The document analyzes methods of recovery and reintegration for former child soldiers used by three organizations: 1) The UN's DDR program which follows a three phase process of disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration across 20 countries with some success but flaws in excluding females. 2) The Companion Recovery Model, a 2-week Liberian program that reduced PTSD prevalence but lacked community/family involvement. 3) World Vision's Christian-based Ugandan program that failed due to being too ethnocentric and aiming to convert children rather than respect local culture. Overall, the document stresses the importance of cultural awareness, community involvement, and structured goals for successful reintegration of former child soldiers

1. Methods of Recovery & Reintegration for Former Child Soldiers
By: Drew T. Carey
Anthropology 490: Trauma & Recovery
Professor: Dr. Kathleen Young
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2. Recovery:
Refers to both psychological and physical rehabilitation, recuperation and healing from the
trauma and effects of war.
Reintegration:
Refers to the proper reinstatement of children back into their families and communities.
!
! Quite recently Hollywood and the social media have thrust the issue of the use of child
soldiers into the public spotlight, causing an upwelling of support for the plight of the children.
However much of this support is aimed merely at removing the children from combat situations
rather than the long term issues of recovery and reintegration that the children face. There are
currently a multitude of government agencies and NGOs (NonGovernmental Organizations)
such as the United Nations & UNICEF that are involved in the recovery and reintegration of
child soldiers worldwide. Aiding these children by developing various methods and programs for
their recovery. In the past much work has been done by numerous Government agencies and
NGOs for the recovery and reintegration of former child soldiers; including the development of
numerous structured programs for former child soldier rehabilitation. The focus of this paper will
be to analyze three agencies & programs engaged in aiding the recovery & reintegration of
former child soldiers, and to identify aspects of the programs that were beneficial as well as
areas that need improvement.!
! To properly understand how to help former child soldiersʼ recover and effectively
reintegrate into society we must first attempt to understand what defines a child soldier; what
they have experienced, as well as the circumstances and situations behind the conflict itself.
The United Nations defines a child soldier as, “any person less than 18 years of age who is part
of any kind of regular or irregular armed force or armed group in any capacity… The definition
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3. includes girls recruited… It does not therefore only refer to a child who is carrying or has carried
arms”(United Nations). This is an important distinction to remember as child soldiers are not
only male children who carry arms and fight; but also includes those children such as girls who
are forced into use as sexual objects and manual labor . Another common misconception
associated with child soldierʼs is the assumption that all child soldiers were abducted and forced
into combat; this however is not always the case. Many children choose to join armed groups
willingly for a multitude of reasons ranging from typical adolescent rebellion to escaping from an
abusive home life and even to gain access to necessities that they were not receiving at home
such as food and shelter (Specht et al. 221). A former Columbian FARC child soldier Helena
Sanchez stated, “I joined the FARC in a rage… I wanted to get revenge on the people who killed
my father” (Biderman 1). Carlos Osorio who joined the FARC at 13 gave the following reason
for his involvement; “It had something to do with typical adolescent restlessness and… with the
curiosity of holding a gun” (Biderman 3). Only by understanding the childʼs motivations and past
can one begin to help them recover and reintegrate back into society.
! The agencies and programs that this paper will now examine are; The United Nations
DDR (Disarmament Demobilization & Reintegration) Program, The World Vision Christian
Program and The Companion Recovery Model. The three programs discussed were chosen
because they all have many similarities as well as differences, and provide examples of both
successful and unsuccessful programs.
! The United Nations Disarmament Demobilization & Reintegration program is the most
prevalent and commonly used program worldwide for the recovery and reintegration of former
child soldiers. For the most part this is due to the fact that the UN is the worldʼs largest goodwill
organization. For all combatants in any area where the UN intervenes the DDR program is put
into use (United Nations). So far DDR has been used in over 20 countries worldwide (United
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4. Nations). The UN DDR program is based on the “Paris Principles”; a set of guidelines to direct
interventions for the protection and well-being of child soldiers with the following objectives:
“To prevent unlawful recruitment or use of children, to facilitate the
release of children associated with armed forces & armed groups, to
facilitate the reintegration of all children associated with armed forces and
armed groups and to ensure the most protective environment for all
children” (“Paris Principles” 2007).
The UNʼs DDR program functions in three phases; Disarmament, Demobilization &
Reintegration and within these three phases there are nine critical elements; “community
sensitization, formal disarmament and demobilization, a transition period in an interim care
facility, mediation & reunification, traditional healing & cleansing ceremonies, religious support
and school or skills training” (Williamson 192). Various NGOs , local agencies and military
agencies work in cooperation with the United Nations to carry out the DDR process. The first
step in the DDR program is the extensive program development. This development includes
Situation analysis, which is the understanding of cultural, political and motivational aspects of
the conflict. Awareness training and community sensitization including proper training for
personnel as well as the civilian population is essential for them to understand and accept
former child soldiers. Another crucial factor in pre-program development are logistics, or the
establishment of the Interim Care Centers, gathering supplies, setting up a communication
network and program design (UNDDR). The formal disarmament phase “signals that armed
conflict is over & that the opposing parties do not want to return to war” (UNDDR). In the
disarmament phase surrendering soldiers children and adults alike, report to designated
cantonment sites that they are made aware of through the use of propaganda such as radio
messages and leaflet distribution (Williamson 193). Once soldiers are gathered at the
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5. cantonment site the demobilization phase begins. In the demobilization phase, individuals
receive any health care needed as well as “undergo a rigorous screening process” to determine
if they are eligible for DDR support as well as to separate the children from their adult
commanders (Williamson 187, 194). “Physically separating child soldiers from commanders and
adult members of their group was essential to breaking the links of control” (Williamson
188).Once the formal disarmament and demobilization phases are completed, the reintegration
phase of the process begins. In the reintegration phase the children are “taken to an Interim
Care Centre (ICC) managed by one of the child protection NGOs” (Williamson 188). It is at the
ICCs where the majority of the rehabilitation and recovery work is done to facilitate proper
reintegration. At the ICCs the children are given “psychosocial support rather than individualized
therapy to develop new patterns of behavior, build self esteem, express emotion, and develop
decision making capacities” (Williamson 196). It is believed that this psychosocial support helps
“build upon a childʼs natural resiliency and family and community support mechanisms
encouraging coping and positive development” (Williamson 196). The program is thus designed
around the inevitability that the counselors and facilities will eventually be gone, therefore the
children must learn to rely on their own strengths as well as the collective strength of family,
community and camaraderie. While the children are receiving assistance, facilities work
diligently to track down each child's family and community, making sure that these environments
are safe and suitable for the child to return too (Williamson 195). As stated previously much
community sensitization work is often done at this time to help reverse the stigma within
communities that these children are murderous soldiers, but are instead innocent victims.
Throughout the reintegration phase children are given access to higher education and skills
training to facilitate further development and societal reintegration (UNDDR). Giving children
access to education and skills training is seen as helping change their identity in society. Once
the children have fulfilled their stay at the ICC, “typically no more than six weeks”, they are
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6. brought back to their families and communities (Williamson 188). When the children are brought
back to their communities the UN as well as many other NGOʼs find it of vital importance that
the community engage in a traditional healing and cleansing ceremony for the child (UNDDR).
“Such ceremonies appear to have increased community acceptance of the children as well as
enable the children to feel acceptable” (Williamson 196). Overall the DDR program is process of
identity transformation (Williamson 194). Former child soldiers arrive as traumatized combatants
and hopefully leave as innocent children. Some statistics have shown the DDR model to be
quite successful in it past uses. When instituted in Sierra Leon 98% of the children that
participated in the program were reunited with their families and communities (Williamson 185).
Unfortunately this relative success is overshadowed by several faults in the DDR program. The
most troubling issue that the DDR program faces is its systematic exclusion of female
combatants (Specht 219). Another flaw in the DDR model lies in its initial design. Originally the
UN DDR program was developed for adult combatants, and still follows the original process for
the reintegration of adults. Thus for the program to be truly successful it needs to be tailored to
the needs of children male and females alike. It is estimated that 30% of individuals never enter
the formal DDR process as they are not aware of its existence or their rights to participate in the
program (Williamson 185). Therefor the DDR program needs to do more to educate the people
about their presence and the support and services that they offer.
! The Companion Recovery Model was an experimental program designed by Jenifer
Gregory and David G. Embrey; implemented in Liberia with the cooperation of several local
Liberian NGOs. The CRM was “grounded in the theory of trauma and recovery” and aimed at
reducing the effects of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and Profound Catastrophic
Trauma (PCT) amongst 130 former Liberian child soldiers, 67 males and 63 females (Gregory
1). Profound Catastrophic Trauma or PCT as it will be referred to is a recently developed
condition that requires definition to provide understanding of programs aims. PCT is defined as
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7. the “sudden, unexpected, dangerous, and overwhelming removing of Maslowʼs three basic
foundational levels of the hierarchy of need… Physiological (air, water, food), Safety, and loving
& belonging” (55). The CRM aims to be a quicker more effective model than the previous
recovery programs for child soldiers. The program is in total only ten steps; “Overwhelming
Events, Encapsulation, Somatization, Recognition, Release, Resilience, Integration, New-Self,
Rebuilding, Commencement”, only taking a mere two weeks to complete (Gregory 55). !
! “In the initial module, participants were taught how to verbalize their traumatic
! Overwhelming Events... Next participants were taught that traumatic events and
! emotions were often encapsulated in their subconscious memory to cope with the
! emotions associated... Participants then learned that the effects of encapsulating these
! events and emotions could cause physical symptoms - Somatization. Then participants
! learn to recognize the psychological and physical bondage the traumatic experiences
! have upon them. Select a companion to release the encapsulated events and begin to
! be free from the emotional bondage... Then, the participants were trained on how to
! recognize and access their resilience based on their inherent strengths. Integration
! required participants to examine facets of their traumatic experience and reconcile them
! into their new daily lives. For the participants a new self emerged... Participants learned
! that rebuilding their social structure empowered them to reach out to influence their
! community in positive and meaningful ways” (Gregory 56-57).
The CRM was an experimental model for child soldier recovery thus extensive testing and
querying was conducted before during and after the program to analyze and assess its
effectiveness in treating PTSD and PCT. During the program participants were constantly
observed and ranked using “a 5 point Likert type scale to judge participants behavior, concern
for others, dependability, laughter, friendliness and anger” (Gregory 55). Participants were also
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8. tested before and after the program for the presence and prevalence of PTSD based on the
Clinically Administered PTSD Scale (CAPS Scale), to determine the programs effectiveness
(Gregory 55). The Companion Recovery Model was overall relatively successful in their aims of
decreasing the prevalence of PTSD amongst formal child soldiers. The test group showed a
mean improvement of 32% based on the Likert scale, a 21.6 point decrease in male PTSD
scores, and 23.1 points in female PTSD scores based on CAPS (Gregory 55, 58).
The CRM program is not without its faults; ones of its biggest shortcomings is the lack of
community and family involvement during recovery and reintegration process which in other
programs has been proven importance. CRM is also quite ambitious in their goals by stating
that in only two weeks they can alleviate child soldiers of trauma incurred over an expanse of
time. The CRM program is also lacking in cultural awareness. The CRM follows a western
approach to trauma recovery and is therefore ethnocentric in the treatment of the child soldiers;
often neglecting certain cultural norms and stigmas that can affect community and family
acceptance and reintegration.
! It is said that we gain knowledge through success and failure. The first two examples of
recovery and reintegration programs can be seen as relatively successful, however this final
organization to be evaluated should be seen as a failure to learn from. The agency in question
is World Vision, “a Christian humanitarian organization dedicated to working with children,
families, and their communities worldwide”(WorldVision). World Vision has operated in Northern
Uganda to facilitate the recovery and reintegration of “approximately 400 former child
soldiers” (Akello 230). “Its format for counseling and reintegration has its roots in Christian ideas
about confession and repentance of sins, and healing by forgiveness and seeking refuge with
god” (Akello 230). Thus it appears their main goal was to convert the child to Christianity and
that this conversion would help them to recover. A vital flaw encompassing the World Vision
program was that it is inherently ethnocentric, paying little attention to local cultural customs or
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9. religions, becoming a detriment to the programs success. At the World Vision rehab center,
children follow a strictly regimented daily schedule beginning with morning religious devotion,
breakfast, then individual and group counseling sessions that often involve religious teachings
from Pentecostal preachers ( Akello 232). The program that World Vision put into place was
relatively structured, however it lacked a defined set of goals-reached that indicated a child was
ready to be reintegrated back into society. Instead, for the World Vision program “success in
counseling is measured by the extent to which children can freely discuss their experiences...
therefore the time spent at the center depends on the readiness of the child to open up about
the atrocities that they have committed” (Akello 232). In order to be successfully reintegrated,
criteria deemed important by society, such as cultural identity, customs, and religious beliefs
need to be a crucial part of the process thus allowing the individual to shine. Many of WVs
shortcomings can be attributed to its propagation of the Christian faith in the program.
“Counselors believe that if they do not succeed in converting the child and making them confess
and repent their involvement in violence, the reintegration process will be delayed” (Akello 232).
Thus counselors who have the final say in whether or not a child is ready to be integrated have
an inefficient and unstructured way in their process of determining the qualifications of a
successful recovery. Statistics now show that World Visions program of reintegration and
recovery for child soldiers in Northern Uganda was a tragic failure. “Three months after the
rescue of 300 former child soldiers in 2004-2005, none were found residing in the community in
which they were supposed to have been reintegrated”. ( Akello 229). Furthermore,“70% of
prisoners in the juvenile crime unit in the Gulu District, Uganda are former child soldiers,
incarcerated on charges of rape, assault, and theft among other crimes. (Akello 229). Overall
the failure of the World Vision program is a lesson to be learned from. Using a strictly western
religious approach aimed at converting the children to Christianity does more to further alienate
the children from their traditional communities than to reintegrate them. Thus the success of a
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10. program is linked quite closely with the use of traditional cultural religions, customs, practices,
stigmas and ideals. !
! Overall from the examples provided by these three programs I have identified several
key attributes and methods for the reintegration and recovery of former child soldiers that should
be incorporated into all recovery and reintegration programs, as well as several aspects of past
programs that must be improved upon for us to be successful in aiding these children. One
feature of successful programs in the past is extensive pre-program development and research.
Important facets of the pre-program development include the construction or acquisition of
infrastructure i.e. sites and facilities that will be safe and proper locations for the children to
recover, as well as communication and supply networks for support. Cultural and situational
awareness training must be provided for all support staff and personnel so that they
comprehend all aspects and views of the situations that the children are in, and are then able to
better connect with them. This would have been beneficial in the Lhanguene center in
Mozambique where volunteers stated; “We were frightened of the boys too. None of us wanted
to work with them at first. We thought they were going to hurt us” (Boothby 248-49). A crucial
aspect of recovery and reintegration is family and community. Much work should be done by the
programs to administer family and community awareness and sensitization training.
Sensitization campaigns should be designed to educate the childʼs family and community that
the children are not murderous rebels but rather innocent victims forced into war (Boothby 253).
“For successful reintegration to take place, children and their communities have to come to
terms with the unavoidable change in the status of such children, and to deal with issues of
accountability in a way that answers the needs of both the community and the anxieties of the
children involved” (Akello et al. 230). Comments from community members after the
reintegration of several child soldiers into a community in Mozambique point to the sensitization
programs success. “I remember the government people coming to tell us that our sons were
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11. coming home and that we should treat them like everyone else. That is what we have
done” (Boothby 254). While community sensitization education is quite effective, traditional
community healing and cleansing ceremonies also have a very profound impact on the
successful recovery and reintegration of children especially young girls, as they are “vital for
rebuilding community trust and cohesion” (Boothby 253). Children have stated about the
ceremonies; “Before there was something missing in my body and in my life, but after, I am OK.
I came back to normal life and now i feel like the others” (Boothby 253). Family and community
members have also stated that “the traditional ceremonies were important because they gave
the community a form of defense or protection against the problems that returning child soldiers
could bring with them” (Boothby 253). Skills and school training acquired through the program
also play a helpful role in recovery and reintegration, as it grants children access to the
educational opportunities that they were deprived of in the past. This training aids children in
eventually integrating into society on an economic level, as well as gives them a new productive
role in society. Finally follow up studies are crucial for assessment of the effectiveness of the
program so that improvements can be made.
! Learning from past recovery and reintegration programs, aids in altering and improving
the effectiveness of the programs. The first is that we must take a culturally relevant approach to
program development. Programs based on western medicine and religions have deliberately
ignored traditional cultural values and practices which in turn stagnates the process of recovery
and reintegration. Also most of the past programs have systematically excluded female
combatants from the help they need and deserve. This is thought to occur because females are
not typically seen as combatants even if they served other roles in the armed groups such as
porters, cooks, and sex slaves (Specht 219). Providing specialized recovery and reintegration
programs for young females is vital, as they are thought to “constitute as much as one third or
40% of all child soldiers” (Specht 219). The lack of addressing the specific issues of female child
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12. soldiers is due to ignorance and failed awareness by organizations and people worldwide. While
these programs are developed for the benefit of the children, the children actually have very
little influence assuming a passive role. A common theme occurring in most programs provides
a prime example of attempting to convince former child soldiers that they are innocent victims
and that the were forced to commit atrocities with no free will; however this is not always so.
Often times former child soldiers recognize situations in the past where they were not forced to
commit atrocities but rather chose willingly to commit them. Apiyo a former child soldier from
Uganda stated, “After we had looted everything, the commanders told us to start moving back
into the bush again. I had talked to the shopkeeper during the day to ask him to reduce the
prices of the clothes he was selling and he had just thrown insults at us. Since I had a gun, I
shot him in the head at close range. It was my own choice to kill him” (Akello et al. 236). Thus
for successful recovery and reintegration the plight and views of the children must be
understood first, and the program tailored to their situations.
! Overall the successful recovery and reintegration of former child soldiers depends upon
the particular program, its methods and goals, as well as the individuals running the program.
As seen from the three programs discussed much work has already been done to develop
successful reintegration programs. Some were successful while others were not. However the
study and analysis of these past programs will provide us with information that will aid in the
improvement of past recovery and reintegration programs as well as in development of new
programs and methods.
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13. References
1). Akello, Grace., & Richters, Annemiek., & Reis, Ria. (2006). Reintegration of Former Child
Soldiers in Northern Uganda: Coming to Terms with Childrenʼs Agency and Accountability.
Intervention: International Journal of Mental Health, Psychosocial Work and Counseling in Areas
of Armed Conflict, 4(3), 229-243. Retrieved February 21, 2012, from http://
www.interventionjournal.com/index3.html
2). Boothby, Neil. (2006). What Happens when Child Soldiers Grow Up? The Mozambique Case
Study. Intervention: International Journal of Mental Health, Psychosocial Work and Counseling
in Areas of Armed Conflict, 4(3), 244-259. Retrieved February 21, 2012, from http://
www.interventionjournal.com/index3.html
3). Disarmament Demobilization and Reintegration. 2010.United Nations Disarmament
Demobilization and Reintegration. 21 Feb. 2012. unddr.org
4). Gregory, Jenifer., Embrey, David G. (2008). Reducing the Effects of Profound Catostrophic
Trauma for Former Child Soldiers: Companion Recovery Model. Traumatology, 15(52), 52-62.
Retrieved February 21, 2012, from Ebsco Host.
5). Mental Health, Psychosocial Work and Counseling in Areas of Armed Conflict, 4(3), 185-205.
Retrieved February 21, 2012, from http://www.interventionjournal.com/index3.html
6.) N.A.. (2007) The Paris Principles. The Principles and Guidelines on Children Associated with
Armed Forces or Armed Groups. 1-48. Retrieved February 21, 2012, from EBSCO Academic
Search Complete.
7). Office of the Special Representative of the Secretary-General for Children and Armed
Conflict. 2012. United Nations. 21 Feb. 2012. www.un.org/children/conflict/english/theoffice.html
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14. 8). Specht, Irma, & Attree, Larry. (2006). The Reintegration of Teenage Girls and Young Women.
Intervention: International Journal of Mental Health, Psychosocial Work and Counseling in Areas
of Armed Conflict, 4(3), 219-228. Retrieved February 21, 2012, from http://
www.interventionjournal.com/index3.html
9). Williamson, John. (2006). The disarmament, demobilization and reintegration of child
soldiers: social and psychological transformation in Sierra Leone. Intervention: International
Journal of
10). World Vision. 2012. World Vision Organization. 21 Feb. 2012. www.worldvision.org
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