This document discusses the origins and development of trauma theory. It notes that trauma theory first emerged from Freud's work in psychoanalysis, where he believed that all neurosis stemmed from previous traumatic experiences. The term "post-traumatic stress disorder" was later coined by the American Psychiatric Association in 1980. The document highlights that trauma theory was first theorized and applied to literature in the late 20th century by scholars Cathy Caruth and Shoshana Felman of Emory University. They argued that literature provides a means for witnessing and understanding traumatic events that might otherwise go unspoken. Trauma theory has since developed as an interdisciplinary field that draws connections between psychology and the humanities.
This document summarizes and critiques dominant theories in contemporary literary trauma theory. It discusses how the field widely relies on Freudian concepts that trauma causes a "speechless fright" and divides identity. However, this produces a homogenous interpretation that does not consider diverse trauma representations. The document also examines the concept of intergenerational transmission of trauma and critiques the notion that historical trauma defines contemporary racial identities. It argues this view conflates personal loss with historical absence and promotes an essentialist concept of identity.
Violence Essay | Essay on Violence for Students and Children in English .... Domestic Violence Essay | Essay on Domestic Violence for Students and .... Reasons Of Violence In Schools - Free Essay Example | PapersOwl.com. Gun Violence Essay - Marc Kirchner ENG 201 18 February 2018 What are We .... Domestic violence essay. Essay on violence in schools - Get Help From Custom College Essay .... Domestic Violence Essay - Explain the 10 common myths about IPV 1 .... Domestic Violence Essay ~ Addictionary. Studio Mouvance - Domestic violence essay outline. 011 Essay Example Schooledviolence On Crime And ~ Thatsnotus. Domestic violence essay | Year 11 HSC - Legal Studies | Thinkswap. Domestic Violence Essay | Legal Studies - Year 12 HSC | Thinkswap. 004 Essay Example On Crime And Violence ~ Thatsnotus.
The document provides background information on trauma theory and discusses key concepts from trauma theorists Cathy Caruth and Shoshana Felman. It summarizes Freud's early work on trauma and how it evolved following World War I. Key events of the 20th century that shaped the development of trauma theory are noted. Literature is discussed as important to trauma theory for its ability to represent both comprehensible and incomprehensible aspects of traumatic experience.
The document provides context and discussion for trauma theory, including definitions of trauma from Freud, Cathy Caruth, and the American Psychiatric Association. It also summarizes key aspects of trauma theory according to Freud and Cathy Caruth, including how trauma can result in delayed or repeated responses due to the event not being fully experienced or assimilated at the time. Discussion topics are provided on trauma theory and works of literature.
The document provides an overview of the history and development of trauma theory over the last century. It discusses Freud's early work on dreams and the unconscious which helped establish a foundation. However, his theories did not fully explain the experiences of World War I veterans who were experiencing trauma. This led to further developments, including the official recognition of PTSD in 1980. Theorists like Cathy Caruth have since interpreted and expanded Freud's work on trauma. Trauma theory examines how literature can represent both the comprehensible and incomprehensible aspects of traumatic experiences.
The document discusses trauma theory through analyzing several key concepts:
1. It traces the development of trauma theory over the last century, from Freud's initial reflections on traumatic experiences to modern conceptualizations like PTSD.
2. Literature is seen as important for trauma theory because it can accommodate both comprehensible and incomprehensible aspects of traumatic experience.
3. Two views of trauma theory from Bloom and Balaev are presented. Bloom focuses on trauma's effects like fight-or-flight responses, while Balaev examines how literature conveys trauma through narrative techniques.
4. Questions are raised about how trauma is understood and processed individually and culturally over time.
This column approaches trauma from three perspectives-child and family psychiatry, trauma-informed care, and social psychiatry and philosophy. The tragedy of King Lear is briefly introduced as the framework for understanding tragedy and trauma. In closing, I argue for a nuanced approach to trauma that is selective but responsive to the ruptures that create trauma and tragedy in our lives.
"You do me wrong to take me out o' the grave. Thou art a soul in bliss; but I am bound Upon a wheel of fire, that mine own tears Do scald like molten lead."
- King Lear, Act IV, sc 7
This document summarizes and critiques dominant theories in contemporary literary trauma theory. It discusses how the field widely relies on Freudian concepts that trauma causes a "speechless fright" and divides identity. However, this produces a homogenous interpretation that does not consider diverse trauma representations. The document also examines the concept of intergenerational transmission of trauma and critiques the notion that historical trauma defines contemporary racial identities. It argues this view conflates personal loss with historical absence and promotes an essentialist concept of identity.
Violence Essay | Essay on Violence for Students and Children in English .... Domestic Violence Essay | Essay on Domestic Violence for Students and .... Reasons Of Violence In Schools - Free Essay Example | PapersOwl.com. Gun Violence Essay - Marc Kirchner ENG 201 18 February 2018 What are We .... Domestic violence essay. Essay on violence in schools - Get Help From Custom College Essay .... Domestic Violence Essay - Explain the 10 common myths about IPV 1 .... Domestic Violence Essay ~ Addictionary. Studio Mouvance - Domestic violence essay outline. 011 Essay Example Schooledviolence On Crime And ~ Thatsnotus. Domestic violence essay | Year 11 HSC - Legal Studies | Thinkswap. Domestic Violence Essay | Legal Studies - Year 12 HSC | Thinkswap. 004 Essay Example On Crime And Violence ~ Thatsnotus.
The document provides background information on trauma theory and discusses key concepts from trauma theorists Cathy Caruth and Shoshana Felman. It summarizes Freud's early work on trauma and how it evolved following World War I. Key events of the 20th century that shaped the development of trauma theory are noted. Literature is discussed as important to trauma theory for its ability to represent both comprehensible and incomprehensible aspects of traumatic experience.
The document provides context and discussion for trauma theory, including definitions of trauma from Freud, Cathy Caruth, and the American Psychiatric Association. It also summarizes key aspects of trauma theory according to Freud and Cathy Caruth, including how trauma can result in delayed or repeated responses due to the event not being fully experienced or assimilated at the time. Discussion topics are provided on trauma theory and works of literature.
The document provides an overview of the history and development of trauma theory over the last century. It discusses Freud's early work on dreams and the unconscious which helped establish a foundation. However, his theories did not fully explain the experiences of World War I veterans who were experiencing trauma. This led to further developments, including the official recognition of PTSD in 1980. Theorists like Cathy Caruth have since interpreted and expanded Freud's work on trauma. Trauma theory examines how literature can represent both the comprehensible and incomprehensible aspects of traumatic experiences.
The document discusses trauma theory through analyzing several key concepts:
1. It traces the development of trauma theory over the last century, from Freud's initial reflections on traumatic experiences to modern conceptualizations like PTSD.
2. Literature is seen as important for trauma theory because it can accommodate both comprehensible and incomprehensible aspects of traumatic experience.
3. Two views of trauma theory from Bloom and Balaev are presented. Bloom focuses on trauma's effects like fight-or-flight responses, while Balaev examines how literature conveys trauma through narrative techniques.
4. Questions are raised about how trauma is understood and processed individually and culturally over time.
This column approaches trauma from three perspectives-child and family psychiatry, trauma-informed care, and social psychiatry and philosophy. The tragedy of King Lear is briefly introduced as the framework for understanding tragedy and trauma. In closing, I argue for a nuanced approach to trauma that is selective but responsive to the ruptures that create trauma and tragedy in our lives.
"You do me wrong to take me out o' the grave. Thou art a soul in bliss; but I am bound Upon a wheel of fire, that mine own tears Do scald like molten lead."
- King Lear, Act IV, sc 7
Trauma is defined as a psychological wound caused by an experience of violence that shatters one's sense of subjectivity. Trauma can manifest in various ways such as PTSD, which includes reliving the traumatic event through flashbacks and nightmares, heightened anxiety, and dissociation from the pain of the past. The concept of trauma gained prominence in the 20th century with the recognition of lasting psychological effects of war and childhood abuse. While diagnostic constructs can help clinically, they only represent part of the complex reality of trauma which has biological, personal, social, and political dimensions.
This document provides an agenda for an English writing workshop class. It includes:
1) An introduction outlining the workshop activities - reviewing Essay #2 drafts and receiving peer feedback.
2) Directions for students to answer questions about their purpose and main problem for readers on their drafts.
3) Instructions for distributing and reviewing papers, providing feedback without asking the writer questions.
4) A reminder of upcoming homework - further revising Essay #2, reading assigned trauma theory articles, and posting an online discussion question.
Alaimo Trans Corporeality For The Posthuman GlossaryMartha Brown
Trans-corporeality is a posthumanist theory that argues all living beings are interconnected through dynamic material exchanges that transform both the being and its environment. It contests Western ideas of detached human subjects and instead proposes that human identities are entangled with biological, technological and environmental systems. Trans-corporeality has been applied across disciplines like archaeology, law, and literary criticism to understand embodied experiences and ethics in an interconnected world.
Since the beginning of the year, 60,656 non-EU immigrants landed in Italy, of which 51,596 in Lampedusa and other islands in the Pelagian
.
This presentation afford the definition of human being and Integral Development based on Fernando Rielo's philosophy
This workwas presented during the II Workshop on Medical Anthropology in Rome, on October 14th-15th 2011.
This document provides an overview of the anthropological study of mental illness. It discusses madness as a disorder of social ties that poses problems for all societies. The anthropology of madness examines local treatments of mental illness on three levels: as a social problem, an ailment with a therapeutic system, and moral treatment of people experiencing madness. Notable studies in the field include work on conceptions of personhood in American psychiatry and treatment of schizophrenia and in prisons. The goal of the anthropology of madness is a cultural analysis of concepts of personhood and ethics. Key methods include genealogical analysis of concepts over time and examining the "social life" of cultural objects in psychiatry.
Aristotle, frye, and the theory of tragedy, by leon goldenMariane Farias
This article compares Aristotle and Northrop Frye's theories of tragedy. While Aristotle provides a precise definition of an ideal tragedy, it fails to account for many works historically considered tragedies. Frye attempts to analyze the full range of tragic works, but lacks Aristotle's rigor. The author argues a theory reconciling their approaches is possible, by considering four parameters in Aristotle's analysis: the hero's moral stature; the nature of his error; his destiny; and the means of presentation. This could do justice to the genre's variety while establishing its definition.
This document summarizes a paper examining justice for returning veterans living with PTSD and how social media can aid in the reintegration process. It first defines justice and discusses the facts around PTSD, noting that around 21% of soldiers returning from Iraq and Afghanistan exhibit PTSD symptoms. It then explores how the stigma around mental health issues prevents some veterans from seeking treatment. The document recommends that anonymous social media sites could help veterans discuss their issues and receive information to better support reintegration.
Implications of the Werther Effect on the Suicide Epidemic in Alaska by Paul ...Paul Hannan
This document discusses the implications of the Werther Effect on Alaska's suicide epidemic. It argues that literature, like Goethe's The Sorrows of Young Werther, has the power to introduce suicidal contagion into a society through suggestion and imitation. It asserts that when suicide is presented casually or condoned in a culture, suicide rates increase. The document recommends that societies should publicly reprove suicide through sanctions like denying religious burial rites, in order to offset suicidal inclinations and reduce epidemic spread through contagion. The goal is to understand and address the sociological roots of the crisis in Alaska.
Implications of the Werther Effect on the Suicide Epidemic in Alaska by Paul ...Paul Hannan
Alaska has one of the worst suicide rates in the world. Yet psychological scientists seeking to remedy this crisis have failed to glean, let alone apply, the considerable etiological lessons generated by 125 years of sociological research. This paper is an attempt to accomplish that very work.
Implications the werther effect in alaska by paul hannanPaul Hannan
This document discusses the implications of the Werther Effect on Alaska's suicide epidemic. It argues that literature, like Goethe's The Sorrows of Young Werther, has the power to introduce suicidal contagion into a society through suggestion and imitation. It asserts that when suicide is presented casually or condoned in a culture, suicide rates increase. The document recommends that societies should publicly reprove suicide through sanctions like denying religious burial rites, in order to offset suicidal inclinations and reduce epidemic spread through contagion. The goal is to understand and address the sociological roots of the crisis in Alaska.
Interrogating trauma Towards a critical trauma studiesAnt.docxvrickens
Interrogating trauma: Towards a critical trauma studies
Antonio Traverso
a
* and Mick Broderick
b
a
School of Media, Culture and Creative Arts, Curtin University, Perth, Australia;
b
School of Media,
Communication and Culture, Murdoch University, Perth, Australia
In a French arthouse film an Algerian man draws out a large kitchen knife and cuts his
own throat. In a short Sri Lankan art video the goddess of destruction, Kali, and a woman
soldier surface from the ocean and walk towards a small seaside village. Shaky images of
a video documentary bear witness to the muddied streets and flooded buildings of a poor,
black neighbourhood of the Southern United States. In a low-budget Australian film
written and directed by an Indigenous filmmaker two homeless, petrol-sniffing
Aboriginal youths walk aimlessly on the streets of an outback town. We encounter the
modern world and its history via depictions of catastrophe, atrocity, suffering and death.
During the past 100 years or so, traumatic historical events and experiences have been
re-imagined and re-enacted for us to witness over and over by constantly evolving
media and art forms. Perhaps due to the ubiquity and multiplication of such images
and narratives in modern and post-modern culture, questions about the impulse to
behold and depict both the suffering of others and of the self, as well as more general
questions about the ontological status of the representation of trauma, have increasingly
been raised within intersecting, inter-disciplinary fields of study over the past two
decades.
However, while these ongoing debates have produced a body of theoretical and
testimonial literature of vast dimensions, their focus has been markedly restricted by an
interest in the narrative and visual traces of cataclysmic European and US historical
events, such as the Holocaust, the Vietnam War, 9/11 and the post-9/11 war on terror.
In contrast, substantially less theorization has been devoted, by and large, to the
representation of suffering as a result of political conflict outside the West, even though
depictions of Third World disasters saturate contemporary media and art around the
globe.
1
In addition, when critical attention has been given to the latter, largely the same
conventional theory of trauma developed in Holocaust and trauma studies, namely a
theory of subjective dissociation initially derived from Freudian psychoanalysis, has been
used, with only limited attempts to develop alternative conceptualizations applicable to
localized, culturally specific representations of suffering.
2
Consequently, this collection of essays joins a critical trend in twenty-first-century
trauma studies to redress the balance (Blocker 2009; Douglas, Whitlock, and Stumm 2008;
Guerin and Hallas 2007; Ball 2007; Winter 2006; Bennett 2005; Hodgkin and Radstone
2005; Tumarkin 2005; Kaplan 2005; Kaplan and Wang 2004; Collins and Davis 2004;
ISSN 1030-4312 print/ISSN 1469-3666 online ...
A STUDY OF THE THEME OF PERSECUTION AND THE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN VICTIMS AND...Kudakwashe Dhoro
Human violence has generated a lot of discussion and led to so many attempts, both scientific and philosophical, to understand its prevalence. Why do human beings inflict voluntary suffering or death to others? This is the eternal problem of evil. From the simple assault case to premeditated murder, genocide aimed at the eradication of a well-defined community, violence is both repugnant and fascinating because we can never get used to it. It is never really the same and always displays a new facet that is constantly surprising and unusual.
24 Greatest College Essay Examples – RedlineSP. College Essay Examples - 13+ in PDF | Examples. Persuasive Essay: Interview essay paper. How to write a good academic essay.
Emma Behnke entered Gallatin University in 2010 with interests in literary theory and pre-health sciences. She took classes in various departments before focusing her studies on the representation of illness in fictional narratives. Her concentration examines how literary works use metaphors of illness and the tensions between different illness narratives. She analyzes works such as The Magic Mountain that depict illness as tied to spirituality and identity. Her work traces how illness metaphors have changed over time and been used to create and dismantle stigma. She is interested in how representations of the body have shifted as medical imaging technology has advanced. Her concentration examines metaphors in medicine to reshape narratives around illness.
This document summarizes and analyzes Anna Schuleit-Haber's artwork in relation to phenomenology. It discusses phenomenology as the study of conscious experience and proposes using psychophysical reductionism. It describes Schuleit-Haber's work and how it relates to phenomenological concerns. It argues art educators should avoid practices that discourage authorship or promote homogeneous artwork. Instead, studying phenomenology can help students create more complex, meaningful pieces.
Plato, Freud, and Nietzsche offer differing conceptions of the human soul or psyche. Plato depicts the soul as comprising reason, spirit, and passion. For Plato, reason aims to control the passions, with spirit assisting reason. Freud's structural model of the psyche similarly includes the ego, id, and superego, but Freud was less optimistic than Plato about reason's ability to master passion. Nietzsche provides a way to understand the difference, seeing Greek culture as caught between reason and Dionysian passion. For Nietzsche, the rise of philosophical reason undermined a tragic equilibrium between reason and passion that made existence bearable for Greeks.
The document describes a trip to the airport, noting the hot and sweaty conditions upon disembarking the plane and the stiff legs from cramped seating. It contrasts the unglamorous experience of the average traveler with imagined impressions of dignitaries arriving fresh and composed. The traveler is relieved to finally feel crisp air again upon entering one of the fanciest airports seen.
The document provides instructions for creating an account and submitting a request for writing assistance on the HelpWriting.net website. It outlines a 5-step process: 1) Create an account with a password and email; 2) Complete a 10-minute order form with instructions, sources, and deadline; 3) Review bids from writers and choose one; 4) Review the completed paper and authorize payment; 5) Request revisions to ensure satisfaction and receive a refund for plagiarized work.
Printable Writing Paper (28) By Aimee-Valentine-Art OnSara Parker
The document provides instructions for requesting an assignment writing service from HelpWriting.net. It outlines the 5-step process: 1) Create an account with a password and email. 2) Complete a 10-minute order form providing instructions, sources, and deadline. 3) Review bids from writers and choose one. 4) Review the completed paper and authorize payment if satisfied. 5) Request revisions until fully satisfied, and the company guarantees original, high-quality work or a full refund.
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Trauma is defined as a psychological wound caused by an experience of violence that shatters one's sense of subjectivity. Trauma can manifest in various ways such as PTSD, which includes reliving the traumatic event through flashbacks and nightmares, heightened anxiety, and dissociation from the pain of the past. The concept of trauma gained prominence in the 20th century with the recognition of lasting psychological effects of war and childhood abuse. While diagnostic constructs can help clinically, they only represent part of the complex reality of trauma which has biological, personal, social, and political dimensions.
This document provides an agenda for an English writing workshop class. It includes:
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2) Directions for students to answer questions about their purpose and main problem for readers on their drafts.
3) Instructions for distributing and reviewing papers, providing feedback without asking the writer questions.
4) A reminder of upcoming homework - further revising Essay #2, reading assigned trauma theory articles, and posting an online discussion question.
Alaimo Trans Corporeality For The Posthuman GlossaryMartha Brown
Trans-corporeality is a posthumanist theory that argues all living beings are interconnected through dynamic material exchanges that transform both the being and its environment. It contests Western ideas of detached human subjects and instead proposes that human identities are entangled with biological, technological and environmental systems. Trans-corporeality has been applied across disciplines like archaeology, law, and literary criticism to understand embodied experiences and ethics in an interconnected world.
Since the beginning of the year, 60,656 non-EU immigrants landed in Italy, of which 51,596 in Lampedusa and other islands in the Pelagian
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This workwas presented during the II Workshop on Medical Anthropology in Rome, on October 14th-15th 2011.
This document provides an overview of the anthropological study of mental illness. It discusses madness as a disorder of social ties that poses problems for all societies. The anthropology of madness examines local treatments of mental illness on three levels: as a social problem, an ailment with a therapeutic system, and moral treatment of people experiencing madness. Notable studies in the field include work on conceptions of personhood in American psychiatry and treatment of schizophrenia and in prisons. The goal of the anthropology of madness is a cultural analysis of concepts of personhood and ethics. Key methods include genealogical analysis of concepts over time and examining the "social life" of cultural objects in psychiatry.
Aristotle, frye, and the theory of tragedy, by leon goldenMariane Farias
This article compares Aristotle and Northrop Frye's theories of tragedy. While Aristotle provides a precise definition of an ideal tragedy, it fails to account for many works historically considered tragedies. Frye attempts to analyze the full range of tragic works, but lacks Aristotle's rigor. The author argues a theory reconciling their approaches is possible, by considering four parameters in Aristotle's analysis: the hero's moral stature; the nature of his error; his destiny; and the means of presentation. This could do justice to the genre's variety while establishing its definition.
This document summarizes a paper examining justice for returning veterans living with PTSD and how social media can aid in the reintegration process. It first defines justice and discusses the facts around PTSD, noting that around 21% of soldiers returning from Iraq and Afghanistan exhibit PTSD symptoms. It then explores how the stigma around mental health issues prevents some veterans from seeking treatment. The document recommends that anonymous social media sites could help veterans discuss their issues and receive information to better support reintegration.
Implications of the Werther Effect on the Suicide Epidemic in Alaska by Paul ...Paul Hannan
This document discusses the implications of the Werther Effect on Alaska's suicide epidemic. It argues that literature, like Goethe's The Sorrows of Young Werther, has the power to introduce suicidal contagion into a society through suggestion and imitation. It asserts that when suicide is presented casually or condoned in a culture, suicide rates increase. The document recommends that societies should publicly reprove suicide through sanctions like denying religious burial rites, in order to offset suicidal inclinations and reduce epidemic spread through contagion. The goal is to understand and address the sociological roots of the crisis in Alaska.
Implications of the Werther Effect on the Suicide Epidemic in Alaska by Paul ...Paul Hannan
Alaska has one of the worst suicide rates in the world. Yet psychological scientists seeking to remedy this crisis have failed to glean, let alone apply, the considerable etiological lessons generated by 125 years of sociological research. This paper is an attempt to accomplish that very work.
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This document discusses the implications of the Werther Effect on Alaska's suicide epidemic. It argues that literature, like Goethe's The Sorrows of Young Werther, has the power to introduce suicidal contagion into a society through suggestion and imitation. It asserts that when suicide is presented casually or condoned in a culture, suicide rates increase. The document recommends that societies should publicly reprove suicide through sanctions like denying religious burial rites, in order to offset suicidal inclinations and reduce epidemic spread through contagion. The goal is to understand and address the sociological roots of the crisis in Alaska.
Interrogating trauma Towards a critical trauma studiesAnt.docxvrickens
Interrogating trauma: Towards a critical trauma studies
Antonio Traverso
a
* and Mick Broderick
b
a
School of Media, Culture and Creative Arts, Curtin University, Perth, Australia;
b
School of Media,
Communication and Culture, Murdoch University, Perth, Australia
In a French arthouse film an Algerian man draws out a large kitchen knife and cuts his
own throat. In a short Sri Lankan art video the goddess of destruction, Kali, and a woman
soldier surface from the ocean and walk towards a small seaside village. Shaky images of
a video documentary bear witness to the muddied streets and flooded buildings of a poor,
black neighbourhood of the Southern United States. In a low-budget Australian film
written and directed by an Indigenous filmmaker two homeless, petrol-sniffing
Aboriginal youths walk aimlessly on the streets of an outback town. We encounter the
modern world and its history via depictions of catastrophe, atrocity, suffering and death.
During the past 100 years or so, traumatic historical events and experiences have been
re-imagined and re-enacted for us to witness over and over by constantly evolving
media and art forms. Perhaps due to the ubiquity and multiplication of such images
and narratives in modern and post-modern culture, questions about the impulse to
behold and depict both the suffering of others and of the self, as well as more general
questions about the ontological status of the representation of trauma, have increasingly
been raised within intersecting, inter-disciplinary fields of study over the past two
decades.
However, while these ongoing debates have produced a body of theoretical and
testimonial literature of vast dimensions, their focus has been markedly restricted by an
interest in the narrative and visual traces of cataclysmic European and US historical
events, such as the Holocaust, the Vietnam War, 9/11 and the post-9/11 war on terror.
In contrast, substantially less theorization has been devoted, by and large, to the
representation of suffering as a result of political conflict outside the West, even though
depictions of Third World disasters saturate contemporary media and art around the
globe.
1
In addition, when critical attention has been given to the latter, largely the same
conventional theory of trauma developed in Holocaust and trauma studies, namely a
theory of subjective dissociation initially derived from Freudian psychoanalysis, has been
used, with only limited attempts to develop alternative conceptualizations applicable to
localized, culturally specific representations of suffering.
2
Consequently, this collection of essays joins a critical trend in twenty-first-century
trauma studies to redress the balance (Blocker 2009; Douglas, Whitlock, and Stumm 2008;
Guerin and Hallas 2007; Ball 2007; Winter 2006; Bennett 2005; Hodgkin and Radstone
2005; Tumarkin 2005; Kaplan 2005; Kaplan and Wang 2004; Collins and Davis 2004;
ISSN 1030-4312 print/ISSN 1469-3666 online ...
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ABSTRACT
In literature, all human phenomena are reflected by literary works and related to the world
through simple artistic mediums. It is no doubt that trauma exists as part of human challenges
since the start of human history. However, the concept of trauma has been theorized in the
fields of sciences and social sciences since ages i.e. Medicine, Psychology etc. only soon did it
gain credence and was theorized in the stream of literature by some competent, scholarly and
capable professors of comparative literature at Emory University; Cathy Caruth and
Shoshana Felman. As the world evolves from one age to another, so does literature, binding
history and culture of a place and people efficiently. Trauma has as well been one way or
another, prevalent in all forms of literature. It surfaces as the shady part of all narratives that
tell of a history, memoir, agonies and sorrows of the writer or about the subjects (characters)
created.
This paper explores the origins of trauma theory and deciphers its essential role in literature.
It argues that trauma in literature is a must-read because, the theoretical multiplicity that
allows for an appreciative comprehension of trauma's flexible representations include (and
also move beyond) the idea of trauma as neurotic, appalling, horrifying, terrifying and the
pleasure of telling and witnessing a traumatic event which is, of course, literature.
Key words: Art as Narrative; Recounting History; Trauma Theory; World Literature
“In all forms of art, part of you is in the trauma, and part of you is a step away from it.”
~Maya Angleou~
The word trauma is said to have originated from the Latin word „Trauma’ which is derived from the
Greek word „Traumatikos’ which means a serious wound to the body. Trauma is referred to as any emotional
wound leading to psychological injury or an event that causes great distress. According to American
Psychological Association, trauma is referred to as an emotional response to a terrible event. Alameda County
Trauma Informed Care, a trauma and mental health care organization in Alameda County, California, refers to
trauma from a psychological perspective to describe experiences that are emotionally painful and distressing
and that overwhelms an individual‟s capacity to cope. Dejonghe, a psychologist and sociologist at the
California Polytechnic University, USA, in a symposium on „Women Survivors of Intimate Partner Violence
and Post-traumatic Stress Disorder: Prediction and Prevention’, describes the concept of trauma as:
“experiencing or witnessing an event involving threat or fear or physical integrity that results in feelings of
fear, helplessness, or horror” (Dejonghe 294).
Trauma is said to have more psychological effects than physical, the effects are mentally threatening
and can lead to a mental and even physical breakdown if not taken care of. Sandra L. Bloom, a psychiatrist
who specializes in the treatment of psychological trauma, quoted Lenore Terr, a child psychiatrist in her work
Trauma Theory Abbreviated, saying,and “Psychic trauma occurs when a sudden unexpected overwhelming
intense emotional blow or series of blows assaults the person from outside. Traumatic events are external, but
they quickly become incorporated into the mind” (Bloom 2).
In modern times, trauma theory has gained an independent scope for itself; it is studied as a theory of
its own. Although, its origins can still be traced back to Freud‟s psycho analysis, Rick Curnow Adelaide; a
psychoanalyst and training analyst at Australian Psychoanalytical Society, in a public lecture on „Trauma: A
Psychoanalytic Perspective’, maintains that the theory of trauma was said to have sprung out of Freud‟s
Psychoanalysis where he (Freud) believes that “all neurosis was a result of previous traumatic experience”
(Rick 2).The term “Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder” (PTSD) is a concept which is very central to trauma
theory; it was coined from Freud‟s “traumatic neurosis” by the American Psychiatric Association in 1980.
PSTD is one of the world‟s deadliest illnesses; it is responsible for the deaths of many and has been the reason
why many trauma centers are functionally operating in the West today. In the war infested parts of the world,
victims of terror do not suffer terror attack as much as they suffer PSTD that becomes persistent afterwards.
However, in modern theory, trauma theory is considered an infant, a new born which is said to have
been first used by Cathy Caruthin her workUnclaimed Experience (1996). According to Khan Touseef Osman,
in his research article on “Trauma Theory and Its Implications in Humanities and Social Sciences”, he confirms
that:
3. IRA-International Journal of Management & Social Sciences
120
The term “trauma theory” first appears in Cathy Caruth‟s Unclaimed Experience. The theory,
arguably, stems from her insightful interpretation and elaboration of Freud‟s deliberations on
traumatic experiences in Beyond the Pleasure Principle and Moses and Monotheism. (Osman 1)
Elissa Marder, a professor of French and comparative literature at Emory University, in her essay
Trauma and Literary Studies: Some “Enabling Questions” also observes that‟ In the late 20thcentury, Cathy
Caruth, a distinguished research professor of comparative literature and English is considered as one of the
leading pioneers of trauma theory, she theorized the concept of trauma in the light of literature, that, literary
texts are means through which the nature of trauma is revealed by its witnesses. She argues that literature
enables us to bear witness to events that can‟t be absolutely known and introduces us to experiences that might
have otherwise stayed unspoken and unheard. Caruth powerfully and convincingly shows that despite the fact
that certain kinds of events can‟t be completely understood, these events consequently become significant in
diverse ways by being expressed to others and perceived by them. (Elissa 3)
Elissa further explored the nature of traumatic events and its response by citing the creative work of
Shoshana Felman, also a professor of comparative Literature at Emory who have creatively worked on the
issues of trauma, literature and psychoanalysis.
“The focus of Shoshana Felman‟s first invaluable contribution to trauma studies—her 1992 book
Testimony: Crises of Witnessing in Literature, Psychoanalysis, and History—centers on what she
calls “testimony”According to Felman (and her co-author Dori Laub), testimony (here understood
as the act of bearing witness to traumatic events) is a necessary and vital response to the ongoing
consequences of traumatic history” (Elissa 3).
It is generally believed that trauma theory is an amalgam of psychological studies with that of
humanities. In literature especially, the theory is imbibed in the study of the multiple dimension of characters‟
psyche. Susannah Radstone et al opine that: “Trauma theory denotes a vibrant, interdisciplinary area of
Western scholarship developed since the 1980s through cross-fertilization between psychology and the
humanities” (Radstone 1). In literary studies, some narratives with traumatic themes, moods and tones are
eminent in keeping alive a psychological wound alongside telling others the pains in a traumatic experience.
Another noteworthy aim of trauma narratives is to restructure cultural memory through individual perspectives,
taking on testimonial traits to avert and bear witness against such repetitious horrors. (Laurie 5).
In literature, all human phenomena are reflected by literary works and related to the world through
simple artistic mediums. It is of no doubt that trauma exists as part of human challenges since the start of
human history. However, the concept of trauma has been theorized in the field of sciences since ages i.e
Medicine, Psychology etc. but only soon did it gain credence and was theorized in the stream of literature by
some able professors of comparative literature at Emory University. Cathy Caruth and Shushana Felman, they
have enormously worked this out indeed. As the world evolves from one age to another, so does literature,
binding history and culture of a place and people lucratively. Trauma has as well being one way or another,
prevalent in all forms of literature. It surfaces as the shady part of all narratives that tell of a history, memoir,
agonies and sorrows of the writer or about the subjects (characters) written.
The trauma novel demonstrates how a traumatic event disrupts attachments between self and
others by challenging fundamental assumptions about moral laws and social relationships that
are themselves connected to specific environments. Novels represent this disruption between the
self and others by carefully describing the place of trauma because the physical environment
offers the opportunity to examine both the personal and cultural histories imbedded in landscapes
that define the character's identity and the meaning of the traumatic experience. The primacy of
place in the representations of trauma anchors the individual experience within a larger cultural
context, and, in fact, organizes the memory and meaning of trauma. (Balaev 1).
From the beginning of time, trauma, which can be experienced in various forms, is ascribed to the
expulsion of Adam and Eve from heaven (The Garden of Eden) to earth. According to Quranic and Biblical
narration of the evolution of man, their shocking and surprising heartbreak left them traumatized. Adam and
Eve lost the paradise after their disobedience to God; they were thrown out of heaven for eating from the
forbidden tree. Only then did they realize that they were naked, which is a sign of another fall from purity.
Thus, they both encountered physical and psychological trauma as Adam is said to have wept for seventy
years. John Milton‟s Paradise Lost is a near example of such kind of traumatic experience in narrative
literature.
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The historic holocaust has till today left a mark in the human history. Since literature serves as a
means of historical documentation and transmission, Anne Frank‟s The Dairy of a young Girl (1947) is the
dairy entries of a teenager which reveals the horrors of holocaust. This autobiography is about two Jewish
families who fled from Germany to Amsterdam and are in hiding from the Nazi Germans. The horrific
experiences of the oppressed and the sympathetic situation they find themselves result to their exposure to
traumatic experiences. Anne, the protagonist is subjected to the feeling of loneliness, isolation and fear. With
thoughts and wondering of the reason why the Jews are persecuted, she grows up with a staunch solidarity
among the aggrieved of the brutal circumstances of the Holocaust without making it till the end. Other books
of the same plight are: Elie Wiesel‟s Night (1958), Charles Weinblatt‟s Jacobs Courage: A Holocaust Love
story etc.
Similarly, the growth and development of trauma continued through series of ruins and destructions
that occurred in human history. During and after the world wars, victims of war suffered various forms of
psychological and physical trauma leading to creation and or establishment of multiple rehabilitation centers as
well as Trauma care centers. This has enormously been illustrated in the literary works of most twentieth
century fiction writers. The mission of war mongers has been accomplished; destruction of minds, lives and
properties made. War has ended but the effect of war still remains even much longer than the war itself.
Virginia Woolf rightfully portrayed this psychological effect of war in her text Mrs. Dalloway
through the character of Septimus Waren Smith, a war Veteran who lost his very close friend to the war.
Devastated by the experiences of a war front, Septimus becomes mentally traumatized. He blames himself for
every tragic event that happens thereafter, hallucinates and secludes from the real world. At long run, he resorts
to committing suicide. This is how veterans and others involved with war one way or the other are traumatized
resulting from their punitive and harsh experiences.
With the passage of time, the growth and expansion of trauma extended in numerous forms, varying
from communal, religious, regional and colonial reasons. The extension of European trade system brought
many places like the whole continent of Africa, some parts of Asia and Middle-East under European empires.
Thus, Post-colonial writers are mostly engulfed with the horrible effects and experiences of colonialism. The
colonialized are mostly victims of oppression, subjugations and depression thereby showing the impacts of
trauma.
Chinua Achebe‟s Things fall apart (1958) is a colonial text set in the eastern part of Nigeria. The
European invasions consequently disturbed and disrupted the seemingly peaceful villages of eastern Nigeria
traumatizing both the natives and the readers too. Okonkwo, the protagonist, is a brave and agile man, the
tragic hero who commits suicide due to his inability to accept the British into his village and psyche. He
became mentally devastated when he released that his village members are not willing to fight the invaders.
Thus, he becomes depressed and overly affected psychologically. Suicide becomes his available escape route
because he can‟t stand the trauma.
„‟Traumatic experience can produce a sometimes indelible effect on the human psyche that can
change the nature of an individual‟s memory self-recognition and relational life‟‟ (Laurie 22).
Furthermore, works like Frantz Fanon‟s Black Skin, White Masks (1952),AyiKwei Armah‟s
Fragments (1970), NgugiWa‟ Thiongo‟s Decolonizing the Minds (1986), Salman Rushdie‟s Midnight’s
Children (1981), Arundhati Roy‟s The God of Small Things (1997), Chimamanda Adichie‟s Half of a Yellow
Sun (2006), Christopher Abani‟s Grace Land(2004) etc. are good examples of post-colonial writings depicting
the traumatization of individuals due to colonial force.
The progression of human awareness and exploration in the history of man, leads to the realization of
other races other than “whites” (as the Europeans put it). From then on, color became a thing of difference
among humans and thus racism began to develop in the human mindset. The Europeans termed themselves
„whites‟ and the „others‟ as red, black or brown. Racism is another root cause of trauma, which if care is not
taken, can cause a lot of mental agony. It is so frustrating that its victims are excessively exposed to
psychological trauma which may or may not reveal itself in their outer life.
Joe Christmas of William Faulkner‟s Light in August suffers the same kind of trauma. A character
gets exposed to the frailties of racism right from birth when dumped at the orphanage by his maternal
grandfather due to hatred for his black race. He was then moved from the white orphanage to black orphanage
because of his race. Adopted by Mr. McEachern, he suffers torture and domestic violence at a young age all
because of his race. Bobbie, the girl he loves also ditched him because he is partly a black. All these and many
other forms of racism subjected Joe Christians to depression and internal conflict which detached him from
himself and the society at large. His situation is similar to that of Sophia in Alice Walker‟s The Color Purple.
Joe Christmas‟ trauma unfolds into the feeling of dehumanization, aggressiveness and selflessness. Thus, he
5. IRA-International Journal of Management & Social Sciences
122
kills and gets killed. Death becomes his escape route like other tragic heroes. Another textual example of
trauma caused by racism is Harper Lee‟s To Kill a Mocking Bird (1960), Ralph Ellison‟s Invisible Man (1952)
etc.
“After a traumatic event…… there may be two distinct phrases. There is an initial breakdown
when the protective shield is breached by trauma and there may be a catastrophic disruption of
functioning” (Rick 7)
In the recent years, terrorism has distorted the history of man. What appears to be religious act is in
reality, simply born out of political manipulations. Till today, the survivors of terrorist attacks are the bearers
of the pains and suffering related to shocking situation. The trauma experienced as a result of terrorism is
similar to that of holocaust, wars or genocides. Thus, survivors of terrorist attacks suffered from devastation,
wretchedness, loss of mood, confusion, feeling of insecurity, haunting memories, hallucinations and images
etc.
“From an earlier focus on the interpersonal aspects of trauma, including child abuse and domestic
violence, traumatic experiences have taken on a political and social dimension, for example, the
events of 9/11, the war on terror, and combat trauma associated with recent wars in Afghanistan
and Iraq”. (Ringel vii)
Don DE Lillo‟s Falling man is a potent representation or symbol of America‟s 9/11 twin Towers
attack and its aftermath. Keith Neudecker‟s victimization and disorientation results from the said terrorist
attack. The vision of “a man flying himself out of one of the broken windows on the top floors of the World
Trade Centre on that fateful day in 2001” remains unforgettable; an image that they can‟t get off their minds.
Witnesses and survivors live a life but a life filled with post traumatic tensions that would take forever to get
over it. Other relevant texts include Michael Cunningham‟s Specimen day (2005), Kushwan Singh‟s Train to
Pakistan, InaamKachachi‟s The American Granddaughter, Mohsin Hamid‟s The Reluctant Fundamentalist
(2007), Khaled Hosseni‟s The Kite Runner (2003) etc.
Today, the concept of trauma doesn‟t only involve life threatening events or emotionally painful
events but also situations or day-to-day experiences or activities that can lead to mental frailties. Centuries
have passed by but human situation still remains similar. An increasing rate of unfaithfulness, helplessness,
fear and lack of self-control in some cases are direct repercussions of trauma. The predominant causes for
traumatic feelings are experiences such as rape, domestic violence, child abuse, poverty, sexual assaults,
natural calamities and disasters, disease outbreaks and pandemics, loss of loved ones, societal and religious
intolerance, discontentment or desperately materialistic, chaos and violence witnessing etc.
These traumatic events, experiences and effects have aptly been symbolically portrayed by novelists
globally in literary works such as: Margaret Atwood‟s Surfacing, Maheshwati Devi‟s Rudali, Buchi
Emacheta‟s Joys of motherhood, Rajaa Alsenea‟s Girls of Riyadh, Hanan al-Shaykh‟s Only in London, Anita
Desai‟s Cry The Peacock, Sashi Despande‟s That Long Silence and The Dark holds no Terrors,
GirishKarnad‟s Nagamadala, William Faulkner‟s Light in August, Rupa Bajwa‟s The Sari Shop, Flora
Nwapa‟s Efuru, Chimamanda Adichie‟s Half of a yellow sun and Purple Hibiscus among many others.
The concept of trauma theory in literature is slowly and steadily gaining a reading and research
attention globally; many research works, dissertations and thesis have been done and are in the process of
research till date, with respect to trauma in literary studies. Confirmatory evidence of its research achievements
and developments can be seen in journals such as The Journal of Literature and Trauma Studies which
methodologically focuses on the relationship between trauma and literature. Although, most academics in most
third-world countries are yet to discern the trend of trauma theory in literature, it is still treated as a part of
psychoanalytic criticism. Trauma in literature is a must-read because, the theoretical multiplicity that allows for
an appreciative comprehension of trauma's flexible representations include (and also move beyond) the idea of
trauma as neurotic, appalling, horrifying, terrifying and the pleasure of telling and witnessing a traumatic event
which is, of course, literature.
References
1. Balaev, Michelle. "Trends in Literary Trauma Theory". Questia: Trusted online research. Mosaic
(Winnipeg). V 41.No. 2. June 2008. Web. 23 Nov. 2016. https://www.questia.com/library/journal/1G1-
235281138/trends-in-literary-trauma-theory
6. IRA-International Journal of Management & Social Sciences
123
2. Bloom, Sandra L., and M.D. Trauma Theory Abbreviated. Department of Human Services, Victoria,
Australia.N.p. 1999. Web. 01 Nov, 2015. http:// www. dhs. Vic .gov. au/data / assets / pdf_file /0005
/587966 /trauma _theory _abbreviated _sandra _bloom. pdf
3. Caruth, Cathy. Unclaimed Experience trauma, Narrative and History. London: The John Hopkins
University Press, 1996. Print.
4. DeJonghe E. S. et al. Women survivors of intimate partner violence and post-traumatic stress disorder:
Prediction and prevention. Bioline International.N.p. Oct, 2008. Web. 30 Oct, 2015.
http://www.bioline.org.br/pdf?jp08102
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