This document provides information about ants and squirrels. It discusses the taxonomy and characteristics of squirrels, including their size, appearance, habitat, diet, breeding habits, and behavior. It notes that squirrels live worldwide except the polar regions. The document also covers the taxonomy, social structure, habitats, and ecological impacts of ants, noting their success in colonizing most landmasses due to their social organization. It discusses how ant societies exhibit division of labor, communication, and problem-solving abilities similar to human societies.

1. ANTS & SQUIRRELS

2.  Squirrels belong to family Sciuridae of small or
medium-size rodents. The family includes tree
squirrels, ground
squirrels, chipmunks,marmots (including woodchucks
), flying squirrels, and prairie dogs. Squirrels are
indigenous to the Americas, Eurasia, and Africa, and
have been introduced to Australia.[1] The earliest
known squirrels date from the Eocene and are most
closely related to the mountain beaver and to
the dormouse among living rodent families.

3.  Squirrels are generally small animals, ranging in size
from the African pygmy squirrel at 7–10 cm (2.8–3.9 in)
in length and just 10 g (0.35 oz) in weight, to
the Alpine marmot, which is 53–73 cm (21–29 in) long
and weighs from 5 to 8 kg (11 to 18 lb). Squirrels
typically have slender bodies with bushy tails and large
eyes. In general, their fur is soft and silky, although
much thicker in some species than others. The color of
squirrels is highly variable between—and often even
within—species.[5]

4.  In general, the hind limbs are longer than the fore limbs,
and they have four or five toes on each paw. Their paws
include an often poorly developed thumb, and have soft
pads on the undersides.[6] The eastern gray squirrel is one
of very few mammalian species that can descend a tree
head-first. It does this by turning its feet so the claws of its
hind paws are backward-pointing and can grip the tree
bark.[7]
 Squirrels live in almost every habitat from
tropical rainforest to semiarid desert, avoiding only the
high polar regions and the driest of deserts. They are
predominantly herbivorous, subsisting on seeds and nuts,
but many will eat insects and even small vertebrates.[8]

5.  Squirrels breed once or twice a year and give birth to a
varying number of young after three to six weeks,
depending on species. The young are born naked,
toothless, and blind. In most species of squirrel, only the
female looks after the young, which are weaned at around
six to ten weeks of age and become sexually mature at the
end of their first year. In general, ground-dwelling species
are social animals, often living in well-developed colonies,
but the tree-dwelling species are more solitary.[6]
 Ground and tree squirrels are
typically diurnal or crepuscular,[11] while flying squirrels
tend to be nocturnal—except for lactating flying squirrels
and their offspring, which have a period of diurnality
during the summer.[12]

7.  Squirrels cannot digest cellulose, so they must rely on
foods rich in protein, carbohydrates, and fats. In
temperate regions, early spring is the hardest time of
year for squirrels, because buried nuts begin to sprout
and are no longer available for the squirrel to eat, and
new food sources have not become available yet.
During these times, squirrels rely heavily on the buds
of trees. Squirrels' diets consist primarily of a wide
variety of plants, including nuts, seeds, conifer
cones, fruits, fungi, and green vegetation. However,
some squirrels also consume meat, especially when
faced with hunger.[

8.  Squirrels have been known to eat insects, eggs, small birds,
young snakes, and smaller rodents. Indeed, some tropical
species have shifted almost entirely to a diet of insects.[13]
 Predatory behavior has been noted by various species of
ground squirrels, in particular thethirteen-lined ground
squirrel.[14] For example, Bailey, a scientist in the 1920s,
observed a thirteen-lined ground squirrel preying upon a
young chicken.[15] Wistrand reported seeing this same
species eating a freshly killed snake.[16] Whitaker examined
the stomachs of 139 thirteen-lined ground squirrels and
found bird flesh in four of the specimens and the remains
of a short-tailed shrew in one;[17]

9.  Bradley, examining white-tailed antelope squirrels'
stomachs, found at least 10% of his 609 specimens'
stomachs contained some type of vertebrate,
mostly lizards and rodents.[18] Morgart observed a
white-tailed antelope squirrel capturing and eating
a silky pocket mouse.



10.  The living squirrels are divided into five subfamilies, with
about 58 genera and some 285 species.[20] The oldest
squirrel fossil,Hesperopetes, dates back to
the Chadronian (late Eocene, about 40–35 million years
ago) and is similar to modern flying squirrels.[21]
 A variety of fossil squirrels, from the latest Eocene to
the Miocene, could not be assigned with certainty to any
living lineage. At least some of these probably were variants
of the oldest basal "protosquirrels" (in the sense that they
lacked the full range of living squirrels'autapomorphies).
The distribution and diversity of such ancient and ancestral
forms suggest the squirrels as a group may have originated
in North America.[22]

11.  Apart from these sometimes little-known fossil forms,
the phylogeny of the living squirrels is fairly
straightforward. The three main lineages are
the Ratufinae (Oriental giant squirrels), Sciurillinae and all
other subfamilies. The Ratufinae contain a mere handful of
living species in tropical Asia. The geotropically pygmy
squirrel of tropical South America is the sole living
member of the Sciurillinae. The third lineage, by far the
largest, has a near-cosmopolitan distribution. This further
supports the hypothesis that the common ancestor of all
squirrels, living and fossil, lived in North America, as these
three most ancient lineages seem to have radiated from
there; if squirrels had originated in Eurasia, for example,
one would expect quite ancient lineages in Africa, but
African squirrels seem to be of more recent origin.

12.  The main group of squirrels also can be split into three
subgroups, which yield the remaining subfamilies.
The Sciurinae contains theflying
squirrels (Pteromyini) and the Sciurini, which among
others contains the American tree squirrels; the
former have often been considered a separate
subfamily, but are now seen as a tribe of the Sciurinae.
The pine squirrels (Tamiasciurus), on the other hand,
are usually included with the main tree squirrel
lineage, but appear to be about as distinct as the flying
squirrels; hence, they are sometimes considered a
distinct tribe, Tamiasciurini.[23]

13.  The main group of squirrels also can be split into three
subgroups, which yield the remaining subfamilies.
The Sciurinae contains the flying
squirrels (Pteromyini) and the Sciurini, which among
others contains the American tree squirrels; the
former have often been considered a separate
subfamily, but are now seen as a tribe of the Sciurinae.
The pine squirrels (Tamiasciurus), on the other hand,
are usually included with the main tree squirrel
lineage, but appear to be about as distinct as the flying
squirrels; hence, they are sometimes considered a
distinct tribe, Tamiasciurini.[23]

14.  Two of the three subfamilies are of about equal size,
containing between nearly 70 and 80 species each; the
third is about twice as large. The Sciurinae contains
arboreal (tree-living) squirrels, mainly of the Americas
and to a lesser extent Eurasia. The Callosciurinae is
most diverse in tropical Asia and contains squirrels
that are also arboreal, but have a markedly
different habitus and appear more "elegant", an effect
enhanced by their often very colorful fur.

15.  The Xerinae—the largest subfamily—are made up
from the mainly terrestrial (ground-living) forms and
include the large marmots and the popular prairie
dogs, among others, as well as the tree squirrels of
Africa; they tend to be more gregarious than other
squirrels, which do not usually live together in close-
knit groups.
These are some information about squirrels.
Next there are some information about ant.

16.  Ants are social insects of the family Formicidae and,
along with the related wasps and bees, belong to the
order Hymenoptera. Ants evolved from wasp-like
ancestors in the mid-Cretaceous period between 110
and 130 million years ago and diversified after the rise
of flowering plants. More than 12,500 of an estimated
total of 22,000 species have been classified.[3][4] They
are easily identified by their elbowed antennae and the
distinctive node-like structure that forms their slender
waists.

17.  Ants form colonies that range in size from a few dozen
predatory individuals living in small natural cavities to
highly organized colonies that may occupy large
territories and consist of millions of individuals. Larger
colonies consist mostly of sterile, wingless females
forming castes of "workers", "soldiers", or other
specialized groups. Nearly all ant colonies also have
some fertile males called "drones" and one or more
fertile females called "queens". The colonies
sometimes are described as super organisms because
the ants appear to operate as a unified entity,
collectively working together to support the colony

18.  Ants have colonised almost every landmass on Earth.
The only places lacking indigenous ants
are Antarctica and a few remote or inhospitable
islands. Ants thrive in most ecosystems and may form
15–25% of the terrestrial animal biomass.[6] Their
success in so many environments has been attributed
to their social organization and their ability to modify
habitats, tap resources, and defend themselves. Their
long co-evolution with other species has led
to mimetic, commensally, parasitic,
and mutuality relationships.[7]

19.  Ant societies have division of labour, communication
between individuals, and an ability to solve complex
problems.[8] These parallels withhuman societies have long
been an inspiration and subject of study. Many human
cultures make use of ants in cuisine, medication, and
rituals. Some species are valued in their role as biological
pest control agents.[9] Their ability to exploit resources may
bring ants into conflict with humans, however, as they can
damage crops and invade buildings. Some species, such as
the red imported fire ant(Solenopsis invicta), are regarded
as invasive species, establishing themselves in areas where
they have been introduced accidentally

20.  The word "ant" is derived from ante, emete of Middle
English which are derived from ǣmette of Old English, and
is related to the dialectalDutch emt and the Old High
German āmeiza, hence the modern German Ameise. All of
these words come from West Germanic *ēmaitijǭ, and the
original meaning of the word was "the biter" (from Proto-
Germanic *ai-, "off, away" + *mait- "cut").[11][12] The family
name Formicidae is derived from
the Latin formīca ("ant")[13] from which the words in
other Romance languages, such as the Portugueseformiga,
Italian formica, Spanish hormiga, Romanian furnică, and
French fourmi are derived.

21.  It has been hypothesised that a Proto-Indo-
European word *morwi- was used, cf. Sanskrit vamrah,
Latin formīca, Greek μύρμηξ mýrmēx, Old Church
Slavonic mraviji, Old Irish moirb,Old
Norse maurr, Dutch mier.[14]

24.  Ants are found on all continents except Antarctica, and
only a few large islands such as Greenland, Iceland, parts
of Polynesia and the Hawaiian Islands lack native ant
species.[28][29] Ants occupy a wide range of ecological
niches, and are able to exploit a wide range of food
resources either as direct or indirect herbivores, predators,
and scavengers. Most species are omnivorous generalists,
but a few are specialist feeders. Their ecological dominance
may be measured by their biomass and estimates in
different environments suggest that they contribute 15–
20% (on average and nearly 25% in the tropics) of the total
terrestrial animal biomass, which exceeds that of the
vertebrates

25.  Ants range in size from 0.75 to 52 millimetres (0.030–
2.0 in),[30][31] the largest species being the
fossil Titanomyrma giganteum, the queen of which was 6
centimetres (2.4 in) long with a wingspan of 15 centimetres
(5.9 in).[32] Ants vary in colour; most ants are red or black,
but a few species are green and some tropical species have a
metallic lustre. More than 12,000 species are currently
known (with upper estimates of the potential existence of
about 22,000) (see the article List of ant genera), with the
greatest diversity in the tropics. Taxonomic studies
continue to resolve the classification and systematics of
ants. Online databases of ant species, including AntBase
and the Hymenoptera Name Server, help to keep track of
the known and newly described species.

26.  Ants communicate with each other using pheromones,
sounds, and touch.[64] The use of pheromones as chemical
signals is more developed in ants, such as the red harvester
ant, than in other hymenopteran groups. Like other
insects, ants perceive smells with their long, thin, and
mobile antennae. The paired antennae provide information
about the direction and intensity of scents. Since most ants
live on the ground, they use the soil surface to leave
pheromone trails that may be followed by other ants. In
species that forage in groups, a forager that finds food
marks a trail on the way back to the colony; this trail is
followed by other ants, these ants then reinforce the trail
when they head back with food to the colony.

27.  Ants attack and defend themselves by biting and, in many
species, by stinging, often injecting or spraying chemicals
such as formic acid in the case
of formicine ants, alkaloids and piperidines in fire ants, and
a variety of protein components in other ants. Bullet
ants(Paraponera), located in Central and South America,
are considered to have the most painful sting of any insect,
although it is usually not fatal to humans. This sting is
given the highest rating on the Schmidt Sting Pain Index.
 The sting of jack jumper ants can be fatal,[72] and
an antivenom has been developed for it.[73]
 Fire ants, Solenopsis spp., are unique in having a poison sac
containing piperidine alkaloids.[74] Their stings are painful
and can be dangerous to hypersensitive people.[75]

28.  Many animals can learn behaviours by imitation, but
ants may be the only group apart
from mammals where interactive teaching has been
observed. A knowledgeable forager ofTemnothorax
albipennis will lead a naive nest-mate to newly
discovered food by the process of tandem running.
The follower obtains knowledge through its leading
tutor. The leader is acutely sensitive to the progress of
the follower and slows down when the follower lags
and speeds up when the follower gets too close.

29.  Complex nests are built by many ant species, but other
species are nomadic and do not build permanent
structures. Ants may form subterranean nests or build
them on trees. These nests may be found in the
ground, under stones or logs, inside logs, hollow
stems, or even acorns. The materials used for
construction include soil and plant matter,[58] and ants
carefully select their nest sites; Temnothorax
albipennis will avoid sites with dead ants, as these may
indicate the presence of pests or disease. They are
quick to abandon established nests at the first sign of
threats

30.  Most ants are generalist predators, scavengers, and indirect
herbivores,[20] but a few have evolved specialised ways of
obtaining nutrition. Leafcutter
ants (Atta and Acromyrmex) feed exclusively on
a fungus that grows only within their colonies. They
continually collect leaves which are taken to the colony, cut
into tiny pieces and placed in fungal gardens. Workers
specialise in related tasks according to their sizes. The
largest ants cut stalks, smaller workers chew the leaves and
the smallest tend the fungus. Leafcutter ants are sensitive
enough to recognise the reaction of the fungus to different
plant material, apparently detecting chemical signals from
the fungus. If a particular type of leaf is found to be toxic to
the fungus, the colony will no longer collect it.

31.  DONE BY:-
 SHASHANK
 7th STD
 ROLL NO. 25
 Kendriya Vidyalaya Kodagu