFLUENCE OF PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING COMMUNITIES ON RESEARCH LITERACY AND ...ijejournal
The current study investigates two Problem-Based Learning (PBL) processes that were carried out in two different Online Learning Communities of 62 pre-service teachers who took a Research Literacy course as a part of their academic obligation. The first one was combined with the moderator based learning
scaffoldings (OLC+M), and the other one with the social based learning scaffoldings (OLC+S). The study seeks to map the differences between these two OLCs in terms of Achievement Goal Motivation and Research Literacy skills as a result of the PBL intervention, and the correlation between these aspects as is expressed in each group. The findings indicated that PBL had a significant positive effect on AGM in both groups, while only the OLC+S showed the significant outperforming in some of the Research Literacy skills, as well as the positive correlation between them and the Mastery Approach component of AGM. The discussion raises possible interpretations of theoretical and practical relationships between Research Literacy skills in the educational field and motivational factors among adult students, as they are expressed in online communication environments.
1) The document discusses self-directed learning (SDL) in the context of higher education. It explores the relationship between SDL, student performance, engagement, and preferences for instructional techniques.
2) The results of a study of 188 college students suggest that SDL is not directly related to academic performance or preferences for instructional techniques. However, increasing levels of SDL may be associated with disengagement from formal higher education structures.
3) The document also discusses theories of SDL and the interaction between student characteristics, instructional methods, and academic motivation. It suggests academic motivation may mediate the relationship between SDL and academic performance.
20151107 - The Influences on Motivation in Online Educational EnvironmentsWilliam Harding
This document summarizes a research paper on the influences on student motivation in online educational environments. It discusses five key components that impact motivation: the student, instructor, educational content, teaching methods, and learning environment. It proposes that instructors play the most important role by expressing prosocial behaviors, clearly communicating expectations, and creating engaging content and environments. The paper also notes limitations, such as instructors lacking technology skills or the ability to implement all proposed solutions. Overall, it concludes that instructors must be properly trained to positively influence student motivation and reduce attrition in online programs.
The impact of homework on self-directivity and self-efficacy among adult lear...Gabriela Zazpe Fernández
The document analyzes the impact of homework on self-directivity and self-efficacy among adult learners in Uruguay. It surveys students, teachers, school principals, mentor teachers, and supervisors. Most students do homework regularly and believe it helps them learn independently and improve results. However, some feel they lack time or see no connection to class lessons. Teachers were split on whether homework assignments align with their teaching. Overall, the study examines how homework may influence self-directed learning and self-efficacy among adult students.
Fedynich, bain, martinez faculty perspectives on graduate student successWilliam Kritsonis
Published by NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS - A group of national refereed, peer-reviewed, scholarly, academic periodicals. William Allan Kritsonis, PhD, Editor-in-Chief, NFJ (Since 1982)
This document summarizes research on college student learning environments. A survey of 23 Portland State University students found that they prefer a hybrid learning approach combining traditional and online methods. Physically, students favored classrooms with natural lighting, comfortable mobile chairs, and temperatures suited for learning. They also preferred smaller class sizes allowing for interaction. While some distractions exist, students felt attributes like lighting, furniture and acoustics impacted their ability to learn. The research concluded an optimal environment includes aspects supporting individual work, group interaction, and traditional/online supplemental materials.
Factors Affecting Learning Islamic Science in Developing CountriesAI Publications
The main objective of Islamic religious education in Kurdistan schools is to inculcate Islamic teachings and values in Muslim students. However, recent studies indicate that students had interest to learn the subject. In response to this phenomenon, this study was carried out to identify the factors that affect students’ interest in learning Islamic education in schools in Kurdistan. The concern of this study is to identify the factors that influence students’ interest in learning Islamic education. Based on the findings, students’ interest in learning Islamic education was influenced by five major factors; i.e. age, gender, background education, previous experience and family role. All factors are interrelated whereby an initial interest in any individual can be developed or deepened by situational interest that provides meaningful learning experience for each student.
How leadership-influences-student-learningElniziana
Effective leadership plays a highly significant role in improving student learning according to this review of research. Leadership has been shown to have second only to classroom instruction in its impact on student learning. Leadership effects are often greatest in schools facing the most challenges. Successful leadership encompasses three core practices - setting directions by establishing a shared vision and goals, developing people by offering support and professional development, and redesigning the organization to better support teaching and learning. While these basics are important, additional context-specific factors are also needed for leadership to be truly successful in improving outcomes for students.
1) The document introduces a conceptual model for understanding self-directed learning (SDL) in online environments. It reviews existing perspectives on SDL that focus on either the SDL process or personal attributes.
2) The model aims to address the lack of focus in prior models on how SDL functions within specific contexts like online learning. It describes SDL as a dynamic interaction between personal attributes, process, and context.
3) The paper reviews several prominent SDL models and then introduces the authors' own research-based conceptual model for SDL in online contexts, which considers how the online environment impacts SDL.
Detris Crane and Reginald Leon Green - Published by NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS, ...William Kritsonis
This document summarizes research on principal leadership behaviors and how they influence teacher job satisfaction. It explores 13 core competencies of effective school leaders identified in prior research, including visionary leadership, unity of purpose, and instructional leadership. The literature review finds teacher job satisfaction is enhanced when principals exhibit behaviors from these competencies, such as supporting teacher development, fostering collaboration, and involving teachers in decision-making. Specifically, principal behaviors that create supportive working conditions, opportunities for input, and collegial relationships can increase teacher motivation and job satisfaction.
This document discusses student engagement with school. It notes that while student engagement is recognized as important by educators, there is no consensus on how to define or measure the construct. The document reviews different conceptualizations of engagement that have been used in research. It identifies engagement as a multidimensional construct involving behavioral, emotional, and cognitive components. The document emphasizes that engagement is malleable and can predict outcomes like school dropout and completion. It concludes that conceptual clarity around student engagement is needed to advance research and interventions aimed at promoting engagement.
The document summarizes a professional development series for school leaders based on research linking principal leadership to student achievement. The series was developed by McREL and implemented by the Mississippi Bend Area Education Agency for over 100 principals. The series focused on developing purposeful communities and managing change. Research questions examined the impact on principal practices and student achievement. Surveys and interviews assessed principal satisfaction and effects of change initiatives. Preliminary results after the first year were positive.
This document proposes methods for creating supportive learning environments that encourage creativity in the classroom. It discusses establishing teacher-student relationships, communication, and peer learning activities. It recommends developing clear lesson plans focused on higher-order thinking, utilizing e-learning platforms for ongoing activities, and implementing formative assessment and self-regulated learning to empower students. While large class sizes and a focus on exams can hinder these efforts, the presenter responds that even small changes can promote creativity if modeled effectively for students.
Impact of Academic and Social Factors on Education Performance of StudentsSubmissionResearchpa
Counseling makes perfect any human being for living life smoothly. According to phycology people required someone near to him/her with whom he/she can share their thoughts, happiness, emotions etc. and this is required in education also, In education we need to give support to our students for knowing their problems and feeling regarding education, life, career, friends, family etc. in this paper researcher tried to find out the importance of the counseling in the mind of students of the effect of the same in students mind because in the recent time importance of the education is more and the use of technology is also more so its big problem for the students for connecting consciously with the learning, and without consciousness people cannot understand many thinks for life long time it’s just for examination. By using the qualitative research study research has tried to find out solution for the same with the sample of 60 students of undergraduate of Parul University. During the research researcher identified major two internal and external factors in which there are six other factors, with the help of the qualitative research technique. by Rahul Chauhan and Bhoomi R. Chauhan 2020. Impact of Academic and Social Factors on Education Performance of Students. International Journal on Integrated Education. 2, 5 (Mar. 2020), 34-43. DOI:https://doi.org/10.31149/ijie.v2i5.140. https://journals.researchparks.org/index.php/IJIE/article/view/140/137 https://journals.researchparks.org/index.php/IJIE/article/view/140
The Role of Student Voice in Curriculum Design - Final DraftDuncan Rose
This document discusses using student voice to develop English as a Second Language curriculums. It begins with an introduction on the growing prominence of student voice research and its potential as an emancipatory tool. The literature review then covers definitions of student voice, continuums of student voice engagement from consultation to self-initiation and leadership, and benefits such as gaining new perspectives, channeling student creativity, and its potential as an emancipatory tool. The review establishes a framework for utilizing student voice to alter ESL curriculums to fit student needs and interests while developing critical thinking.
This document summarizes research on how school leadership influences instructional quality. It reviews studies published since 2000 using various methodologies:
1) Quantitative studies using surveys found that principals perceive they have more influence over instruction and supervision when teachers are involved in decision-making, showing the benefits of shared leadership.
2) Qualitative case studies provided examples of conditions that support shared leadership patterns, such as principals fostering teacher engagement and innovation.
3) Network analysis examined how formal and informal interactions align, finding strong collaborative relationships oriented toward improvement are necessary for quality teaching.
Dr. John Hamilton, Texas A&M University at TexarkanaWilliam Kritsonis
This document discusses the principal's role in implementing Response to Intervention (RTI) to improve student reading achievement. RTI uses data-driven instruction and interventions based on student needs. The principal plays a critical role in establishing a systemic culture with high expectations and supporting the development of an effective reading program through RTI. While studies have found both direct and indirect relationships between leadership and student achievement, RTI meets the requirements for identifying learning disabilities and can improve outcomes when implemented well under a principal's guidance.
Can We Actually Assess Learner Autonomy? The Problematic Nature of Assessing Student Autonomy.
This paper explores, from a theoretical basis, the difficulty in defining and assessing learner
autonomy in higher education. Although the development of learner autonomy as a key aim of higher education, it is a vague and ill-defined term. As such, the assessment of learner autonomy within university programs of study is highly problematic. The author argues that the authentic assessment of genuine learner autonomy may not be possible within formal credit-bearing programs of higher education. The aim of the paper is to stimulate reflection and discussion so that university teaching staff may reflect and consider whether they can assess autonomy in the programs they are responsible for.
The document discusses living learning communities (LLCs) at Texas State University. It provides background on LLCs and their benefits, including improved academic performance, increased interaction with faculty and peers, and positive social outcomes. At Texas State, LLCs aim to foster these benefits through shared living spaces, co-enrolled courses, co-curricular activities, and additional support systems. However, the LLC programs currently lack clear missions, goals, and objectives. Through interviews with former LLC students, the researchers identified themes around the beneficial qualities of LLCs, feelings of inclusion, faculty influence, similarities among members, and ideas for expanding the programs. The findings provide recommendations to help define the purpose and assess the effectiveness of the Texas State LLCs
The document summarizes research supporting differentiated instruction as a model for addressing increasing student diversity in classrooms. It discusses Vygotsky's sociocultural theory of learning and zone of proximal development as providing a conceptual framework. Research highlights the need to consider individual differences in learning styles, intelligence, and brain functioning. Traditional uniform instruction fails to meet the needs of diverse students. Differentiated instruction allows teachers to accommodate variations through flexible grouping, content, process, and product.
Dr. William Kritsonis, National FORUM Journals, www.nationalforum.comWilliam Kritsonis
1) The study investigated relationships between leadership effectiveness, organizational culture, program focus (academic vs. behavioral), and job satisfaction in alternative schools.
2) Surveys of 388 staff members found that staff education levels and ethnicity related to perceptions of leadership effectiveness and school focus. Professional experience related to perceptions of culture.
3) Culture and leadership effectiveness were positively related. Leadership effectiveness, culture, and program focus were also related to higher job satisfaction.
The document summarizes workshops on shaping attitudes in the workplace for 16-19 year old students. It provides an overview of topics covered, positive feedback from students and teachers who attended, and results from post-workshop surveys. Over 90% of students enjoyed the sessions and found the issues covered important. The presenter felt students were engaged and all viewpoints were considered.
This document describes office accommodation located in Northpoint in North Sydney. It states that BES Northpoint offers office space on levels 34, 38, 39 and 40 with top of the line infrastructure and IT solutions. While most offices are open plan, they can cater to clients' needs. The accommodation provides modern comfort in a shared working environment where everyone benefits. Contact details are provided to learn more.
This document discusses different approaches to teaching reading: bottom-up vs top-down. Top-down reading emphasizes global skills like predicting and inferring meaning from context. It is the prevailing approach in TESOL. However, the document argues that for many Arabic students, top-down alone may not be effective because they have not developed strong bottom-up skills in letter recognition, word identification and decoding. The document suggests students first need instruction to develop automaticity in basic bottom-up skills before higher-level comprehension is possible. Questions are raised about Arabic students' bottom-up reading abilities and whether current instruction adequately addresses their needs. An alternative perspective emphasizing bottom-up processing before top-down is presented.
This is a combination of 2 delivery sessions with young people from the London East Connexion Partnerships. The partnership comprises of 10 boroughs in London.
The document provides information about a database systems course, including objectives, resources, assessment details, recommendations, and chapter topics for the first lecture. The course aims to teach students to design relational databases, implement and query using SQL, and develop a simple database application. Students will learn database theory, administration, and be assessed through assignments, tests, and overall coursework. The first lecture will cover the differences between data and information, database types and management systems, and the evolution from file systems to modern databases.
How leadership-influences-student-learningElniziana
Effective leadership plays a highly significant role in improving student learning according to this review of research. Leadership has been shown to have second only to classroom instruction in its impact on student learning. Leadership effects are often greatest in schools facing the most challenges. Successful leadership encompasses three core practices - setting directions by establishing a shared vision and goals, developing people by offering support and professional development, and redesigning the organization to better support teaching and learning. While these basics are important, additional context-specific factors are also needed for leadership to be truly successful in improving outcomes for students.
1) The document introduces a conceptual model for understanding self-directed learning (SDL) in online environments. It reviews existing perspectives on SDL that focus on either the SDL process or personal attributes.
2) The model aims to address the lack of focus in prior models on how SDL functions within specific contexts like online learning. It describes SDL as a dynamic interaction between personal attributes, process, and context.
3) The paper reviews several prominent SDL models and then introduces the authors' own research-based conceptual model for SDL in online contexts, which considers how the online environment impacts SDL.
Detris Crane and Reginald Leon Green - Published by NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS, ...William Kritsonis
This document summarizes research on principal leadership behaviors and how they influence teacher job satisfaction. It explores 13 core competencies of effective school leaders identified in prior research, including visionary leadership, unity of purpose, and instructional leadership. The literature review finds teacher job satisfaction is enhanced when principals exhibit behaviors from these competencies, such as supporting teacher development, fostering collaboration, and involving teachers in decision-making. Specifically, principal behaviors that create supportive working conditions, opportunities for input, and collegial relationships can increase teacher motivation and job satisfaction.
This document discusses student engagement with school. It notes that while student engagement is recognized as important by educators, there is no consensus on how to define or measure the construct. The document reviews different conceptualizations of engagement that have been used in research. It identifies engagement as a multidimensional construct involving behavioral, emotional, and cognitive components. The document emphasizes that engagement is malleable and can predict outcomes like school dropout and completion. It concludes that conceptual clarity around student engagement is needed to advance research and interventions aimed at promoting engagement.
The document summarizes a professional development series for school leaders based on research linking principal leadership to student achievement. The series was developed by McREL and implemented by the Mississippi Bend Area Education Agency for over 100 principals. The series focused on developing purposeful communities and managing change. Research questions examined the impact on principal practices and student achievement. Surveys and interviews assessed principal satisfaction and effects of change initiatives. Preliminary results after the first year were positive.
This document proposes methods for creating supportive learning environments that encourage creativity in the classroom. It discusses establishing teacher-student relationships, communication, and peer learning activities. It recommends developing clear lesson plans focused on higher-order thinking, utilizing e-learning platforms for ongoing activities, and implementing formative assessment and self-regulated learning to empower students. While large class sizes and a focus on exams can hinder these efforts, the presenter responds that even small changes can promote creativity if modeled effectively for students.
Impact of Academic and Social Factors on Education Performance of StudentsSubmissionResearchpa
Counseling makes perfect any human being for living life smoothly. According to phycology people required someone near to him/her with whom he/she can share their thoughts, happiness, emotions etc. and this is required in education also, In education we need to give support to our students for knowing their problems and feeling regarding education, life, career, friends, family etc. in this paper researcher tried to find out the importance of the counseling in the mind of students of the effect of the same in students mind because in the recent time importance of the education is more and the use of technology is also more so its big problem for the students for connecting consciously with the learning, and without consciousness people cannot understand many thinks for life long time it’s just for examination. By using the qualitative research study research has tried to find out solution for the same with the sample of 60 students of undergraduate of Parul University. During the research researcher identified major two internal and external factors in which there are six other factors, with the help of the qualitative research technique. by Rahul Chauhan and Bhoomi R. Chauhan 2020. Impact of Academic and Social Factors on Education Performance of Students. International Journal on Integrated Education. 2, 5 (Mar. 2020), 34-43. DOI:https://doi.org/10.31149/ijie.v2i5.140. https://journals.researchparks.org/index.php/IJIE/article/view/140/137 https://journals.researchparks.org/index.php/IJIE/article/view/140
The Role of Student Voice in Curriculum Design - Final DraftDuncan Rose
This document discusses using student voice to develop English as a Second Language curriculums. It begins with an introduction on the growing prominence of student voice research and its potential as an emancipatory tool. The literature review then covers definitions of student voice, continuums of student voice engagement from consultation to self-initiation and leadership, and benefits such as gaining new perspectives, channeling student creativity, and its potential as an emancipatory tool. The review establishes a framework for utilizing student voice to alter ESL curriculums to fit student needs and interests while developing critical thinking.
This document summarizes research on how school leadership influences instructional quality. It reviews studies published since 2000 using various methodologies:
1) Quantitative studies using surveys found that principals perceive they have more influence over instruction and supervision when teachers are involved in decision-making, showing the benefits of shared leadership.
2) Qualitative case studies provided examples of conditions that support shared leadership patterns, such as principals fostering teacher engagement and innovation.
3) Network analysis examined how formal and informal interactions align, finding strong collaborative relationships oriented toward improvement are necessary for quality teaching.
Dr. John Hamilton, Texas A&M University at TexarkanaWilliam Kritsonis
This document discusses the principal's role in implementing Response to Intervention (RTI) to improve student reading achievement. RTI uses data-driven instruction and interventions based on student needs. The principal plays a critical role in establishing a systemic culture with high expectations and supporting the development of an effective reading program through RTI. While studies have found both direct and indirect relationships between leadership and student achievement, RTI meets the requirements for identifying learning disabilities and can improve outcomes when implemented well under a principal's guidance.
Can We Actually Assess Learner Autonomy? The Problematic Nature of Assessing Student Autonomy.
This paper explores, from a theoretical basis, the difficulty in defining and assessing learner
autonomy in higher education. Although the development of learner autonomy as a key aim of higher education, it is a vague and ill-defined term. As such, the assessment of learner autonomy within university programs of study is highly problematic. The author argues that the authentic assessment of genuine learner autonomy may not be possible within formal credit-bearing programs of higher education. The aim of the paper is to stimulate reflection and discussion so that university teaching staff may reflect and consider whether they can assess autonomy in the programs they are responsible for.
The document discusses living learning communities (LLCs) at Texas State University. It provides background on LLCs and their benefits, including improved academic performance, increased interaction with faculty and peers, and positive social outcomes. At Texas State, LLCs aim to foster these benefits through shared living spaces, co-enrolled courses, co-curricular activities, and additional support systems. However, the LLC programs currently lack clear missions, goals, and objectives. Through interviews with former LLC students, the researchers identified themes around the beneficial qualities of LLCs, feelings of inclusion, faculty influence, similarities among members, and ideas for expanding the programs. The findings provide recommendations to help define the purpose and assess the effectiveness of the Texas State LLCs
The document summarizes research supporting differentiated instruction as a model for addressing increasing student diversity in classrooms. It discusses Vygotsky's sociocultural theory of learning and zone of proximal development as providing a conceptual framework. Research highlights the need to consider individual differences in learning styles, intelligence, and brain functioning. Traditional uniform instruction fails to meet the needs of diverse students. Differentiated instruction allows teachers to accommodate variations through flexible grouping, content, process, and product.
Dr. William Kritsonis, National FORUM Journals, www.nationalforum.comWilliam Kritsonis
1) The study investigated relationships between leadership effectiveness, organizational culture, program focus (academic vs. behavioral), and job satisfaction in alternative schools.
2) Surveys of 388 staff members found that staff education levels and ethnicity related to perceptions of leadership effectiveness and school focus. Professional experience related to perceptions of culture.
3) Culture and leadership effectiveness were positively related. Leadership effectiveness, culture, and program focus were also related to higher job satisfaction.
The document summarizes workshops on shaping attitudes in the workplace for 16-19 year old students. It provides an overview of topics covered, positive feedback from students and teachers who attended, and results from post-workshop surveys. Over 90% of students enjoyed the sessions and found the issues covered important. The presenter felt students were engaged and all viewpoints were considered.
This document describes office accommodation located in Northpoint in North Sydney. It states that BES Northpoint offers office space on levels 34, 38, 39 and 40 with top of the line infrastructure and IT solutions. While most offices are open plan, they can cater to clients' needs. The accommodation provides modern comfort in a shared working environment where everyone benefits. Contact details are provided to learn more.
This document discusses different approaches to teaching reading: bottom-up vs top-down. Top-down reading emphasizes global skills like predicting and inferring meaning from context. It is the prevailing approach in TESOL. However, the document argues that for many Arabic students, top-down alone may not be effective because they have not developed strong bottom-up skills in letter recognition, word identification and decoding. The document suggests students first need instruction to develop automaticity in basic bottom-up skills before higher-level comprehension is possible. Questions are raised about Arabic students' bottom-up reading abilities and whether current instruction adequately addresses their needs. An alternative perspective emphasizing bottom-up processing before top-down is presented.
This is a combination of 2 delivery sessions with young people from the London East Connexion Partnerships. The partnership comprises of 10 boroughs in London.
The document provides information about a database systems course, including objectives, resources, assessment details, recommendations, and chapter topics for the first lecture. The course aims to teach students to design relational databases, implement and query using SQL, and develop a simple database application. Students will learn database theory, administration, and be assessed through assignments, tests, and overall coursework. The first lecture will cover the differences between data and information, database types and management systems, and the evolution from file systems to modern databases.
Medical terminology is the language used by healthcare professionals to describe the human body and medical conditions. There are four elements that make up medical terms: combining vowels, root words, prefixes, and suffixes. Root words provide the basic meaning and often refer to a body part or system, prefixes are placed at the beginning and modify the root word, and suffixes are placed at the end and can indicate an action, condition, or occupational title. Understanding word roots, prefixes, suffixes, and their meanings is essential for comprehending medical terminology.
The cardiovascular system includes the heart, blood vessels, arteries, capillaries and veins. It has two circulations - pulmonary circulation transports deoxygenated blood to the lungs, while systemic circulation transports oxygenated blood to tissues. The heart has four chambers and four valves that ensure blood flows in one direction. It pumps blood through a network of arteries, capillaries and veins. The circulatory system delivers oxygen and nutrients to tissues and removes waste such as carbon dioxide.
The document discusses three theories of learning: Behaviorism, Cognitivism, and Constructivism. Behaviorism posits that learning occurs through observable behavior changes in response to environmental stimuli and reinforcement. Cognitivism views learning as information processing and knowledge acquisition that occurs internally in the mind. Constructivism describes learning as an active process of constructing knowledge based on experience through social interaction and problem solving. The theories have different implications for classroom instruction and educational technology.
The document summarizes the key parts and functions of the human digestive system. It describes the 30 foot long gastrointestinal tract starting from the mouth and ending in the anus. It details the main sections including the oral cavity, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines. The three main functions are digesting foods, absorbing nutrients, and eliminating waste. Accessory organs that help digestion include the liver, gallbladder and pancreas.
The skin is the largest organ of the body and has three main layers - the epidermis, dermis and subcutaneous layer. The epidermis is the outer layer and does not contain blood vessels, while the dermis below contains connective tissue and collagen. The deepest subcutaneous layer contains fat cells. The skin also contains sweat glands, hair follicles, nails and oil glands, and acts as a protective barrier while also sensing touch and temperature. Skin can be affected by pathogens, diseases, infections and cancers.
Evraz is a large steel and mining company that produces rails and wheels for rail transport worldwide. They have multiple production facilities across Russia, the US, Ukraine, and the Czech Republic. Evraz aims to be a trusted partner for its customers by ensuring the highest quality standards and safety for its rail and wheel products.
This document contains a collection of photographs from Indian history ranging from the 19th century to modern times. The photographs depict important figures like Mahatma Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, Subhash Chandra Bose, Indira Gandhi and others. Also included are photographs showing historical events like India's first independence day celebrations in 1947 and the partition of British India in 1947. The photographs provide a visual record of important people and periods in India's independence movement and early history as an independent nation.
Journal of Public Relations Education Volume 4, Issue 2, Fall 2018 [complete issue]
Millennial Learners and Faculty Credibility: Exploring the Mediating Role of Out-of-Class Communication by Carolyn Mae Kim
What do Employers Want? What Should Faculty Teach? A Content Analysis of Entry-Level Employment Ads in Public Relations by Brigitta R. Brunner, Kim Zarkin, & Bradford L. Yates
Teaching Digital and Social Media Analytics: Exploring Best Practices and Future Implications for Public Relations Pedagogy by Michele E. Ewing, Carolyn Mae Kim, Emily S. Kinsky, Stefanie Moore, & Karen Freberg
GREAT IDEAS FOR TEACHERS 2018
Teaching Briefs
Building a Social Learning Flock: Using Twitter Chats to Enhance Experiential Learning Across Universities by Amanda J. Weed, Karen Freberg, Emily S. Kinsky, & Amber L. Hutchins
Diagnosing Health Campaigns: A Campaign Evaluation Assignment by Laura E. Willis
Teaching Trolling: Management and Strategy by Leslie Rasmussen
Sparking Creativity Through Purpose-Driven Storytelling by Chris Cooney
Looking in to see out: An Introspective Approach to Teaching Ethics in PR by Regina Luttrell & Jamie Ward
Social Media Campaigns: Strategies for Public Relations and Marketing --Book Review by Matthew J. Kushin
Meltwater Media Intelligence Software--Review by Matthew J. Kushin
Millennial Learners and Faculty Credibility:
Exploring the Mediating Role of
Out-of-Class Communication
ABSTRACT
Every generation experiences distinct events and develops unique
values. As Millennial learners enter classrooms, they bring with
them new views about education, learning and faculty/student
communication. This study explores the mediating role of out-ofclass
communication (OCC) in relation to the historical dimensions
known to compose faculty credibility. Findings indicate that OCC
has a positive, mediating influence that enhances two of the three
key dimensions of credibility for faculty members: trustworthiness
and perceived caring. In addition, this study suggests that there
is a fourth potential dimension that composes the construct
of faculty credibility in the perspectives of Millennial learners:
sociability, which should be included alongside the three historical
dimensions scholars have used in previous studies.
This document provides a summary of a paper exploring the relationship between critical pedagogy and teaching standards. It discusses how critical pedagogy aims for social transformation and empowering marginalized voices, while teaching standards guide teacher expectations and assessment. The paper contends these concepts can intersect in preparing teachers for a democratic society. It outlines the goals of critical pedagogy and analyzes the INTASC teaching standards, arguing they can support critical teaching if implemented with a focus on social change and academic success for all students.
This document provides a summary of learning, how people learn, and the importance of lifelong learning. It discusses that while many students and teachers assume learning is occurring simply through teaching and memorization of facts, recent studies show college graduates often lack critical thinking skills. It also outlines how views of learning have changed, emphasizing developing skills like communication, teamwork, and being an intentional learner. The document discusses Bloom's taxonomy of cognitive levels of learning and introduces the concepts of different types of knowledge and the importance of the affective domain in learning. The overall message is that learning requires active engagement and reflection, and should be a lifelong pursuit beyond formal education.
Assessing Learning in Service-Learning Courses Through Critical Reflection.pdfEmma Burke
This document describes a model called the DEAL Model for assessing student learning through critical reflection in service-learning courses. The model utilizes student reflective writings to assess depth of learning and critical thinking skills. Results from implementing the model in two service-learning courses found that it was useful for documenting student learning, though students had more difficulty with higher-order thinking skills like evaluation and critical analysis. Upperclassmen demonstrated greater depth of learning and critical thinking compared to freshmen. The model shows potential as a rigorous tool for assessing learning outcomes in service-learning.
- The paper examines the measurement invariance of constructs representing motivations to become a teacher across countries that participated in the Teacher Education and Development Study in Mathematics (TEDS-M).
- It finds metric invariance, meaning motivations can be compared across countries, with the exception of extrinsic motivation in Taiwan. Scalar invariance is not supported across countries but is supported across some cultural groups.
- This means scale means can be compared between some countries and cultural groups but not all, limiting full cross-country comparisons of motivation levels.
This document summarizes a study that aims to identify factors influencing academic performance in higher education. The study assessed students' motivational levels using attribution theory and examined factors like attribution style, satisfaction, and student-teacher interactions. A literature review found that motivation, effort, psychological well-being, relationships, and studying habits can impact academic success. The study used questionnaires to measure these factors and identify areas for universities to improve the academic environment.
This document provides an overview of learning and discusses the need for new approaches to education. It notes that while college enrollment is high, many students lack important general knowledge and reasoning skills. Studies show current teaching methods are not effective and students often do not retain what they learn. There are calls from employers, educators, and organizations for graduates to have skills like teamwork, communication, problem solving and lifelong learning. The focus of education is shifting from teaching to learning, with teachers taking on more of a facilitator role. The ultimate goal of higher education should be developing students' ability to learn on their own through their lives.
MD1 Compare and Contrast Principles of Practiceeckchela
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A critical look at issues of conflict in academic staff promotion in ghanaian...Alexander Decker
This document discusses issues of conflict that can arise in the criteria and procedures for academic staff promotions in Ghanaian public universities. It identifies three main criteria for promotions - teaching, research/publications, and service. While research is increasingly emphasized, some argue teaching should be the primary focus given the educational mission of universities. The implementation of vague or inconsistently applied criteria and lack of transparency in promotion decisions can breed misunderstandings. Appeals processes and alternative dispute resolutions are used to address conflicts, but not all dissatisfied applicants utilize these options. Overall, balancing collegiality with accountability in evaluations, clarifying criteria, and improving communication around procedures could help minimize tensions over promotions.
A critical look at issues of conflict in academic staff promotion in ghanaian...Alexander Decker
This document discusses issues of conflict that can arise in the criteria and procedures for academic staff promotions in Ghanaian public universities. It identifies three main criteria for promotions - teaching, research/publications, and service. While research is increasingly emphasized, some argue teaching should be the primary focus given the educational mission of universities. The implementation of vague or inconsistently applied criteria and lack of transparency in procedures can breed misunderstandings and doubts. Various resolution mechanisms for promotion-related conflicts like appeals processes and mediation are discussed, but not all dissatisfied applicants utilize these options. Overall, the text examines tensions between administration and faculty regarding promotions and calls for improved evaluation programs and enlightenment on policies and processes to minimize strife.
This document summarizes a presentation on engaging learners in the second language classroom. It defines engagement as a student's active involvement in learning and discusses four types of engagement: behavioral, emotional, cognitive, and agentic. It explains that engagement is important for academic achievement and well-being. The presentation provides examples of instructional practices that can increase engagement, such as problem-based learning activities and designing learning experiences where students have autonomy. The presenter plans to study engagement in university English language classes in Japan through case studies of experienced teachers.
This document describes a study that developed a Critical Inquiry Based Learning (CIBL) model to promote critical thinking skills among prospective teachers of physics. The CIBL model incorporates three criteria: validity, practicality, and effectiveness. Experts validated the model through focus group discussions to ensure validity. The model was then implemented in classes and observed to assess practicality. Students' critical thinking abilities were assessed before and after using the CIBL model to determine effectiveness in improving critical thinking skills. The findings showed that the CIBL model was valid, practical, and effective at promoting critical thinking among prospective teachers of physics.
This section reviews literature related to developing character traits in students. It discusses studies that show character education is most effective when integrated into daily school life. Traits like honesty, diligence, respect and caring can be developed through relationships, discipline policies, and encouragement from parents and teachers. The literature also examines how traits like obedience, perseverance, and social-emotional development can be fostered in students. Finally, it reviews research on the importance of parental involvement in students' academic performance and development.
Mosley, kennya g the percieved influence of mentoring nfjca v3 n1 2014William Kritsonis
William Allan Kritsonis, Editor-in-Chief, NATIONAL FORUM JOURNALS (Founded 1982). Dr. LaVelle Henricks, Texas A&M University-Commerce and colleagues published in national refereed journal.
Dr. William Allan Kritsonis, Distinguished Alumnus, Central Washington University, College of Education and Professional Studies, Ellensburg, Washington; Invited Guest Lecturer, Oxford Round Table, University of Oxford, United Kingdom; Hall of Honor, Prairie View A&M University/Member of the Texas A&M University System.
Autonomous Learning And Critical Thinking Inspecting The Association Among E...Jennifer Daniel
This document summarizes a study that investigated the relationship between critical thinking (CT) and autonomy (AU) among 182 English as a foreign language (EFL) learners in Iran. The study found a significant positive correlation between students' CT and AU, using questionnaires to measure both constructs. This relationship suggests that developing EFL learners' autonomy and critical thinking abilities may help improve language learning.
This document reviews literature on teacher motivation and strategies for motivating students. It discusses how motivation plays a key role in learning, and how teachers can support student motivation through various methods like building relationships, providing feedback, and connecting lessons to students' lives. The document also examines factors that can motivate or demotivate teachers, such as students, workload, salaries and autonomy. It concludes that understanding teacher motivation is important for enhancing student motivation and learning outcomes.
1Quantitative Research Plan (Draft)ByID # A00355270.docxeugeniadean34240
1
Quantitative Research Plan
(Draft)
By
ID # A00355270
Richard W. Riley College of Education and Leadership
Program: PhD in Education
Specialization: Educational Technology
RSCH 8200-Quantitative Reasoning
Dr. Wade Smith, Jr.
[email protected]
Walden University
September 13, 2015
Table of Contents
Introduction Comment by Dr. Wade Smith: Assign page numbers as you develop this doc.
Opening Statement
Problem
Purpose of Study
Theory Perspective
Research Questions
Theoretical Framework
Involvement for Success
Literature Review
Case Study
Theoretical Framework
Involvement for Success
Summary
Research Methodology
Setting
Population
Data Sources
Ethnicity
Research Design
Intervention
Survey Instrument
Summary
Introduction
Opening Statement
The students and parents are participants in an educational program. “Research often excludes youth participants, omitting their social and psychological realities, undermining their rights to participate and benefit from research, and weakening the validity of research. Researchers may be discouraged from including youth due to logistical (e.g. gaining access) or ethical (e.g. coercion risks based on developmental level) concerns. Increased discussion is needed around appropriate methods to use with child and youth participants that manage challenges related to developmental capacities, legal status, power differentials, and unpredictable aspects of qualitative research”(Sage, 2015). Eliminate the white pages.
Background Study
In this paper I will focus on experiences of researchers, describing solutions of internal and external validity. “The research design is the blueprint that enables the investigator to come up with solutions to these problems and guides him or her to various stages of research” (Frankfort-Nachmias & Nachmias, 2008, p89) Internal validity is whether the effects observed in a research are due to the manipulation of the independent variable. External validity is the extent to which the results of a research can be generalized to settings and people. (McLeod, 2013).
Burger’s (2009) study of design is on the psychological research designed by Milgram. Burger (2009) identifies obedience to authority, increase in demands, resources of information in a novel situation, and responsibility not assigned or diffused as contributes toward the “high rates of obedience” (Burger, 2009, pp 2-3). His hypotheses question is ‘Would people still obey today?’ The tables are used to measure participants of the obedience screening according to gender and ethnicity, such as behavior and personality rates.
Fuchs, Fuchs, Hamlett, Phillips, Karns, and Dutka (1997) researched on various collaborative measurements. The appendix for Problems A & B is interesting. The methods to problems solving contain internal and external validity. This is a collaborative research because the tutor (educator) and tutee (learner) are doing an activity.
Problem Statement
The problem occurs when there is a lack of part.
Action Research In Second Language Teacher EducationCynthia King
This chapter discusses action research (AR) in second language teacher education. AR combines action and research, with the goal of improving social situations like classrooms. It involves developing and testing plans to improve a situation, observing the effects of changes, and reflecting to plan further actions. AR has been used in teacher education to address problems, innovate curriculum, reduce gaps between research and practice, develop teacher reflection, and teach research skills. While AR can support professional development, many teachers have not heard of it or lack support for conducting it. Barriers to AR include lack of time, resources, and research training as well as school structures.
This slide is special for master students (MIBS & MIFB) in UUM. Also useful for readers who are interested in the topic of contemporary Islamic banking.
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering.pptxDenish Jangid
Chapter wise All Notes of First year Basic Civil Engineering
Syllabus
Chapter-1
Introduction to objective, scope and outcome the subject
Chapter 2
Introduction: Scope and Specialization of Civil Engineering, Role of civil Engineer in Society, Impact of infrastructural development on economy of country.
Chapter 3
Surveying: Object Principles & Types of Surveying; Site Plans, Plans & Maps; Scales & Unit of different Measurements.
Linear Measurements: Instruments used. Linear Measurement by Tape, Ranging out Survey Lines and overcoming Obstructions; Measurements on sloping ground; Tape corrections, conventional symbols. Angular Measurements: Instruments used; Introduction to Compass Surveying, Bearings and Longitude & Latitude of a Line, Introduction to total station.
Levelling: Instrument used Object of levelling, Methods of levelling in brief, and Contour maps.
Chapter 4
Buildings: Selection of site for Buildings, Layout of Building Plan, Types of buildings, Plinth area, carpet area, floor space index, Introduction to building byelaws, concept of sun light & ventilation. Components of Buildings & their functions, Basic concept of R.C.C., Introduction to types of foundation
Chapter 5
Transportation: Introduction to Transportation Engineering; Traffic and Road Safety: Types and Characteristics of Various Modes of Transportation; Various Road Traffic Signs, Causes of Accidents and Road Safety Measures.
Chapter 6
Environmental Engineering: Environmental Pollution, Environmental Acts and Regulations, Functional Concepts of Ecology, Basics of Species, Biodiversity, Ecosystem, Hydrological Cycle; Chemical Cycles: Carbon, Nitrogen & Phosphorus; Energy Flow in Ecosystems.
Water Pollution: Water Quality standards, Introduction to Treatment & Disposal of Waste Water. Reuse and Saving of Water, Rain Water Harvesting. Solid Waste Management: Classification of Solid Waste, Collection, Transportation and Disposal of Solid. Recycling of Solid Waste: Energy Recovery, Sanitary Landfill, On-Site Sanitation. Air & Noise Pollution: Primary and Secondary air pollutants, Harmful effects of Air Pollution, Control of Air Pollution. . Noise Pollution Harmful Effects of noise pollution, control of noise pollution, Global warming & Climate Change, Ozone depletion, Greenhouse effect
Text Books:
1. Palancharmy, Basic Civil Engineering, McGraw Hill publishers.
2. Satheesh Gopi, Basic Civil Engineering, Pearson Publishers.
3. Ketki Rangwala Dalal, Essentials of Civil Engineering, Charotar Publishing House.
4. BCP, Surveying volume 1
This document provides an overview of wound healing, its functions, stages, mechanisms, factors affecting it, and complications.
A wound is a break in the integrity of the skin or tissues, which may be associated with disruption of the structure and function.
Healing is the body’s response to injury in an attempt to restore normal structure and functions.
Healing can occur in two ways: Regeneration and Repair
There are 4 phases of wound healing: hemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and remodeling. This document also describes the mechanism of wound healing. Factors that affect healing include infection, uncontrolled diabetes, poor nutrition, age, anemia, the presence of foreign bodies, etc.
Complications of wound healing like infection, hyperpigmentation of scar, contractures, and keloid formation.
How to Manage Your Lost Opportunities in Odoo 17 CRMCeline George
Odoo 17 CRM allows us to track why we lose sales opportunities with "Lost Reasons." This helps analyze our sales process and identify areas for improvement. Here's how to configure lost reasons in Odoo 17 CRM
This presentation was provided by Steph Pollock of The American Psychological Association’s Journals Program, and Damita Snow, of The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), for the initial session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session One: 'Setting Expectations: a DEIA Primer,' was held June 6, 2024.
How to Fix the Import Error in the Odoo 17Celine George
An import error occurs when a program fails to import a module or library, disrupting its execution. In languages like Python, this issue arises when the specified module cannot be found or accessed, hindering the program's functionality. Resolving import errors is crucial for maintaining smooth software operation and uninterrupted development processes.
ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, and GDPR: Best Practices for Implementation and...PECB
Denis is a dynamic and results-driven Chief Information Officer (CIO) with a distinguished career spanning information systems analysis and technical project management. With a proven track record of spearheading the design and delivery of cutting-edge Information Management solutions, he has consistently elevated business operations, streamlined reporting functions, and maximized process efficiency.
Certified as an ISO/IEC 27001: Information Security Management Systems (ISMS) Lead Implementer, Data Protection Officer, and Cyber Risks Analyst, Denis brings a heightened focus on data security, privacy, and cyber resilience to every endeavor.
His expertise extends across a diverse spectrum of reporting, database, and web development applications, underpinned by an exceptional grasp of data storage and virtualization technologies. His proficiency in application testing, database administration, and data cleansing ensures seamless execution of complex projects.
What sets Denis apart is his comprehensive understanding of Business and Systems Analysis technologies, honed through involvement in all phases of the Software Development Lifecycle (SDLC). From meticulous requirements gathering to precise analysis, innovative design, rigorous development, thorough testing, and successful implementation, he has consistently delivered exceptional results.
Throughout his career, he has taken on multifaceted roles, from leading technical project management teams to owning solutions that drive operational excellence. His conscientious and proactive approach is unwavering, whether he is working independently or collaboratively within a team. His ability to connect with colleagues on a personal level underscores his commitment to fostering a harmonious and productive workplace environment.
Date: May 29, 2024
Tags: Information Security, ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, Artificial Intelligence, GDPR
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हिंदी वर्णमाला पीपीटी, hindi alphabet PPT presentation, hindi varnamala PPT, Hindi Varnamala pdf, हिंदी स्वर, हिंदी व्यंजन, sikhiye hindi varnmala, dr. mulla adam ali, hindi language and literature, hindi alphabet with drawing, hindi alphabet pdf, hindi varnamala for childrens, hindi language, hindi varnamala practice for kids, https://www.drmullaadamali.com
Reimagining Your Library Space: How to Increase the Vibes in Your Library No ...Diana Rendina
Librarians are leading the way in creating future-ready citizens – now we need to update our spaces to match. In this session, attendees will get inspiration for transforming their library spaces. You’ll learn how to survey students and patrons, create a focus group, and use design thinking to brainstorm ideas for your space. We’ll discuss budget friendly ways to change your space as well as how to find funding. No matter where you’re at, you’ll find ideas for reimagining your space in this session.
Reimagining Your Library Space: How to Increase the Vibes in Your Library No ...
Article 1
1. Prime Research on Education (PRE)
Vol. 1(2), pp. 027-036, May 6
th
2011
www.primejournal.org/PRE
Full Length Research
Formative assessment and motivation: Theories and
themes
Ian Clark
Faculty of Education, University of Washington, E-mail: clarki@u.washington.edu.
Accepted 22nd
April, 2011
The crisis of ineffective learning interactions in schools was expressed in 1998 by Black and Wiliam: ‘in
terms of systems engineering, present policies in many countries seem to treat the classroom as a
black box’. Since that time many nations have adopted formative assessment as a key strategy for
improving classroom instruction and student engagement. The ‘black box’ is an object of criticism
because it functions primarily as a receptive system where certain inputs from the outside such as
standards and tests with high stakes are fed into the box. It is now widely understood that such
learning environments reduce the opportunity for meaningful learning interactions inside the classroom
and diminish the motivation to learn among students. This article assumes an international perspective,
examining the theory of self-determination (SDT) and various socio-cultural theories on motivation and
how they intersect with formative assessments.
Key words: formative assessment, motivation, self-determination, learning interactions, socio-psychological
and socio-cultural theories
INTRODUCTION
Formative assessment: evidence, interpretation and
adaptation
A strategy for improvement which links curriculum,
instruction and assessment is best known in the US as
‘formative assessment’ (hereafter FA) and is ‘now
recognized as one of the most powerful ways to enhance
student motivation and achievement’ (Cauley and
McMillan, 2010). The theoretical ideal of FA is for
students to develop the capacity to gather evidence of
their own learning, which they then interpret and use to
plan the next steps of the learning process. The positive
impact of classroom practices which encourage
autonomous regulation upon motivation and self esteem
has been emphasized by international research groups,
such as Cambridge University’s Assessment Reform
Group (ARG, 1999) and the work of the Organization for
Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD, 2005).
Arising from the work of Black and Wiliam (1998a; 1998b)
and the ARG (1999) the FA process is founded upon
eight strategic principles that demand high-quality
interactions among students. High-quality interactions are
characterized by equality, mutuality and reciprocity (for
example, Damon and Phelps, 1989; Askew, 2000). The
principles which appear here are derived from a number
of coordinated sources (for example, ARG, 1999; Black
and Wiliam, 1998a, 1998b; Crooks, 1988; Stiggins 2007;
Assessment Action Group /AiFL Programme
Management Group [AAG/APMG], 2002-2008; OECD,
2005). Students must collaborate with teachers and
parents/carers in order to:
•be able to understand clearly what they are trying to
learn, and what is expected of them;
•be given immediate feedback about the quality of their
work and what they can do to make it better;
•be given advice about how to sustain improvement;
•be fully involved in deciding what needs to be done next
•be aware of who can give them help if they need it and
have full access to such help;
•be able to build knowledge of themselves as learners,
and become meta-cognitive;
•take more responsibility for their learning and participate
more in the process of learning.
The final key principle is to engage parents and carers in
the learning process. The importance of parental or carer
inclusion was confirmed by Townsend (1997), who found
2. 028 Ian Clark
that effective schools were those that welcomed parents
by engaging them and involving them in the widest range
of school activities, most crucially those concerning their
child’s development.
FA then is a strategic process which uses evidence
regarding the extent of student knowledge (declarative
knowledge) and skill (procedural knowledge) to support
further learning and as such increases student motivation
and engagement (Cauley and McMillan, 2010). The
purpose of classroom assessment is therefore to provide
practitioners, administrators and policy makers with
classroom-level data for improving teaching methods and
for guiding and motivating students to be actively
involved in their own learning. Assessments should help
students ‘become more effective, self-assessing, self-
directed learners’ (Angelo and Cross 1993, p.4). Socio-
cultural perspectives on the motivation to learn (e,g.
McCaslin, 2004) confirm the validity of FA as a strategic
framework which has the capacity to improve student
motivation. There is a consensus in social theories on
motivation over the importance of: i) self-directed
learning; ii) the impact of classroom instructional
strategies on student learning; iii) the influences of
parental beliefs and behavior and iv) the influence of
peers. Socio-cultural research on motivation is aligned
with the strategic FA framework because it too blends
‘ongoing social influences in emergent interaction with
personal development’ (McCaslin, 2004 p. 250).
Theoretical Emphases: An overview
FA blends cognition and social interaction into a
functional theoretical framework by situating individual
cognitive development in a context of collective
classroom activity. FA therefore draws theoretical vitality
from cognitive theory and from a variety of socio-cultural
theories arising from the work of the Soviet theorist L.S.
Vygotsky (1896–1934). After extensive consultation and
revision the Formative Assessment for Teachers and
Students (FAST) group provided the description of FA
designed to be most accessible to US educators:
‘FA is a process used by teachers and students during
instruction that provides feedback to adjust ongoing
teaching and learning to improve students’ achievement
of intended instructional outcomes’. (Popham, 2008).
McCaslin (2004) engages with identical concepts in the
realm of motivation by assuming a socio-cultural
perspective which, ‘locates and co-regulates human
activity in the social realm rather than envisioning activity
as a characteristic of the individual’ (p. 254). Drawing
upon Vygotsky’s notion of ‘significant others’, McCaslin
emphasizes the importance of opportunity, and how such
opportunities to negotiate and reach for individual
understandings are created by interpersonal contact and
result in the acquisition of new cultural values which are
internalized and can become meaningful as personal
goals.
The procedural emphasis of FA is the adaptation of
instruction to meet the needs of the student(s). The
needs are both cognitive, in terms of supporting the
acquisition of knowledge and also affective in terms of
addressing what Ryan and Deci (2000) call, in their
socio-psychological exploration of motivation ‘innate
psychological needs’:
‘innate psychological needs that are the basis for their
self-motivation and personality integration, as well as for
the conditions that foster those positive processes’ (2000,
p. 68).
Ryan and Deci’s ‘self-determination theory’ identifies
three innate psychological needs, the need for:
i) competence;
ii) relatedness;
iii) autonomy.
Of most interest to proponents of FA is relatedness and
autonomy. Indeed, in a key Organization for Economic
Cooperation and Development (OECD) publication
‘Improving Learning in Secondary Classrooms’ (2005) the
importance of learning-autonomy is given the significance
emphasis in various international case-studies on FA.
Our classrooms are lacking in a culture of cooperative
interaction and do not recognize or effectively support the
relatedness needs of students. Consequently they are
places where students merely appear to be working as
groups when in fact they are not (Black and Wiliam,
2005). However, research undertaken by the Assessment
Action Group /AiFL Programme Management Group
(AAG/APMG, 2002-2008) in the Scottish region of the
U.K about FA found that pupils responded positively to
co-operating with different people (that is, adults and
peers) in their assessment. Of particular interest in the
AAG/APMG research was the confirmation that they liked
to help other people with their schoolwork, either while
actually working and learning, or in terms of assessment.
Ryan and Deci (2000) suggest that a secure relational
based is important to the expression of intrinsic
motivation to learn. In earlier research Ryan and Grolnick
(1986) observed lower intrinsic motivation in students
who perceived their teachers to be uncaring and
apathetic to their needs. It is therefore unsurprising that
the central pillar in the FA framework is effective dialogue
among the central participants – the students, but it is
crucial that the teacher remain engaged and supportive.
Autonomy and self-esteem
Autonomy is perhaps the ‘big idea’ behind FA - the
theoretical ideal of FA is to develop fully autonomous
learners, who can self-assess their work, make
meaningful inferences from it and plan the next steps for
further progress (Black and Wiliam, 1998a; 1998b; ARG,
1999). For autonomy to exist intrinsic learning goals must
3. be emphasized and external control reduced by providing
supportive conditions in which emotional and
psychological health is promoted so that learning takes
place in a risk free environment. In doing so FA strategy
draws from Deci and Ryan’s emphasis on autonomy and
the observation that intrinsic motivation persists only
when fostered by an appropriate (classroom) climate.
Socio-cultural perspectives on motivation depict groups
of learners as ‘learning communities’ and quite naturally
emphasize the importance of conditions, explicitly
recognizing the power of teachers and parents/carers to
facilitate the positive internalization of values and
attitudes toward school work. So, autonomy is mediated
by parents, teachers and peers; a dynamic
conceptualized as the ‘zone of free movement’ (ZFM) by
Valsiner (1997), which describes the extent of choice
extended to the student. Valsiner intertwines the ZFM
with the ‘zone of promoted action’ (ZPA) a conceptual
space in which parents/carers encourage children to
engage with new activities that the expert considers
important for their development. Autonomy is therefore
encouraged by allowing students the freedom to set their
own goals while guiding the student in how to shape
those goals in a principled manner which meets the aims
of the curriculum. Valsiner completes the conceptual
framework by adding a modified notion of Vygotsky’s
zone of proximal development (ZPD) which contains all
the possibilities for future development and as such is
empirically inaccessible. A key aspect for emphasis
regarding autonomy is that of peer interaction and how
young learners either promote autonomy or exert control
over each other as they learn together. For example the
OECD (2005) present an FA case study from a Canadian
school as they develop a program known as PROTIC
which encourages autonomy by requiring students to
‘identify learning aims within the framework provided’ (p.
101). It can be seen that Valsiner’s ZFM and ZPA are
present in the PROTIC blueprint. In the PROTIC
program, this process of guided goal-setting accelerates
movement across the ZPD through a process of regular
reflection (every 9 days), and the production of written
reflection papers on their own learning, their team
learning and the achievement of personal and program
learning targets. Their papers then become records
which they can use to make future choices and analyze
ways in which they might do things differently. The OECD
reported that students found it initially difficult to deal with
the level of autonomy (‘ZFM’) afforded to them, however
after several projects students began to plan for their own
learning effectively. The potential for students to become
self-regulated learners has been supported by other
international studies, for example in Scotland (Condie,
Livingstone, and Seagraves, 2005).
The social emergence of engagement
Socio-culturalists hold that interest arises when cognitive
(stored knowledge) and affective (internalized value)
Prime Research on Education 029
functioning meld together (Renninger, 2000; Pressick-
Kilborn and Walker, 2000). Pressick-Kilborn and Walker
(2000) explicitly address the social factors which may
create interest in learning and present contrasting
contexts in which interest may arise: situational interest
and personal interest. Situational interest arises when
interest is triggered by the environment and can be
viewed as an internalized, transformed, and integrated
social message that has penetrated the personal core of
the self and which becomes externalized in various social
contexts. For socio-cultural theorists it is clear that ‘the
social world influences the development of interest’
(Pressick-Kilborn and Walker, 2000 p. 163). Alexander
(1997) theorizes that situational interest may evolve into
personal interest across time through repeated exposure
and as knowledge about the issue or activity increase.
Thus engagement is also modified by perceptions of self-
competence, a notion also central to SDT. In ‘emergent
interaction’ (EI) (Wertsch and Stone, 1985; McCaslin
2004) self-knowledge in negotiated through interpersonal
engagement and meaningful opportunity with significant
others such as parents, teachers and peers.
Just as self-determination theory and EI examine the
conditions that elicit and sustain intrinsic motivation, FA
draws from socio-psychological and socio-cultural
theories on social engagement and offers a practical
framework which operates to engage students with the
social process of learning. For example, in the Canadian
OECD (2005) case-study positive interdependence
(Johnson and Johnson, 1996) and relatedness (Ryan and
Deci, 2000) is fostered in Math classes by compiling
groups of five students who all exhibit different levels of
expertise. As one student is reported as saying, ‘we
always make sure to help and support each other in our
learning’ (OECD, 2005, p. 101). A school in Denmark
took this further and brought together students from 8
th
,
9
th
and 10
th
grades as a part of their whole school
initiative called ‘Moving toward a Project Oriented School’
(OECD, 2005 p. 119). In the Canadian school
engagement (and autonomy) is furthered by the use of
portfolios, which teachers regularly assess and provide
comments only feedback on the quality of the work.
Motivation and classroom climate
A key catalyst for motivation contiguous with social
engagement is that of classroom climate. It is clear that in
creating a supportive environment in which all contributions
are valued students will feel empowered to contribute in a
positive and productive way both inside and outside the
school. Of particular importance to understanding the
conditions that foster positive social processes is
McCaslin’s elaboration upon Wertsch and Stone’s (1985)
‘emergent interaction’. McCaslin writes, ‘in this
perspective internalization is inherently social; it blurs the
distinction between self and other’ (p. 259). Both Ryan
and Deci’s self-determination theory and emergent
interaction (EI) theory focus upon the internalization of
values as the process from which motivation to act
4. 030 Ian Clark
Table 1: Self-esteem; motivation and involvement
Phase 1 Phase 2
SA/A SA/A
The developments enhance the learning of all pupils 75.00% 67.00%
Pupils have increased confidence and show greater self-esteem 70.50% 72.00%
Pupils are more motivated toward learning 70.00% n/a
Pupils have become more actively involved in the learning process 81.00% 82.00%
(SA/A = Strongly agree/agree) Clark, 2010a
arises. McCaslin’s position is similar to that of Goos,
Galbraith and Renshaw’s (2002) who applied the term
‘collaborative zone of proximal development’ to their
research into mathematics education, which explains the
internalization of knowledge as a process of scaffolding
‘involving mutual adjustment and appropriation of ideas’
(p. 195). Pressick-Kilborn and Walker (2002) suggest that
learning relationships characterized by equality and
mutuality stimulate interest in the task and promote
sustained on-task interactions. This view was expressed
in the earlier work of Damon and Phelps (1989) who also
highlighted equality and mutuality as critical dimensions
for effective collaborative learning. It appears clear that
for socio-culturalists mutuality is a critical feature and one
which must exist if the classroom climate is to support
learning and is a key feature of the model for action
research presented later in this paper.
Unfortunately, such awareness is not widely exhibited
by policy makers. Consequently, many resources are
deployed to the prevailing policy - assessment of learning
- that there are no resources left to train teachers on how
to undertake the FA strategies which meet the social and
psychological needs of the students (Stiggins 2004).
Stiggins, in an interview with the US National Staff
Development Council observes:
‘The key is to understand the relationship between
assessment and student motivation. In the past, we built
assessment systems to help us dole out rewards and
punishment. And while that can work sometimes, it
causes a lot of students to see themselves as failures. If
that goes on long enough, they lose confidence and stop
trying’ (1999, p. 12).
The practical in-service effect of FA is that students
keep learning and remain confident that they can
continue to learn at productive levels if they keep trying to
learn. Stiggins (2005) observes that student use
information from assessments when determining the
strength of their engagement with the process of learning,
or indeed whether to continue trying at all. In other words,
students who internalize the values found in an FA
classroom are much less likely to experience downward-
spiraling motivation problems and disaffection which
leads to withdrawal of effort, poor achievement and
discipline. Of interest are two separate research papers
which evaluated the crucial development stages of FA
(2002-2004) in Scottish schools. The first was conducted
by Hallam, Kiston, Peffers, Robertson and Stobart (2004)
and later by Condie, et al (2005). Hallam et al (2004)
found strong positive consensus among teachers (n=72)
regarding enhanced involvement, motivation and
confidence in their students. Condie et al (2005) used
questionnaires as a part of their method and issued the
same basic template in two phases spaced 16 months
apart. 44 teachers and 21 head-teachers participated in
phase 1; 56 teachers and 26 head-teachers participated
in phase 2 of the survey. The responses to the Condie et
al questionnaire concur with the favorable indications
received by Hallam et al., (2004) regarding learning,
confidence and motivation (see Table 1).
McCroskey and Richmond (1992) remark that discipline
problems, ‘…are merely symptomatic of the cause and
achieving a productive and relatively stress-free learning
environment involves more than controlling student
misbehavior effectively. All aspects of what happens in
the classroom are contingent upon eliciting cooperation
from every class member,’ (p. 44). The term
'management'in a FA classroom context takes on a
unique meaning because it entails the effective
management of the learning process by developing
activities which support learning through high quality
interaction such as, discussion, feedback and goal
setting. Such strategies create a classroom climate of
low-control and high-autonomy, which in turn catalyzes
greater intrinsic motivation, curiosity, and desire for
challenge (for example Deci, Nezleck and Sheinman;
1981). McCaslin (2004), in similar fashion highlights
teacher management strategies as crucial to the learning
of socio-cultural roles and the more general rules of
responsible behavior. Formative assessment strategies
support productive social behavior because the learning
environment is one of mutually supportive interaction and
positive interdependence among students (Johnson &
Johnson, 1996).
Advancements in practice do not come easily. Many
teachers take more than one year to engage with the
idea of classroom dialogue because it requires ‘a radical
change in teaching style from many teachers…it is this
aspect of formative assessment work that teachers are
least likely to implement successfully’ (Black and Wiliam,
2006a p.14). However, after reflecting upon the work
5. Prime Research on Education 031
Figure 1: A model of self-determined learning
Lonsdale, Hodge, and Rose 2009
undertaken together with teachers in the UK and US to
implement cooperative practices, it was noted, ‘the
involvement of students both in whole-dialogue and in
peer group discussions, all with a change in classroom
culture…was creating a richer community of learners,
where the social learning of the students was becoming
more salient and effective’ (Black and Wiliam, 2006a, p.
17).
Cooperation, excitement and confidence
The inalienable fact, as Ryan and Deci (2000) put it is
‘motivation produces’ (p. 69), yet it is that which drives
our motivation to take action that is the essential focus of
analysis. Ryan and Deci parallel authentic motivation
with intrinsic motivation and note that people moved by
such factors ‘have more interest, excitement and
confidence’ (p. 69) than people who are externally
controlled. Cooperative learning groups foster self-
determination and the intrinsic regulation of learning
behavior because they are characterized by positive
interdependence, individual accountability, face-to-face
promotive interaction, the appropriate use of
interpersonal and small-group skills, and group
processing. Cooperative learning groups support
relatedness and consequently act as powerful catalysts
for higher achievement, more positive relationships
among students, and greater psychological health
(Johnson and Johnson 1996, Ryan and Deci, 2000).
The strategic principles which underpin FA implicitly
recognize Deci and Ryan’s (2000) assertion that
relatedness, competence and autonomy are, ‘essential
for facilitating optimal functioning of the natural
propensities for growth and integration, as well as for
constructive social development and personal well-being’
(p. 68). The reciprocal causality between the
psychological needs of students and their subsequent
motivation to learn has had little impact on the culture of
measurement and testing which to dominates the agenda
and continues to undermine the psychological health of
many students. To focus our learning systems on ever
more effective, valid and reliable methods of gathering
assessment data is of course important yet to focus
solely upon it is to reinforce the undesirable dominance of
our current assessment systems. We are obsessed with
the mistaken belief that the course to school
improvement is better navigated by using more frequent,
and more intense standardized testing. Consequently
large numbers of students are at risk of psychological
harm, a risk created by the extrinsic, high-control
classrooms, in which even questioning styles can be
termed ‘synchronous summative’.
Applying Ryan and Deci’s socio-cognitive model
The level of external control is a key aspect of FA in
terms of reducing its negative impact and is also the
central concept of self-determination theory in seeking to
understand the extent to which individuals: a) internalize
(‘take-in’) an external value and b) integrate a value so
that regulation emanates from their sense of self (Deci
and Ryan, 2000). For Deci and Ryan external motivation
is a continuum along which the student’s self-
determination increases as the level of external
regulation (the various inputs into the ‘black box’)
decreases (see Figure 1).
For many students, compulsory education will never be
more than ‘autonomous extrinsic’ or what Ryan and Deci
describe as a ‘somewhat internal’ experience. While this
is not an ideal intrinsic state it does suggest that students
who exhibit this type of regulation have greater
autonomous control over their own actions and that
teaching practice which encourages students to
consciously accept and value the process of learning is
an effective starting point for the development of more
authentic types of intrinsic regulation by deploying
teaching strategies which support relatedness and
autonomy. McCaslin (2004) provides an instance of
6. 032 Ian Clark
home-life in which a young student’s motivation to
complete homework is driven by the values of his parents
and their wish for a better life. As such the young student
is motivated to do his homework in the hope of a better
material existence. Applying this scenario to Deci and
Ryan’s continuum, the young learner may be placed as
‘introjected regulation’ because he may feel guilt if he did
not complete the homework, feeling that he has
‘betrayed’ his parents values, or alternatively the student
could be exhibiting a more intrinsic form of regulation
depending on the extent to which his parents values have
been internalized and are personally meaningful. The
depth of internalization, argue socio-culturalists is
dependent on the opportunity for and quality of
interpersonal interaction.
The role of curriculum
The curriculum architecture has an important role in
fostering more authentic forms of student regulation. The
principles of engagement and motivation are contiguous
with those of personalization and choice, and are highly
significant features of an effective curriculum. Ryan and
Deci (1985) observe that choice, acknowledgement of
feelings, and opportunities for self-direction enhance
intrinsic motivation because they allow people a greater
feeling of autonomy. The arrangements for assessment
should therefore be responsive to individual needs and
support particular aptitudes and talents in order to
challenge and motivate all learners to develop to their
fullest. The curriculum should recognize that learners
progress in different ways and, based on their
experiences go on to make different choices.
Assessment should reflect these differences by giving
each child increasing opportunities for exercising
responsible personal choice as they move through their
school career. Once they have achieved suitable levels of
attainment across a wide range of areas of learning the
choice should become as open as possible. There should
be safeguards to ensure that choices are soundly based
and lead to successful outcomes. The effectiveness of
such safeguards is dependent on the ability of individual
teachers to understand the principles of assessment for
learning and apply them in the classroom in order to
support the fullest development of learners, while
minimizing distortions in learning (AAG/APMG, 2002-
2008). The notion of personalization and choice is by no
means new. For more than 30 years researchers have
been aware that relating new knowledge to learners'
existing understandings of the world is an effective way
for learners to acquire deeper meaning from new
information. Since personalization of the curriculum
emerged as a valid pedagogical principle, it has been
discussed as a means of motivating learners by
incorporating their goals and choice of topics into a
curriculum, particularly for addressing values (Howe and
Howe, 1975), and as a model of behavior modification for
disruptive students (Mamchak and Mamchak, 1976).
Some 35 years later the FA classroom system seeks to
fully value and recognize learners' achievements by
acknowledging the individuality of personal experience
and the accommodation of learners' needs in the
instruction. As such FA is a robust composite of
motivational theory because it brings into existence a
curriculum architecture which explicitly recognizes that
individuals participate in multiple communities of practice
(Lave and Wenger, 1991) and that the values of one
community may conflict with those of another, potentially
inhibiting positive learning behaviors (Pressick-Kilborn
and Walker, 2000).
Learner and teacher perspectives on personalization
and choice may be summarized as follows:
Learner: I am involved in planning my learning and
setting challenging goals for myself. Assessment
information helps me to see how far I have come and
what I need to do to achieve my goals and motivates me
to set new goals. I am assessed in ways that allow me to
demonstrate and recognise the full range of my
achievements. Where appropriate, I am involved in
decisions about when and how this assessment will take
place.
Teacher: The learning, teaching and assessment
activities I plan create opportunities for dialogue to help
learners set and achieve challenging goals based on high
quality feedback on their progress. In planning teaching
learning and assessment, I consider the needs of the
wide needs of learners. I plan an appropriate range of
activities to give learners the opportunity to demonstrate
their learning and provide feedback accordingly.
(Clark, 2010a).
The centrality of high-quality interactions
The process of feedback is the starting point for FA. Yet,
not all feedback is formative and therefore not all
feedback is effective. From a cognitive aspect FA
provides feedback which closes the gap between a
learner’s current status and the desired learning goal. It
also intersects with Ryan and Deci’s perspectives on
feedback. FA, like Ryan and Deci, posits that feedback
should be effectance-promoting and free from demeaning
evaluations. Deci (1975) found that negative
performance feedback diminished intrinsic motivation, a
fact reflected in the FA classroom where misconceptions
are welcomed as opportunities for learning and public
comparisons are discouraged.
Ryan and Deci (2000) ask the critical question:
‘Given the significance of internalization for personal
experience and behavioral outcomes, the critical issue
becomes how to promote autonomous regulation for
extrinsically motivated behaviors. That is, what are the
social conditions that nurture versus inhibit internalization
and integration?’
7. The quality of dialogue between students, while central to
effective learning must be supported by the discursive
strategies of their teachers. A key FA strategy is the
sharing of learning objectives with learners, an aspect
also given the significance of emphasis in their research
on mathematics education by Turner, Warzon and
Christensen (2010, p.5) who highlight the oft heard
student query: ‘Why do we have to learn this?’ Turner et
al bring meaning to the process by sharing the goals of
the lesson with students. As such they are being given
feedback which facilitates the internalization of the values
of the curriculum. Ryan and Deci (2000) emphasize the
‘that relatedness, the need for belongingness and
connectedness with others, is centrally important for
internalization’ (p.73). Further Deci and Ryan’s
perspectives on the integration of extrinsic motivation
intersect with the strategic aims of a FA curriculum and
classroom when they observe that autonomy is
‘facilitated by a sense of choice, volition, and freedom
from excessive external pressure towards behaving or
thinking in a certain way’ (p. 74). As Deci and Ryan point
out there are social conditions which inhibit
internalization, a fact that socio-culturalists also
understand well. Co-regulation of the zone of proximal
development (ZPD) is not by definition a positive
experience (McCaslin, 2004). The peer-interaction
presented above characterizes the least effective style of
interaction as ‘competitive’ which has a model-dependent
meaning as being low in both mutuality and equality
which (even in the absence of empirical demonstration)
we would predict to diminish motivation to learn.
Developing the drive to achieve
To develop the drive to achieve, students need to believe
that achievement is possible which means that early
opportunities for success should be provided (American
Psychological Association 1992, Forsyth and McMillan,
1991). It is then crucial to strongly attach academic
success to moderate effort (Cauley and McMillan, 2010).
Vansteenkiste, Simons, Lens, Sheldon and Deci (2004)
in their field experiments with high-school and college
level students found that the variables of effort and
autonomy are very highly correlated with each other.
This suggests that attributing academic attainment to
effort is a crucial feature of classrooms which are
autonomy supportive. This finding is confirmed by Dweck
(2007) who found that, praising students for their effort
encourages a growth mind-set by boosting their
confidence in their ability to grow and learn.
In FA students are informed of the learning goals in
terms that they understand from the very beginning of the
teaching and learning process. It is unrealistic to expect
them to simply know how success may be achieved – as
already noted unrealistic expectations cause fundamental
motivational issues, and this particular ‘oversight’ causes
them from the very outset.
Independent learning can take place in conditions
Prime Research on Education 033
where the students know not only the purpose of each
activity but also the assessment criteria, in advance.
Confident and independent learning can be promoted by
reassuring students that they can do well on the course,
discussing the criteria and distributing prepared
checklists and exemplars which clearly illustrate what
success looks like (Cauley and McMillan, 2010). Students
are then more able to self and peer-assess and can
remind themselves of the success criteria by simply
referring to the checklists prepared to support their
learning (AAG/APMG, 2002-2008). When they are clear
about these, children achieve more, through paying
attention to the key aspects required. The objective is to
create an environment that is student lead rather than
one which requires micro-management because the
students exhibit an unwillingness to learn or claim
forgetfulness of their learning activities. Students who
internalize the values found in an FA classroom assess
their work and receive the benefits associated with the
improvement of their own work before they turn it in
(Cauley and McMillan, 2010; Bruce, 2001). The
AAG/APMG found that students were more criteria aware
and focused on success. In addition motivation and
engagement improved as they felt that they were able to
achieve the realistic targets. Teachers should create a
productive and supportive learning environment both
implicitly by using the checklists and explicitly by using
appropriate discourse in the classroom (Tiberius 1990).
Students can develop a deeper understanding of their
learning when they are given opportunities to discuss the
learning process with their teacher and their peers
(AAG/APMG, 2002-2008). Students’ are greatly
supported in this fundamental aspect of FA by the
reduction of teacher/student asymmetry and the
promotion of mutuality (McCaslin, 2004; Goos et al, 2002;
Damon and Phelps, 1989) in the classroom atmosphere.
In a cooperative classroom it is important that the teacher
consciously avoids messages that reinforce positional
power or those that emphasize extrinsic rewards and
sanctions. Instead of using questioning techniques which
demand obedience, such as ‘I require’, ‘you must’, or ‘you
should’, more open discourse such as ‘I think you will
find…’or ‘I will be interested in your reaction to,’ are more
applicable (Johnson and Johnson 1996, Lowman 1990).
More open-questioning techniques may be adopted that
help students to explore the parameters of their own
understanding. If such questions are put to a whole class
group coupled with a no-hand up policy the increased
scope afforded to the students requires that they are
given a substantive amount of time to answer. A longer
wait time than the usual 3-4 seconds before accepting
responses encourage extended responses, and
promotes deeper thinking and learning. While there is
significant evidence to suggest extended thinking times
promote deep-processing among students, it is
particularly challenging for teachers who are required to
stand and wait for students to respond (Black and Wiliam,
8. 034 Ian Clark
2006).
It should be clear that FA lessons are necessarily less
prescriptive and consequently the students are active
participants in the co-construction of the learning
process. Students may be encouraged to engage with an
activity by writing the issue on the board as a question
and then using cooperative learning groups to discuss
how the answer may be found (AAG/APMG, 2002-2008).
Participating teachers who attempted a no-hands up
policy reported mixed results, stating that its success
depended on the students understanding that they would
be asked a question at some point but not in every
lesson. Questions were put to the whole class and then
students chosen. In this way all the students were
encouraged to take part in the lesson and it was made
clear that all responses were valued, both correct and
incorrect. Student involvement was further facilitated
when the teacher asked them to vote for the correct
answer from a variety of possible answers.
Positive learning environments: Emphasizing
process over performance
There is a wealth of research which strongly suggests
that a focus on performance outcomes (grades)
accentuated by high-stakes testing environments is
detrimental to student motivation (Covington, 1992; ARG,
1999; Harlen and Deakin Crick, 2003; Harlen 2006, Ryan
and Deci, 2002a). Teachers who emphasize performance
routinely make evaluations of student achievement
public. This kind of feedback practice draws on an
aspect of behaviorist theory expounded by Chase and
Watson (2004) who study feedback as social
consequences: ‘consequences within a behavioral
system are defined as reinforcing if they increase the
behavior that they follow,’ (p. 149). While the intended
consequence of making evaluations public is to make
students work harder/do better, it is the antithesis of
formative feedback, not only because it is a potentially
negative experience but because students are not given
advice or help on how to improve their work. Such
feedback may be described as potentially demeaning and
therefore acts to diminish intrinsic motivation (Deci,1975).
At best therefore it exists at the left-hand side of Deci and
Ryan’s (2000) self – determination continuum because it
focuses on rewards and punishments arising from social
judgments designed to reinforce certain learning
behaviors.
When confronted with poor grades, ability-focused
students often attribute their poor performance to their
ability which they believe to be fixed and unaffected by
the level of effort they invest in their studies (Dweck,
2007). This perpetuates a performance goal orientation
and creates large numbers of disaffected students,
particularly among lower achieving students. As with all
systemic phenomena the outcomes are cyclical and
reinforcing. Those students who exhibit disaffection often
experience an ever-deepening spiral of self-defeating
learning behavior and worsening motivational problems
(Covington, 1992). This negative impact of current
practice has been well documented. Both the ARG
(1999) and the University of London's EPPI-Centre
(2002) conducted a systematic review of the impact of
summative assessment and tests on students’ motivation
for learning and found that students show high levels of
test anxiety when facing summative tests and much
prefer other forms of assessment. Studies on motivation
point to the probability of a profoundly ironic situation in
which the high-stakes testing environment created by the
reauthorization of the 1965 Elementary and Secondary
Education Act (ESEA) more commonly known as the No
Child Left Behind Act (2002), works counter-productively
to the realization of improved achievement. Zimmerman
(2000) found that academic self-efficacy was more
predictive of achievement than outcome expectancies
(cited in, Alexander and Winne, 2006). Turner, Thorpe
and Meyer (1998) remark that students of low self-
efficacy and high performance goal orientation typically
exhibit high levels of test anxiety and that such students
do not rise to the expectations or meet the demands
placed upon them by high-stakes tests. On the contrary,
they divide their attention between worrying about their
performance and thoughts about their negative
characteristics. ‘As a result, anxiety influences memory
and test performance in these students’ (Turner et al,
1998). Deci and Ryan (2000) emphasize the connection
between environments that promote relatedness and are
autonomy supportive and better psychological health.
The connection between relatedness and psychological
health is supported by the early research of the American
psychiatrist H.S Sullivan (1953) who observed that
interpersonal relationships support mental health. When
students are liberated from the threat associated with
extrinsic demands and place strong relative importance
on intrinsic aspirations it was found to have a positive
impact on well-being indicators ‘such as self-efficacy,
self-actualization, and the inverse of depression and
anxiety’ (Ryan and Deci, 2000). Socio-culturalists add the
weight of their evidence on the importance of positive
learning environments which may only exist where there
is ‘co-regulation’ (McCaslin, 2004) and social
relationships which scaffold a range of meaningful
experiences for the individual student.
In professional evaluations of FA by participating
Scottish teachers it was found that:
‘A major outcome...was the change in classroom
practices which increased the active engagement of
pupils, who were encouraged to take ownership of their
learning rather than being the passive recipients of the
delivery of curriculum'(Hallam et al, 2004, ¶ 4.7.1).
Concluding summary
In noting that the passive reception of curriculum is an
undesirable characterization of classroom learning it
9. speaks back to the critique of the ‘black box’ presented
by Black and Wiliam (1998b) and the ARG (1999). In
international contexts, such as Scotland (Hallam et al,
2004, ¶ 4.7.1) and various other nations (OECD, 2005) it
was reported that the implementation of FA caused
relationships with the students to blossom and it became
possible to bring forward difficulties without negative
impact For example, Hallam’s study found that the
students were generally positive about the impact of the
project and Condie et al (2005) requested that teachers
evaluate the following statement: ‘Pupils themselves
report positive views of project activities.’ Practitioner
responses were relatively favorable, with 62.5% (in phase
1) and 65% (in phase 2) of teachers strongly agreeing or
agreeing with the statement. Harrison (2009) reports from
England on a 5-year study on the impact of FA on
science attainment, ‘science exam results rose from
below 40% A-C to more than 60%. Key Stage 3 results
went up year on year, following a period of stagnation.’
(p. 8). A very significant effect of FA was a marked
decrease in reluctance to participate in discussion and
engage in activities. While the implementation of FA was
found to be challenging by teachers they assumed a
collaborative problem-solving approach, reporting
numerous positive outcomes: 're-energised, satisfied,
confident, renewed enjoyment'(Condie et al, 2005, ¶
4.4). Similarly, Harrison (2009) noted that ‘NQT (Newly
Qualified Teacher) staff…all went on to receive ‘excellent’
OFSTED observations, and moved almost immediately
from NQT status to middle management.’ (p. 8). It is
evident that the students are not the sole beneficiary of a
movement from a teacher-centered pedagogy to one
which places the student and their learning needs at the
heart of teaching. In closing, the 2005 OECD report
which explored FA practices in nine nations found that
teachers who practice FA consistently indicate that
students are:
i) generally able to set realistic learning targets;
ii) more involved;
iii) better equipped to assess their own learning;
iv) positive about project activities;
v) more confident and
vi) more motivated.
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