ABSTRACT: Since the rise of Western feminism for more than a century, it has made great achievements
both in theory and in practice, which has effectively promoted the process of women's emancipation. However,
in order to achieve the ultimate goal of feminism ---equality between men and women, it still has a long way to
go. Tracing the development course of Western feminism, its concept of equality mainly goes through three
stages, they are the equality of identity, the equality of difference and that of humanity respectively. This thesis
aims to sort out and elaborate the three stages of the development of feminist equality, in hope for making
contribution to enlightening women's studies in China.
KEY WORDS:Western Feminism, Concept of Equality,Identity, Differences, Human
Confirming PagesUnder Western Eyes CHANDRA TA LPADE MO.docxmargaretr5
Confirming Pages
Under Western Eyes | CHANDRA TA LPADE MOHANTY 53
but rather are the framework that guides all of our
actions. To achieve this, we need to remind ourselves
of the dual politics of possibilities in our individual
and collective lives.
NOTES
1. I defi ne both as plural processes, the former refl ecting
the diversity of gendered realities around the world
and the latter in terms of economic, political, and
cultural processes. While both the multiple feminisms
and globalizations are mutually constitutive, they are
also distinct.
2. In addition to serving global capital through eco-
nomic means, Eisenstein (2005) argues that the U.S.
administration has used feminism for its imperial
policies via the war on terror.
3. Cross-border traders are those who buy food and
other consumer items in one country and sell it
another. In some regions, women take goods from
their home country to another and return with
goods from the foreign country to their own. Such
cross-border trade by women has been facilitated by
the economic globalization that has opened borders
between countries that previously did not allow such
easy fl ow of people and goods across borders.
REFERENCES
Acker, Joan. 2006. Class questions feminist answers. The
gender lens. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefi eld.
Beneria, Lourdes. 2003. Gender, development and global-
ization: Economics as if all people mattered. New York:
Routledge.
Desai, Manisha. 2007. The global women’s rights
movement and its discontents. President’s Message:
SWS Network News 24 (1): 2.
———. 2009a. From a uniform civil code to legal
pluralism: The continuing debates in India. In Gender,
family, and law in the Middle East and South Asia,
edited by Ken Cuno and Manisha Desai. Syracuse, NY:
Syracuse University Press.
———. 2009b. Rethinking globalization: Gender and
the politics of possibilities. Lanhan, MD: Rowman &
Littlefi eld.
Eisenstein, Hester. 2005. A dangerous liaison? Feminism
and corporate globalization. Science & Society 69 (3):
487–518.
Nederveen Pieterse, Jan. 2004. Globalization and culture:
A cultural melange. Lagham, MD: Rowman &
Littlefi eld.
Pearson, Ruth. 2003. Feminist responses to economic glo-
balization. In Women reinventing globalization, edited
by Joanne Kerr and Caroline Sweetman. Oxford, UK:
Oxfam.
Simon-Kumar, Rachel. 2004. Negotiating emancipation:
Public sphere, Gender, and critiques of neo-liberalism.
International Feminist Journal of Politics 6 (3):
485–506.
R E A D I N G 4
Under Western Eyes
Chandra Talpade Mohanty (1984)
What I wish to analyze is specifi cally the production
of the “third world woman” as a singular monolithic
subject in some recent (Western) feminist texts.
If one of the tasks of formulating and under-
standing the locus of “third world feminisms” is
delineating the way in which it resists and works
against what I am referring to as “Western feminist
discourse,” an analysis of the discursive cons.
1. Explain why the author (hooks) states that its hard to achie.docxstilliegeorgiana
1. Explain why the author (hooks) states that it's hard to achieve sisterhood? List some of the challenges to achieve sisterhood.
-Bell Hooks states that it’s hard to achieve sisterhood because “male supremacist ideology” encourages women to believe that they are useless and are only valuable when relating to or bonding with men. Women are taught that their “natural enemies” are themselves, and that “solidarity” will not exist because they cannot and should not bond with one another. Therefore relationships between other women are seen as less valuable and “diminish” rather than “enrich” their own experiences. Women are divided by sexist attitudes, racism, class privilege, and many other prejudices that seek to divide women and turn them against each other. As such, there can be no “mass-based movement” to end sexist oppression without women demonstrating that they are willing to work together and bond in order to achieve their cause. “Some feminists now feel that unity among women is impossible given our differences” (Hooks 44). The fact that many women (like the bourgeois white women) are “exploiting and oppressing other women” for their own gains is only hurting their cause and is giving men more power to control them. “According to Bourgeois women, the basis for bonding was shared victimization, hence the emphasis on common oppression” (Hooks 45). This meant that women had to be represented as “victims” in order to feel that the feminist movement was relevant to their lives. Bonding as “victims” created a situation in which “self-affirming women” (like black women) were often seen as having no place in the feminist movement. It was this logic that led many white women activists to abandon the feminist movement when they no longer embraced the “victim” identity. They cannot afford to see themselves solely as “victims” because it would be psychologically demoralizing for these women to bond with other women on the basis of “shared victimization” and under male patriarchy they would continue to devalue women who were outside of their group and continue to exercise their influence and power over their “allies”. For women to be able to make any kind of impact, on any social or political platform, they have to be able to bond and connect with each other on the basis of shared strengths and resources. It is this type of bonding that is the essence of Sisterhood.
2. Explain how the feminist movement has been shaped since 1960 (provide details in chronological order).
-During the 1960s, influenced and inspired by the Civil Rights Movement, women of all ages began to fight to secure a stronger role in American society. As members of groups like the National Organization for Women (NOW) asserted their rights and strove for equality for themselves and others, they upended many accepted norms and set groundbreaking social and legal changes in motion. Title VII is the section of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 that prohibited discrimination in employm.
The effect of Institutional Ownership, Sales Growth and Profitability on Tax ...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT: This research aims to test, analyze and obtain empirical evidence about the influence of
institutional ownership, sales growth and profitability on tax avoidance. The object of this research is
manufacturing companies in the consumer goods industry sector listed on the Indonesia Stock Exchange (BEI)
in 2018-2022. This research used quantitative research methods and causal research design. The sampling
technique in this research used non-probability sampling with purposive sampling as the basis for determining
the sample so that a sample of 55 samples was obtained. The data used is secondary data obtained from the
official website of the Indonesia Stock Exchange (BEI) during the 2018-2022 period. The data analysis method
used was multiple linear regression analysis with several tests such as descriptive statistical tests, classical
assumption tests, and hypothesis testing using SPSS version 26 statistical software. The results showed that the
institutional ownership variable has no effect on tax avoidance, while the sales growth and profitability has a
negative and significant effect on tax avoidance.
KEYWORDS: Institutional Ownership, Sales Growth, Profitability, Tax Avoidance
MGA ESTRATEHIYA SA PAGTUTURO KAUGNAY SA PASALITANG PARTISIPASYON NG MGA MAG-A...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRAK: Ang mga estratehiya sa pagtuturo ay mahalagang kasangkapan sa paghahatid ng mabisang
pagtuturo sa loob ng silid. Tinukoy sa pag-aaral na ito ang antas ng kagustuhan ng mga mag-aaral sa pagsasadula,
pangkatang talakayan at paggawa ng mga koneksyon sa tunay na karanasan sa buhay bilang mga estratehiya sa
pagtuturo ng panitikan sa Filipino at pasalitang partisipasyon ng mga mag-aaral sa Baitang 7 ng Misamis
University Junior High School, Ozamiz City. Ang ginamit na disenyo sa pananaliksik na ito ay deskriptivcorrelational. Ang mga datos sa pag-aaral ay nagmula sa kabuuang populasyon na 120 na mag-aaral at tatlong
mga guro na tagamasid sa pasalitang partisipasyon ng mga mag-aaral. Ang Talatanungan sa Kagamitan sa
Pagtuturo ng Panitikan at Checklist batay sa Obserbasyon sa Pasalita na Partisipasyon ay ang instrumentong
ginamit sa pagkalap ng datos. Mean, standard deviation, Analysis of Variance at Pearson Product-Moment
Correlation Coefficient ang mga ginamit na estatistiko na sangkap. Inihayag sa naging resulta na ang tatlong piling
estratehiya sa pagtuturo ng panitikan sa Filipino ay may pinakamataas na antas ng kagustuhan ng mga mag-aaral.
Ang antas ng pakilahok ng mga mag-aaral sa paggamit ng tatlong estratehiya sa pagtuturo ng panitikan ay
pinakamataas na nagpapahiwatig na aktibong nakilahok ang mga mag-aaral sa mga gawain. Inihayag din na
walang makabuluhang kaibahan sa antas ng kagustuhan ng mga mag-aaral sa mga estratehiya sa pagtuturo ng
panitikan sa Filipino. Ito ay nangahulugan na gustong-gusto ng mga mag-aaral ang pagkakaroon ng mga
estratehiya sa pagtuturo. Walang makabuluhang kaugnayan ang kagustuhan sa mga estratehiya at antas ng
pakikilahok ng mga mag-aaral. Hindi nakaapekto sa kanilang pakikilahok ang anumang estratehiyang ginamit ng
guro.
KEYWORDS : estratehiya, karanasan, pagsasadula, pagtuturo, pangkatang talakayan
The Role of the Instruction of Reading Comprehension Strategies in Enhancing ...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT :Throughout my studies and teaching English in different language centers and higher studies
institutions, I have come to conclude that students consider Reading comprehension as a nightmare that
frightens them and hinders their language acquisition in the Moroccan EFL Context. This may cause them to
develop an internal psychological obstacle that grows as their lack of the necessary instruments or tools to
overcome are not equipped with. They become lost and unaware about or unfamiliar with the necessary reading
comprehension strategies that could help them to face the problem of misunderstanding or non-understanding
of English texts. Respectively, this article which is only one part of my whole study aims at showing the effect
of teaching reading strategies in enhancing the S1 students‟ familiarity with reading strategies and raising their
frequency use. A sample of 283 University students in EFL context have been chosen randomly and have
attended the usual academic reading classes, yet only 76 are subject to this survey. 38 of them constitute the
experimental group who have attended the treatment regularly in one of the language centers and the other 38
participants are chosen randomly from the whole population to constitute the Control group. They all have
Psychosocial Factors and Deviant Behaviors of Children in Conflict with the L...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT:This study aims to determine the relationship between psychosocialfactors and deviant
behaviors among children in conflict with the law (CICL) inDavao Region. The researchers want to discover the
prevalent factors thatdrive these children to their behaviors. Further, the study sought to determinethe
manifestation of psychosocial factors in terms of life satisfaction, emotionalsupport, self-esteem, and personality
traits. The study's data came from N-83children in conflict with the law (CICL) at the Regional Rehabilitation
Center forYouth (RRCY) in Bago Oshiro, Davao City; all respondents are male. This studyused a total
enumeration sampling technique due to the relatively smallpopulation size. The researchers adapted the
Psychosocial surveyquestionnaires by Zabriskie & Ward (2013) and by John and Srivastava (1999)as well as the
Deviant Behavior Variety Scale (DBVS) by Sanches et al. (2016).Through the use of a validated questionnaire,
the mean and standard deviationare determined. The researchers modified this questionnaire and translated itinto
the respondents' mother tongue (Cebuano) for them to comprehend itbetter. The study discovered no significant
relationship between psychosocialfactors and deviant behaviors of children in conflict with the law (CICL) in
theDavao Region
KEYWORDS :Children in Conflict with the Law (CICL), deviant behaviors, psychosocial factors
Entropy: A Join between Science and Mind-SocietyAJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT: Entropy is join, intersection and interaction between natural science and human mind-society.
We proposed that if internal interactions exist in isolated systems, entropy decrease will be possible for this
system. Management in system is a typical internal interaction within the isolated system. The purpose of
management is to use regulating the internal interactions within the system, and to decrease the increasing
entropy spontaneously. We propose the principle of social civilization and the developing direction is: freedom
of thought, rule of action. Both combinations should be a peaceful revision and improvement of social rules and
laws. Different countries and nations, different religions and beliefs should coexist peacefully and compete
peacefully. The evolution of human society must be coevolution. Its foundation is the evolution of the human
heart and the human nature.
KEYWORDS: entropy, science, society, management, mind, evolution.
A Model of Disaster Resilience Among Colleges and Universities: A Mixed Metho...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT :This research paper aimed to create a comprehensive framework for measuring disaster
resilience in colleges and universities. The study used a mixed method through Exploratory Factor Analysis
(EFA), which involved analyzing data from a survey questionnaire. The questionnaire was developed based on
in-depth interviews with 12 selected participants from the University of Mindanao, as well as relevant literature
and studies. It was reviewed and validated by 10 experts using a method called Content Validity Ratio (CVR).
This questionnaire was then administered to 400 students from 10 different colleges in University of Mindanao.
After conducting the Exploratory Factor Analysis and performing rotations and iterations, the researchers
identified five main constructs that characterize disaster resilience among colleges (1) disaster preparedness, (2)
disaster awareness, (3) community readiness, and (4) disaster management, (5) disaster resilience. The
researchers aimed to create an organization called “Council of College Disaster Volunteers (CCDV)” which
consist of student volunteers. These factors can be used to develop effective management strategies and
strengthen efforts in preventing and managing disasters and accidents.
KEYWORDS:content validity ratio, criminology, disaster resilience, disaster management, exploratory factor
analysis, and Philippines.
Environmental Struggles and Justice Among Lumad Farmers of Davao CityAJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT : The study described the various environmental struggles experienced among the participants
and their status in accessing justice. The study followed a qualitative multiple-case study approach; the
participants are the Lumad farmers of Marilog, Davao City selected through a Critical sampling method and
aims to present the environmental violations experienced by the Lumad farmers in Davao City and how it
affected their families and sustenance further, their status in accessing justice is also explored. The study
concluded that the most common struggles the participant experience are Illegal logging and improper waste
disposal, which affect their farms, family, health, and income. Their preferred means to accessing justice is
through barangay settlement; the rigors of accessing courts, such as distance, expenses, fear of ruling, and the
hassle of being called to be present in court, are the most prevalent barriers that hinder the lead farmers from
accessing justice or seeking legal action. Nevertheless, the participants believed that the government would help
them in accessing justice.
KEYWORDS :access to justice, criminology,environmental justice, environmental struggles, lumadfarmers
More Related Content
Similar to An Analysis on the Equality Concept of Western Feminism
Confirming PagesUnder Western Eyes CHANDRA TA LPADE MO.docxmargaretr5
Confirming Pages
Under Western Eyes | CHANDRA TA LPADE MOHANTY 53
but rather are the framework that guides all of our
actions. To achieve this, we need to remind ourselves
of the dual politics of possibilities in our individual
and collective lives.
NOTES
1. I defi ne both as plural processes, the former refl ecting
the diversity of gendered realities around the world
and the latter in terms of economic, political, and
cultural processes. While both the multiple feminisms
and globalizations are mutually constitutive, they are
also distinct.
2. In addition to serving global capital through eco-
nomic means, Eisenstein (2005) argues that the U.S.
administration has used feminism for its imperial
policies via the war on terror.
3. Cross-border traders are those who buy food and
other consumer items in one country and sell it
another. In some regions, women take goods from
their home country to another and return with
goods from the foreign country to their own. Such
cross-border trade by women has been facilitated by
the economic globalization that has opened borders
between countries that previously did not allow such
easy fl ow of people and goods across borders.
REFERENCES
Acker, Joan. 2006. Class questions feminist answers. The
gender lens. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefi eld.
Beneria, Lourdes. 2003. Gender, development and global-
ization: Economics as if all people mattered. New York:
Routledge.
Desai, Manisha. 2007. The global women’s rights
movement and its discontents. President’s Message:
SWS Network News 24 (1): 2.
———. 2009a. From a uniform civil code to legal
pluralism: The continuing debates in India. In Gender,
family, and law in the Middle East and South Asia,
edited by Ken Cuno and Manisha Desai. Syracuse, NY:
Syracuse University Press.
———. 2009b. Rethinking globalization: Gender and
the politics of possibilities. Lanhan, MD: Rowman &
Littlefi eld.
Eisenstein, Hester. 2005. A dangerous liaison? Feminism
and corporate globalization. Science & Society 69 (3):
487–518.
Nederveen Pieterse, Jan. 2004. Globalization and culture:
A cultural melange. Lagham, MD: Rowman &
Littlefi eld.
Pearson, Ruth. 2003. Feminist responses to economic glo-
balization. In Women reinventing globalization, edited
by Joanne Kerr and Caroline Sweetman. Oxford, UK:
Oxfam.
Simon-Kumar, Rachel. 2004. Negotiating emancipation:
Public sphere, Gender, and critiques of neo-liberalism.
International Feminist Journal of Politics 6 (3):
485–506.
R E A D I N G 4
Under Western Eyes
Chandra Talpade Mohanty (1984)
What I wish to analyze is specifi cally the production
of the “third world woman” as a singular monolithic
subject in some recent (Western) feminist texts.
If one of the tasks of formulating and under-
standing the locus of “third world feminisms” is
delineating the way in which it resists and works
against what I am referring to as “Western feminist
discourse,” an analysis of the discursive cons.
1. Explain why the author (hooks) states that its hard to achie.docxstilliegeorgiana
1. Explain why the author (hooks) states that it's hard to achieve sisterhood? List some of the challenges to achieve sisterhood.
-Bell Hooks states that it’s hard to achieve sisterhood because “male supremacist ideology” encourages women to believe that they are useless and are only valuable when relating to or bonding with men. Women are taught that their “natural enemies” are themselves, and that “solidarity” will not exist because they cannot and should not bond with one another. Therefore relationships between other women are seen as less valuable and “diminish” rather than “enrich” their own experiences. Women are divided by sexist attitudes, racism, class privilege, and many other prejudices that seek to divide women and turn them against each other. As such, there can be no “mass-based movement” to end sexist oppression without women demonstrating that they are willing to work together and bond in order to achieve their cause. “Some feminists now feel that unity among women is impossible given our differences” (Hooks 44). The fact that many women (like the bourgeois white women) are “exploiting and oppressing other women” for their own gains is only hurting their cause and is giving men more power to control them. “According to Bourgeois women, the basis for bonding was shared victimization, hence the emphasis on common oppression” (Hooks 45). This meant that women had to be represented as “victims” in order to feel that the feminist movement was relevant to their lives. Bonding as “victims” created a situation in which “self-affirming women” (like black women) were often seen as having no place in the feminist movement. It was this logic that led many white women activists to abandon the feminist movement when they no longer embraced the “victim” identity. They cannot afford to see themselves solely as “victims” because it would be psychologically demoralizing for these women to bond with other women on the basis of “shared victimization” and under male patriarchy they would continue to devalue women who were outside of their group and continue to exercise their influence and power over their “allies”. For women to be able to make any kind of impact, on any social or political platform, they have to be able to bond and connect with each other on the basis of shared strengths and resources. It is this type of bonding that is the essence of Sisterhood.
2. Explain how the feminist movement has been shaped since 1960 (provide details in chronological order).
-During the 1960s, influenced and inspired by the Civil Rights Movement, women of all ages began to fight to secure a stronger role in American society. As members of groups like the National Organization for Women (NOW) asserted their rights and strove for equality for themselves and others, they upended many accepted norms and set groundbreaking social and legal changes in motion. Title VII is the section of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 that prohibited discrimination in employm.
Similar to An Analysis on the Equality Concept of Western Feminism (15)
The effect of Institutional Ownership, Sales Growth and Profitability on Tax ...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT: This research aims to test, analyze and obtain empirical evidence about the influence of
institutional ownership, sales growth and profitability on tax avoidance. The object of this research is
manufacturing companies in the consumer goods industry sector listed on the Indonesia Stock Exchange (BEI)
in 2018-2022. This research used quantitative research methods and causal research design. The sampling
technique in this research used non-probability sampling with purposive sampling as the basis for determining
the sample so that a sample of 55 samples was obtained. The data used is secondary data obtained from the
official website of the Indonesia Stock Exchange (BEI) during the 2018-2022 period. The data analysis method
used was multiple linear regression analysis with several tests such as descriptive statistical tests, classical
assumption tests, and hypothesis testing using SPSS version 26 statistical software. The results showed that the
institutional ownership variable has no effect on tax avoidance, while the sales growth and profitability has a
negative and significant effect on tax avoidance.
KEYWORDS: Institutional Ownership, Sales Growth, Profitability, Tax Avoidance
MGA ESTRATEHIYA SA PAGTUTURO KAUGNAY SA PASALITANG PARTISIPASYON NG MGA MAG-A...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRAK: Ang mga estratehiya sa pagtuturo ay mahalagang kasangkapan sa paghahatid ng mabisang
pagtuturo sa loob ng silid. Tinukoy sa pag-aaral na ito ang antas ng kagustuhan ng mga mag-aaral sa pagsasadula,
pangkatang talakayan at paggawa ng mga koneksyon sa tunay na karanasan sa buhay bilang mga estratehiya sa
pagtuturo ng panitikan sa Filipino at pasalitang partisipasyon ng mga mag-aaral sa Baitang 7 ng Misamis
University Junior High School, Ozamiz City. Ang ginamit na disenyo sa pananaliksik na ito ay deskriptivcorrelational. Ang mga datos sa pag-aaral ay nagmula sa kabuuang populasyon na 120 na mag-aaral at tatlong
mga guro na tagamasid sa pasalitang partisipasyon ng mga mag-aaral. Ang Talatanungan sa Kagamitan sa
Pagtuturo ng Panitikan at Checklist batay sa Obserbasyon sa Pasalita na Partisipasyon ay ang instrumentong
ginamit sa pagkalap ng datos. Mean, standard deviation, Analysis of Variance at Pearson Product-Moment
Correlation Coefficient ang mga ginamit na estatistiko na sangkap. Inihayag sa naging resulta na ang tatlong piling
estratehiya sa pagtuturo ng panitikan sa Filipino ay may pinakamataas na antas ng kagustuhan ng mga mag-aaral.
Ang antas ng pakilahok ng mga mag-aaral sa paggamit ng tatlong estratehiya sa pagtuturo ng panitikan ay
pinakamataas na nagpapahiwatig na aktibong nakilahok ang mga mag-aaral sa mga gawain. Inihayag din na
walang makabuluhang kaibahan sa antas ng kagustuhan ng mga mag-aaral sa mga estratehiya sa pagtuturo ng
panitikan sa Filipino. Ito ay nangahulugan na gustong-gusto ng mga mag-aaral ang pagkakaroon ng mga
estratehiya sa pagtuturo. Walang makabuluhang kaugnayan ang kagustuhan sa mga estratehiya at antas ng
pakikilahok ng mga mag-aaral. Hindi nakaapekto sa kanilang pakikilahok ang anumang estratehiyang ginamit ng
guro.
KEYWORDS : estratehiya, karanasan, pagsasadula, pagtuturo, pangkatang talakayan
The Role of the Instruction of Reading Comprehension Strategies in Enhancing ...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT :Throughout my studies and teaching English in different language centers and higher studies
institutions, I have come to conclude that students consider Reading comprehension as a nightmare that
frightens them and hinders their language acquisition in the Moroccan EFL Context. This may cause them to
develop an internal psychological obstacle that grows as their lack of the necessary instruments or tools to
overcome are not equipped with. They become lost and unaware about or unfamiliar with the necessary reading
comprehension strategies that could help them to face the problem of misunderstanding or non-understanding
of English texts. Respectively, this article which is only one part of my whole study aims at showing the effect
of teaching reading strategies in enhancing the S1 students‟ familiarity with reading strategies and raising their
frequency use. A sample of 283 University students in EFL context have been chosen randomly and have
attended the usual academic reading classes, yet only 76 are subject to this survey. 38 of them constitute the
experimental group who have attended the treatment regularly in one of the language centers and the other 38
participants are chosen randomly from the whole population to constitute the Control group. They all have
Psychosocial Factors and Deviant Behaviors of Children in Conflict with the L...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT:This study aims to determine the relationship between psychosocialfactors and deviant
behaviors among children in conflict with the law (CICL) inDavao Region. The researchers want to discover the
prevalent factors thatdrive these children to their behaviors. Further, the study sought to determinethe
manifestation of psychosocial factors in terms of life satisfaction, emotionalsupport, self-esteem, and personality
traits. The study's data came from N-83children in conflict with the law (CICL) at the Regional Rehabilitation
Center forYouth (RRCY) in Bago Oshiro, Davao City; all respondents are male. This studyused a total
enumeration sampling technique due to the relatively smallpopulation size. The researchers adapted the
Psychosocial surveyquestionnaires by Zabriskie & Ward (2013) and by John and Srivastava (1999)as well as the
Deviant Behavior Variety Scale (DBVS) by Sanches et al. (2016).Through the use of a validated questionnaire,
the mean and standard deviationare determined. The researchers modified this questionnaire and translated itinto
the respondents' mother tongue (Cebuano) for them to comprehend itbetter. The study discovered no significant
relationship between psychosocialfactors and deviant behaviors of children in conflict with the law (CICL) in
theDavao Region
KEYWORDS :Children in Conflict with the Law (CICL), deviant behaviors, psychosocial factors
Entropy: A Join between Science and Mind-SocietyAJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT: Entropy is join, intersection and interaction between natural science and human mind-society.
We proposed that if internal interactions exist in isolated systems, entropy decrease will be possible for this
system. Management in system is a typical internal interaction within the isolated system. The purpose of
management is to use regulating the internal interactions within the system, and to decrease the increasing
entropy spontaneously. We propose the principle of social civilization and the developing direction is: freedom
of thought, rule of action. Both combinations should be a peaceful revision and improvement of social rules and
laws. Different countries and nations, different religions and beliefs should coexist peacefully and compete
peacefully. The evolution of human society must be coevolution. Its foundation is the evolution of the human
heart and the human nature.
KEYWORDS: entropy, science, society, management, mind, evolution.
A Model of Disaster Resilience Among Colleges and Universities: A Mixed Metho...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT :This research paper aimed to create a comprehensive framework for measuring disaster
resilience in colleges and universities. The study used a mixed method through Exploratory Factor Analysis
(EFA), which involved analyzing data from a survey questionnaire. The questionnaire was developed based on
in-depth interviews with 12 selected participants from the University of Mindanao, as well as relevant literature
and studies. It was reviewed and validated by 10 experts using a method called Content Validity Ratio (CVR).
This questionnaire was then administered to 400 students from 10 different colleges in University of Mindanao.
After conducting the Exploratory Factor Analysis and performing rotations and iterations, the researchers
identified five main constructs that characterize disaster resilience among colleges (1) disaster preparedness, (2)
disaster awareness, (3) community readiness, and (4) disaster management, (5) disaster resilience. The
researchers aimed to create an organization called “Council of College Disaster Volunteers (CCDV)” which
consist of student volunteers. These factors can be used to develop effective management strategies and
strengthen efforts in preventing and managing disasters and accidents.
KEYWORDS:content validity ratio, criminology, disaster resilience, disaster management, exploratory factor
analysis, and Philippines.
Environmental Struggles and Justice Among Lumad Farmers of Davao CityAJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT : The study described the various environmental struggles experienced among the participants
and their status in accessing justice. The study followed a qualitative multiple-case study approach; the
participants are the Lumad farmers of Marilog, Davao City selected through a Critical sampling method and
aims to present the environmental violations experienced by the Lumad farmers in Davao City and how it
affected their families and sustenance further, their status in accessing justice is also explored. The study
concluded that the most common struggles the participant experience are Illegal logging and improper waste
disposal, which affect their farms, family, health, and income. Their preferred means to accessing justice is
through barangay settlement; the rigors of accessing courts, such as distance, expenses, fear of ruling, and the
hassle of being called to be present in court, are the most prevalent barriers that hinder the lead farmers from
accessing justice or seeking legal action. Nevertheless, the participants believed that the government would help
them in accessing justice.
KEYWORDS :access to justice, criminology,environmental justice, environmental struggles, lumadfarmers
CYBERBULLYING EXPERIENCES OF UNIVERSITY OF MINDANAO CRIMINOLOGY STUDENTSAJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT:This paper explores the cyberbullying experiences among Criminology students at the
University of Mindanao. A simple random sampling method was used to distribute the study's online
questionnaire to the respondents and to survey the target population. This study has four hundred (400)
respondents, and the respondents are Criminology students at the University of Mindanao. The findings of this
study revealed that the level of cyberbullying experiences is sometimes manifested. On the other hand, the
cyberbullying experiences of the students indicate a moderate level, which indicates that the cyberbullying
experiences of the respondents are sometimes manifested. Also, the computations showed that among the
indicators presented, the highest mean is obtained in the psychological effect, which implies that there is a
significant effect of cyberbullying experiences of the respondents in terms of the Gender level of the
respondents. Therefore, respondents with a low level of cyberbullying experiences tend to have a moderate level
of cyberbullying experience. However, there is no significant effect in terms of age and year level of the
respondents according to the results regarding the psychological, emotional, and physical impact of
cyberbullying.
KEYWORDS :cyberbullying, emotional, experiences, psychological,physical effect, and simple random
sampling method.
A philosophical ontogenetic standpoint on superego role in human mind formationAJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT: One of the most significant contributions of psychoanalysis to understand the human being is the
elaboration of a model about the mind from a topical and dynamic perspective. Freud explains the mind by the
constitution of the preconscious, conscious, and subconscious. Later, by three dynamic components: the id, the
ego and the superego. Such an organization of the psychic apparatus supposes not only individual elements, but
social influences along the process of hominization. In this paper, we recover the findings of the renowned
anthropologist Lewis Morgan, trying to link some of them to the psychoanalytic theory. Especially highlighting
the importance of superego in Haidt’s social intuitionism.
Keywords: evolutionism, intuitionism, psychoanalysis, Freud, Haidt, Morgan
Improving Workplace Safety Performance in Malaysian SMEs: The Role of Safety ...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT: In the Malaysian context, small and medium enterprises (SMEs) experience a significant
burden of workplace accidents. A consensus among scholars attributes a substantial portion of these incidents to
human factors, particularly unsafe behaviors. This study, conducted in Malaysia's northern region, specifically
targeted Safety and Health/Human Resource professionals within the manufacturing sector of SMEs. We
gathered a robust dataset comprising 107 responses through a meticulously designed self-administered
questionnaire. Employing advanced partial least squares-structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) techniques
with SmartPLS 3.2.9, we rigorously analyzed the data to scrutinize the intricate relationship between safety
behavior and safety performance. The research findings unequivocally underscore the palpable and
consequential impact of safety behavior variables, namely safety compliance and safety participation, on
improving safety performance indicators such as accidents, injuries, and property damages. These results
strongly validate research hypotheses. Consequently, this study highlights the pivotal significance of cultivating
safety behavior among employees, particularly in resource-constrained SME settings, as an essential step toward
enhancing workplace safety performance.
KEYWORDS :Safety compliance, safety participation, safety performance, SME
Psychological Empowerment and Empathy as Correlates of ForgivenessAJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT: The study explores Psychological Empowerment and Empathy as Correlates of Forgiveness.
The two variables are regarded to have influence on the decision one makes to forgive another. The study aimed
at examining the relationships between psychological empowerment and forgiveness, empathy and forgiveness
and to identify which one of the two,Psychological Empowerment or Empathy, is the more powerful predictor of
forgiveness. The study took a survey design with a sample of 350 drawn from a population of university students
using a self-administered questionnaire with four sections: Personal information, Psychological empowerment
scale, Toronto Empathy questionnaire, and the Heartland Forgiveness Scale (HFS). Data analysis employed
Pearson’s product moment correlation and regression analysis to test hypotheses. The results show significant
relationships between psychological empowerment and forgiveness as well as empathy and forgiveness.
Empathy was found to be the more powerful predictor of forgiveness.
KEY WORDS: Psychological empowerment, empathy, forgiveness
Exploring The Dimensions and Dynamics of Felt Obligation: A Bibliometric Anal...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTARCT: This study presents, to our knowledge, the first bibliometric analysis focusing on the concept of
"felt obligation," examining 120 articles published between 1986 and 2024. The aim of the study is to deepen our
understanding of the existing knowledge in the field of "felt obligation" and to provide guidance for further
research. The analysis is centered around the authors, countries, institutions, and keywords of the articles. The
findings highlight prominent researchers in this field, leading universities, and influential journals. Particularly,
it is identified that China plays a leading role in "felt obligation" research. The analysis of keywords emphasizes
the thematic focuses of these studies and provides a roadmap for future research. Finally, various
recommendations are presented to deepen the knowledge in this area and promote applied research. This study
serves as a foundation to expand and advance the understanding of "felt obligation" in the field.
KEYWORDS: Felt Obligation, Bibliometric Analysis, Research Trends
Les autorités traditionnelles et l’administration coloniale au Tchad : 1900-1960AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT : In Africa, traditionalauthorities are the guardians of tradition. Recently, however, they have
been caughtbetween tradition and modernity in the exercise of political power in Chad. However, we are
witnessing the revival of chieftaincy and the hybridization of the politicalpowersexercisedwithinit. In this
cohabitation of powers, traditionalauthorityisescapingitsrole as guardian of tradition.
Traditionalauthorityisthereforepresented in itscurrent state, as a proxy for the modern state in traditional
administrative districts. The aim of thisstudyis to analyze the mutations and adaptability of
traditionalauthorityfrom the pre-colonialperiodthrough the colonial period to the post-colonial period. This
workanalyzes the mutations of authorities. The data collected and processedrevealthattraditionalauthorities have
survivedalmosteverywhere, the former chiefdomsdissolvedduringcolonization have been restored by
republicanheads of state, while more and more frequently civil servants, businessmen, academics and
othermembers of the literateelite, whopreviouslyhad no attraction for the position of traditionalchief, are
beingenthroned.
Key words:Authorities, Administration, colonization, Chad, Kanem.
A Conceptual Analysis of Correlates of Domestic Violence and Adolescent Risky...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT: The study explores domestic violence and how it influences adolescent risky behavior.
Domestic violence is a devastating social problem resulting in significant and enduring effects on children,
threatening both their health and emotional well-being. The study aimed at examining the relationships between
domestic Violence and Psychological Empowerment, Domestic Violence and Self-esteem, psychological
Empowerment and Self-Regulation, Self Esteem and Psychological empowerment, Self-Esteem and Selfregulation, Self-Regulation and Adolescent Risky Behavior and identify the stronger predictor of self-regulation
between psychological empowerment and Self-esteem. Adolescent respondents who experienced domestic
violence were purposely selected and guided by teachers and administrators who had provided support to these
children.The questionnaire had six sections namely; personal information, the Child Exposure to Domestic
Violence Scale, the Psychological empowerment scale, the Rosenberg Self-esteem Inventory, and the Brief
Self-Control Scale. Data analysis employed Pearson's product-moment correlation (r) to test hypotheses 1,
2,3,4,5, and 6. Regression analysis was used for hypothesis 7.The results show a significant relationship
between domestic Violence and Psychological Empowerment, Domestic Violence and Self-esteem,
psychological Empowerment and Self-Regulation, Self Esteem and Psychological empowerment, Self-Esteem
and Self-regulation, Self-Regulation, and Adolescent Risky Behavior. The study documents that Psychological
empowerment is a stronger predictor of self-regulation than Self-esteem.
KEYWORDS:Domestic violence, psychological empowerment, self-regulation, and Adolescent risky behavior
Driving Sustainable Competitive Advantage Through an Innovative Aggregator Bu...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT : The aim of the research is to analyze the influence of the aggregation business model on
Sustainable Competitive Advantage (SCA). Through a survey of 216 MSMEs in the creative economy sector
selected randomly using an ex post facto causal research approach, an overview of the aggregator business
model and its impact on financial resources and SCA was obtained. The aggregator business model plays a role
in facilitating increased access to financial resources to meet both available and required working capital for
realizing SCA in Malang's Lokanima area. The strength of ABM lies in understanding the resources needed for
SCA and the effectiveness of mobilizing services while considering the most cost-effective options, including
providing various alternatives in their provision. Financial resources are an important factor supporting the
achievement of SCA. Access to financial resources is key to facilitating business growth and sustainability.
Theoretical implications: The concept of the aggregator business model emphasizes the efficient and effective
collection, aggregation, and distribution of resources in connecting service providers with consumers in an
economical and efficient manner. Practical implications: ABM can enhance the performance of financial
resource provision by optimizing relationships with MSMEs and financial institutions, leading to business
growth and sustainability for MSMEs.
KEYWORDS -Aggregator Business, Creative Economy, Financial Resources, Sustainable Competitive
Advantage
Accuracy of ChatGPT for Basic Values of Trigonometric FunctionsAJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT : This study analyzes the accuracy of ChatGPT, an artificial intelligence model based on GPT3.5, in determining the values of basic trigonometric functions. To this end, we examine ChatGPT's responses to
sine, cosine, tangent, and cotangent values for a wide range of angles. We compare the results provided by
ChatGPT with the accuracy values determined by basic trigonometry. We also explore differences in accuracy
depending on changes in question complexity and given context. The results show a high level of accuracy of
ChatGPT in determining the values of trigonometric functions, especially for common angles. However, it is
noted that accuracy may be affected in certain cases of extreme angles or complex questions. This analysis
provides an important representation of ChatGPT's capabilities in the field of mathematics, using a new method
for testing the accuracy of artificial intelligence models in determining trigonometric values.
Keywords -Accuracy, AI Model, ChatGPT, Trigonometric Functions, Trigonometry
Postmodern Marketing and Its Impact on Traditional Marketing Approaches: Is K...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT : The essay discusses the concept of postmodern marketing and its impact on marketing theory
and practice. It explores the characteristics of postmodernism, including openness, tolerance, hyper-reality,
fragmentation, and the lack of clear boundaries, and how they challenge traditional marketing approaches. The
paper also looks at the contributions of postmodern marketing to consumer and marketing research and how it
has redefined the way we think about marketing as a science. Ultimately, it raises the question of whether and
how marketing should adapt itself to the new conditions brought about by postmodernism.
KEYWORDS :Postmodernism, Postmodern Marketing, Kotler, Marketing Theory, Postmodern Consumer
Reorientation of Health Service Governance Toward the Fulfillment of Social J...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT: Health insurance is a human right. At the practical level, this health insurance program in
Indonesia is organized by BPJS Kesehatan (Social Security Administering Body for Health). The
implementation of BPJS Kesehatan is still not optimal and effective. Three problems are discussed in this
writing: the dynamics of health insurance governance in Indonesia, the implementation of the fulfillment of the
right to health by BPJS Kesehatan, and the reorientation of BPJS Kesehatan services toward social justice.
These problems are then answered by scientific research methods using a sociological juridical approach.
Complaintsoften occur regarding the regulations, the services provided by the health facility providers, and the
distance between the community and the health facilities. Such complaints affect the public interest in becoming
BPJS Kesehatan participants. The aforementioned conditions must be considered and evaluated for the
government's success in the aspired national health insurance plan.
KEYWORDS -BPJS Kesehatan, Health Insurance, Social Justice
“To be integrated is to feel secure, to feel connected.” The views and experi...AJHSSR Journal
ABSTRACT: Although a significant amount of literature exists on Morocco's migration policies and their
successes and failures since their implementation in 2014, there is limited research on the integration of subSaharan African children into schools. This paperis part of a Ph.D. research project that aims to fill this gap. It
reports the main findings of a study conducted with migrant children enrolled in two public schools in Rabat,
Morocco, exploring how integration is defined by the children themselves and identifying the obstacles that they
have encountered thus far. The following paper uses an inductive approach and primarily focuses on the
relationships of children with their teachers and peers as a key aspect of integration for students with a migration
background. The study has led to several crucial findings. It emphasizes the significance of speaking Colloquial
Moroccan Arabic (Darija) and being part of a community for effective integration. Moreover, it reveals that the
use of Modern Standard Arabic as the language of instruction in schools is a source of frustration for students,
indicating the need for language policy reform. The study underlines the importanceof considering the
children‟s agency when being integrated into mainstream public schools.
.
KEYWORDS: migration, education, integration, sub-Saharan African children, public school
Sport et vieillissement : une analyse de la pratique des activités physiques ...AJHSSR Journal
Abstract : The aim of thispaperis to report on the effects of physicalactivity and sport on the health of older
people. Based on a mixed-methodsapproach, several techniques, namelydocumentaryanalysis and semistructured interviews, wereused in thisresearch in order to obtain a range of data thatwasavailable, accessible
and relevant to the subjectunderstudy. This enabled us to arrive at the resultsaccording to which the
stakeholders' perceptions of theirhealth are based on the practice of physicalactivities and sport as a social
construct in a socio-cultural context. Older people see sport as a way of curingillnesses, but above all as a way
of givingtheir bodies vitality. Othersseeit as a way of reinvigoratingthemselvesafter retirement.
Key words: Ageing, Physical activities, Sports activities, Elderly people.
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An Analysis on the Equality Concept of Western Feminism
1. American Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences Research (AJHSSR) 2023
A J H S S R J o u r n a l P a g e | 110
American Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences Research (AJHSSR)
e-ISSN :2378-703X
Volume-07, Issue-11, pp-110-116
www.ajhssr.com
ResearchPaper Open Access
An Analysis on the Equality Concept of Western Feminism
Zhou Xuqing1
,Zhang Xiaojuan2
1
(Guizhou Education University, China)
2
(Guizhou Education University, China)
ABSTRACT: Since the rise of Western feminism for more than a century, it has made great achievements
both in theory and in practice, which has effectively promoted the process of women's emancipation. However,
in order to achieve the ultimate goal of feminism ---equality between men and women, it still has a long way to
go. Tracing the development course of Western feminism, its concept of equality mainly goes through three
stages, they are the equality of identity, the equality of difference and that of humanity respectively. This thesis
aims to sort out and elaborate the three stages of the development of feminist equality, in hope for making
contribution to enlightening women's studies in China.
KEY WORDS:Western Feminism, Concept of Equality,Identity, Differences, Human
I. INTRODUCTION
Western feminism takes gender relations as the central topic of political research, opposing gender
discrimination, oppression and exploitation, and in pursuit of gender equality and women's liberation. According
to the textual research of Western scholars, Western feminism was enlightened in the Middle Ages. The first
feminist in the world was Cristine de Pisan, born in 1364 and died 1430.[1] P72
Feminism Trend of thought did
not emerge in the process of women's liberation movement in France until the end of the nineteenth century, and
then spread in the United States, Britain and the rest of the world. Since the rise of feminism in the West for
more than a century, it has experienced three major waves. The first big wave lasted from the end of the
nineteenth century to the forties of the twentieth century. In this period, feminism took men as the standard and
then neglected the differences between men and women and strived for equal rights with men. The author
summarized the concept of equality in this period as the concept of sameness equality, and its representative
school was liberal feminism. From the 1960s to the 1970s, feminism began to pay attention to the differences
between men and women, stressing the study of the causes of gender inequality, and then explore the relevant
strategies to eradicate gender inequality. The author summarized the concept of equality in this period as the
concept of difference equality, and its representative schools were radical feminism and socialist feminism. The
third wave was from the eighties to nineties of the twentieth century, Feminism in this period surpassed the
sexual relationship between men and women, pushing both sexes back to zero starting point, and explored the
existence of those women who were concealed and suppressed by history, then advocated the use of female
experience and female discourse to describe the existence of women as human beings, and placed women
entirely on the human level rather than the opposition of men. The author calls the equality of the sexes in this
period the equality of human nature, and its representative school is postmodern feminism. As a result, the
Western feminist concept of equality has gradually deepened and matured under the impetus of the feminist
wave. This paper mainly elaborates, combs and evaluates the three stages of the development of feminism
equality view, with a view to providing some reference and inspiration for the study of Chinese women.
II. EQUALITY BASED ON MASCULINE STANDARDS
In the history of the West, whether in the period of ancient Greece when democracy was prosperous or in
the dark of the Middle Ages, women were seriously absent from the political arena. It was not until the 18th
century that the unprecedented enlightenment movement in Europe broke the silence of women's world. The
craze of “natural human rights” and “freedom and equality for all” baptized women's hearts revolutionarily.
Under the impetus of the vigorous French Revolution, feminism came into being. Liberal feminism originating
from bourgeois liberalism is the pioneer of feminism. They pushed the core values of classical liberalism -
rationality, freedom, equality, individualism and so on to women themselves, looking for a breakthrough for
women's disadvantage.
First of all, liberal feminists advocate “rationality” and agree that women have the same rationality as men,
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so they should enjoy the same rights of free choice, equal opportunity and fair competition, and have the right to
exert their potential and realize their own value. Secondly, liberal feminists agree with the dichotomy of
liberalism based on “rational” thinking, that is, dividing human activities into two corresponding aspects,
rationality and sensibility, public sphere and private sphere, and the former is always better than the latter, but
they strongly oppose the exclusion of women from the public sphere, advocating that women should go out of
the family and go to society to strive for equality with men. Thirdly, liberal feminists attribute women's
disadvantageous position in the family and society to the fact that women do not receive equal education as men,
which makes their rationality and potential unsuitable for the development of society. Finally, because liberal
feminists advocate individualism, they oppose government intervention and women's protection policies,
advocating equality before the state system and the law, and should treat women as men do. In a word, liberal
feminists' equality goal mainly strives for equal freedom, education, employment and political participation with
men in the public sphere. They firmly believe that gender is not important, as long as opportunities are given,
women will do as well as men.
Of all the rights, having the same right to education as men do was put on the agenda firstly. Only when a
woman is educated like a man can she engage in political, economic and cultural work as a man with knowledge
and reason. M.Wollstonecraft, the founder of modern feminism in Britain, pointed out in her book“Defense of
Women's Rights” that in order to make human beings happier, men and women must act in accordance with the
same principles... And in order to spread the only progressive principles that can improve human destiny,
women must be allowed to build their virtues on the basis of knowledge; but if they are not educated for the
same purpose as men, it is almost impossible to do so. [2] P231-232
Wollstonecraft not only strongly advocated
women's right to education, but also criticized the education system at that time ruthlessly. She believed that
women's education then made them in a state of “ignorance and slave-affiliation” and became “insignificant
object of desire”, which was the main culprit of women's inferiority. Therefore, she calls for the liberation of
women from all restraints, allowing them to share the inherent rights of human beings. She is convinced that
once women are liberated, they will become as rational and noble as men. In his book “The Conquest of
Women”, Mill argues that there is no reason to exclude women from leadership positions, and points out that
only when women have freedom of choice can they know what their “natural” abilities are. He advocated giving
women the right to vote. Women's right to employment is also the focus of this period. Feminists in this period
also believed that economic independence is an important factor in women's dependence. They advocated that
all women should go out of their families, compete freely and equally with men in the labor market, and strive
for equal pay for equal work. In her book “The Woman's Mystery”, Betty Friedan emphasizes that the most
pressing problem for women is to get out of the family and work - no longer just housewives anymore.
There is no doubt that liberal feminists have made great contributions to individual struggle for legal and
political rights. Some liberal democracies have also fixed anti-discrimination laws to ensure equal access to
education, work and politics for women. At the same time, liberal feminism has opened the way for women's
liberation, questioned the rationality of traditional status of men and women, promoted women's personality,
improved women's disadvantage, and promoted the process of women's liberation. However, it is not difficult to
see that the equality pursued by liberal feminism totally neglects the equality of gender differences. They
identify the “human” of “natural human rights” and “freedom and equality for all” as men, and equate women
with men to strive for the rights already belonging to men. They regard the rights of men as the standard of
women's rights, and then completely ignore the particularity of men and women respectively, especially the fact
that women themselves are in a disadvantaged position. Such equality is only a kind of formal uniform equality.
Applying it to reality will lead to de facto inequality, and formal gender equality will more conceal de facto
inequality and make de facto inequality more legitimate, which runs counter to the original intention of
feminism to strive for gender equality.
For example, while challenging the rights system in the public sphere, liberal feminists have not questioned
the traditional gender division of labor, which puts women at a disadvantage in social competition. As a result,
they have also reinforced the traditional idea that women are only suitable for the private sphere and care for
their families and children. Once they enter the public sphere, their work will never be as serious, reliance,
potential and due diligence as that of men. Women are always struggling to extricate themselves from these
shames. When she was single, the employer was afraid that she would resign as soon as she got married; when
she got married, the employer was afraid that she would resign as soon as she had a child or follow her husband
to a better company; if she had children, the employer was afraid that she would take a long vacation to take
care of her children; if she was older and her children were independent, she might think that she was too old for
some jobs. The real fact is that women never take more leave than men, although most of them have their first
childcare experience [3] P227
. In this way, women not only have narrow, temporary, low-income jobs, but also
have to undertake all the housework. This equality view of identity standard puts women in the public sphere of
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life, but does not call men into the private sphere [4] P34
. Women's previous burden has been aggravated by a new
one. Low-income jobs have not freed women from the burden of housework and child-rearing. Instead, they
have doubled their work and created new inequalities. Moreover, even if a woman demonstrates her masculinity,
she may not really be accepted in a male-dominated profession. She will also be rejected when she is together
with others, or at least when she decides to promote, cooperate and use her tenure to research empowerment and
co-editor in the scope of her thinking, leaving the power network that makes the difference [3] P217.
Thus, the
equal right to ignore individual differences is actually an unequal right. In order to achieve gender equality,
feminism has to consider the differences between the sexes. As a result, the Western feminism concept of
equality has entered the second stage - the concept of differential equality.
III. EQUALITY FOCUSING ON GENDER DIFFERENCES
From the beginning of the 20th century to the 1960s, the world experienced a series of events, such as the
two world wars, the collapse of the colonial system, and the vigorous development of various liberation
movements worldwide. In this turbulent period, western feminism also raised banners and surged. The rise of
the American civil rights movement in the 1960s and 1970s and the anti-war movement in Britain made
feminists deeply aware of their real situation, seeing the arrogance and irrationality of male radicals towards
women, the fervor of male warmongers, and even believed that the cruelty and power desire of men were the
root causes of war and brought disaster to the world. In the process of participating in the movement and
theoretical reflection, feminists criticized the shortcomings of the early liberal feminists in their pursuit of
equality between men and women on the basis of gender equality. They agreed that the pursuit of gender
equality must take into account the differences between men and women, and actively explored the causes of
gender differences and women's disadvantage, so as to realize the equality between men and women
fundamentally. The main representatives are radical feminism and socialist feminism.
Radical feminism believes that “patriarchy” is the main cause of gender inequality. Patriarchy includes two
aspects: one is male domination of women, and the other is male elder domination of the younger generation. It
is also argued that women are not born second sex, but patriarchy is mainly achieved by “inner colonization”,
i.e., socialization of the family, and the spread of social values in education, culture and religion, and by means
of economic exploitation and violent repression, including domestic violence and sexual violence [5] P374
.
Patriarchy has become the “most common ideology” everywhere all the time, resulting in women as a class
collectively being oppressed by the long-term domination of men, which seems naturally and difficult to find.
Therefore, they advocate taking family as the main battlefield, breaking the traditional distinction between
public and private spheres, and advocating “individual is politics” to completely destroy patriarchy. In “Sexual
Politics”, Millett reveals the political relationship in the field of individuality by describing the sexual
humiliation suffered by some women, namely “Sexual Politics”. She profoundly points out that family is the
main place where patriarchal ideology is instilled. It enables young people to internalize the different demands
of patriarchal ideology on different roles, temperaments and positions. Thus, the reproduction of patriarchy is
maintained “consciously and voluntarily”. [6]
In addition, the national institutions and systems of this
male-dominated system are designed entirely according to the intentions of men and are tools of
male-dominated rule. In order to achieve gender equality, it is impossible to follow the old road of petition and
election through reform or following the conventions of traditional Western politics. It must also be uprooted
and thoroughly destroyed by means of violence, such as arson.
The radicality of Radical Feminism lies in deducing the physiological differences between men and women
to the extreme. Firestone holds that the material basis of women's oppression is not economic, but biological and
physiological attributes. Firestone also views that women's reproductive function causes the division of labor
between the sexes and maintains the development of patriarchy and ideology. Women's physiological structure
leads them to think that they are born to do things that are subordinate to men, such as childbearing, childcaring,
sexual intercourse, etc. Among them, fertility is the main reason for women's oppression. Therefore, it advocates
that through advanced science and technology such as artificial insemination, in vitro infants and asexual
reproduction, women should be liberated from the physiological function of reproduction which oppresses them,
so that women's situation can be substantially improved. Some extremists even advocate eliminating families,
getting rid of male and female affairs, creating a unique female sex independently through celibacy, or getting
rid of male domination and oppression through homosexuality. Because as long as the distinction between the
sexes persists physically and socially, women will never get rid of their oppressive status; in order to eliminate
inequality and gender discrimination between the sexes, their physiological basis must be eradicated.
Radical feminism challenges the traditional patriarchal system, and it is of positive significance to explore
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the subordinate status of women from the perspective of system and cultural consciousness. As Beauvoir said,
“Women are not born to be women, but to become women.” The formation and development of this group of
women is indeed marked by history and culture. However, radical feminism is totally antagonistic to men,
taking women as friends and adopting a totally confrontational attitude and even violence to strive for women's
equality, which arouses men's disgust and makes many women dissatisfied and strongly criticized. Moreover,
the disadvantage of women is attributed to the physiological aspects, and then advocates the liberation of
women by developing biotechnology instead of women's uterus. Besides arousing people's attention and
thinking, the extreme point of view is in fact inadvisable and impossible as a way to strive for gender equality.
Female reproduction itself is not humble. From the perspective of human life development, it should also be a
great glorious right, and the disadvantage of female reproduction should be the disadvantage of society. We can
strive for some favorable conditions for women's reproductive rights, such as the length of maternity leave, the
benefits during maternity leave and the inability to deprive women of their employment rights on the grounds of
maternity leave, rather than starting from itself. Moreover, from the economic point of view and the perspective
that the people who master high-tech are basically men, using high-tech technology to replace women's fertility
is not equal to women themselves.
Socialist feminists abandoned the view that the physiological differences of radical feminists caused
inequality and accepted their patriarchal view. It also holds that capitalism and patriarchy together constitute the
root cause of gender inequality. They believe that capitalism and patriarchy are partnerships, and they collude
with each other to make women an oppressed class. Julie Mitchell pointed out that capitalism oppresses women
in economic mode, while patriarchy oppresses women in spiritual consciousness, which can be summarized as
four oppressions: production, reproduction, sex and socialization of children. She believes that only by changing
the four structures closely linked together can women truly be liberated. If one structure is changed, it will be
canceled out by the reinforcement of the other. [7] P31
, she analyzed Engels' proposal that “women's liberation is
possible only when women can participate in production on a large scale and on a social scale, and housework
only takes up a very small part of their time” [8] P158
, and thought Engels' conclusion was too optimistic.
Because if we do not solve the four interrelated structural relationships, women will undoubtedly have to bear
the dual pressure of housework and social work to participate in social job and cannot achieve real liberation.
Heidi Hartman believes that industrial capitalism separates production from family and forms a gender division
of labor. Women's housework belongs to creating and using value. Capitalism pays more attention to the
former in the exchange value and use value of commodities. Therefore, it forms a gender consciousness that
despises women. Children grow up in such an environment and gradually form their own consciousness and
identity. Her or his gender identity and gender consciousness further form social consciousness: male
characteristics are competitive, rational, manipulative and dominant desire. At the same time, men take various
actions to strengthen the division of labor which is beneficial to themselves. Therefore, in order to obtain
women's freedom, we must oppose the capitalist system, the male patriarchal rule and the division of labor
between the sexes. From the perspective of “gender system”, Lubing analyzed the male-centered politics,
culture and religion. He believed that human reproduction, human sexual life and human reproduction restrict
people's views on gender, morality and ways of raising children. In this system, men are dominant and women
are victims. Therefore, the emancipation of women should build an advanced gender culture, making a
reasonable division of labor in the field of social reproduction, and let both men and women raise children
together. He suggested that our goal should not be to eliminate men, but to eliminate the social system that
created gender discrimination and gender.
Obviously, socialist feminism holds that patriarchy, capitalism and gender division of labor resulting from
the two systems lead to differences between men and women, and emphasizes that capitalism, because of its
pursuit of economic interests, requires men to create economic value for it in the social sphere and women to
educate children in the private sphere and take care of men so as to be able to provide capital. Doctrine
cultivates better and healthier men to create surplus labor value for them. Therefore, it advocates that women
should take part in the class struggle against capitalism, entering the paid labor market and striving for
employment opportunities, which undoubtedly has the tendency of emphasizing class oppression rather than
gender oppression, and weakens the power of women's anti-patriarchy. Moreover, socialist feminism attributes
the oppression of patriarchy to women's physiological and psychological differences. Although it does not
appeal to eradicate the physiological differences as radical feminism does, it also believes that women's
physiological differences lead to women's disadvantage, and it also sets men as the standard to judge women.
There are even some socialist feminists who emphasize that women are systematically disadvantaged in all
aspects of life, not because of their individual abilities, but because of historical and social reasons. Therefore, to
change women's disadvantaged position, we should not only rely on individual efforts and so-called “fair
competition”, but also strive for special protective legislation for women. And all kinds of special measures
should be taken to help vulnerable groups so as to strive for equal status with men [1] P103
. This view has aroused
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great controversy among feminists. For women, measures designed to protect women in particular have
prevented them from getting the treatment that men enjoy. For example, prohibiting women from engaging in
so-called industries that are dangerous to women may improve women's health and safety, but these provisions
also exclude women from certain industries and create a distinct gender division of labour. Even in so-called
women-only fields of work, there will be a surplus of labor, and women will only get low wages. Gender
discrimination has also brought about a problem, that is, it strengthens the traditional gender stereotype and
promotes prejudice against women; it consolidates and continues the thinking mode that regards women as
natural adherents of men.
It can be seen that the equality view of identity put forward by liberal feminism and the equality view of
difference put forward by radical feminists are in a dilemma. On the one hand, if equality is at the cost of
eliminating gender differences and assimilating men's social and cultural values, it violates the principle of
equality of human rights. On the other hand, strengthening differences is tantamount to affirming the rationality
of gender inequality in men's society and violating the principle of equality. [9]
At that time, feminism urgently
needed a new theory to lead feminism out of its predicament. Postmodern feminism emerged at the historic
moment.
IV. EQUALITY BEYOND THE BINARY OPPOSITION OF THE SEXES
In the 1980s, the influence of Post-modernism on the West reached its peak. Its questioning of the scientific,
rational and objective truth that the West has always worshipped, its advocacy of the polysemy of texts and
discourses, and its emphasis on things that are marginalized, negated, excluded, repressed have had an
enlightening impact on feminist research. It breaks through the way of thinking and the form of expression of
traditional feminist research. The encounter, collision and interpenetration of feminist research and
postmodernism gave birth to the rise of postmodern feminist research in the 1980s and formed the third wave of
feminist development.
Postmodern feminism mainly absorbs the theoretical viewpoints of postmodernism, which is subversive
and challenging. First of all, it negates all the grand theoretical systems and advocates decentralized local
small-scale theories. From the point of view of postmodern feminists, all the grand theoretical systems with
universality and gender neutrality from the enlightenment point of view, in fact, are based on men and
completely ignore the existence of women. They are not of universal value at all, nor can they be widely used by
women's liberation research institutes. In fact, after the entry of the West into the post-industrial society, the
general discourse on the law of human social development and the large-scale theory with universality have
been questioned. Therefore, postmodern feminism opposes the macro-analysis of race, nationality, class and
gender. It holds that these classifications are too general, and they even doubt the concepts of “women” and
“patriarchy”, because the inner parts of each category are very different in fact. Just like women, because of
their different status, the situation is different, such as the white. The situation of middle-class women, poor
working women, women of color and lesbians is totally different. Therefore, postmodern feminist theory is not
universal to feminism as a whole, but should be a historical theory. It should replace the single concept of
“female” and “gender identity of femininity” with the concept of social identity constructed by pluralism and
comprehensiveness; it should regard gender as one of many other concepts, while paying attention to class, race
and nationality. Age and sexual orientation. [10]
Postmodern feminism abandoned the abstract study of women's
grand poems as a whole, reminding people of paying attention to the differences among women of different
colors, races, classes, preferences, nationalities and regions, and to the particularities of women in different
regions, so as to avoid the universal conceptual model and avoid the uniform Abstract classification. Although it
is generally accepted, its challenge to the gender concept of “women” has been sharply criticized within
feminism, which undoubtedly negates the concept of gender as a meaningful and common social and political
category, and makes feminist critics and theorists have no roots in it. At the same time, gender and other
inequalities are put on equal footing. It is easy to dilute feminism's goal of pursuing gender equality and confuse
priority with subordination.
Secondly, we should oppose the traditional thinking mode of binary opposition and break the logocentrism.
Logos is the internal rationality of language as well as the rationality of human beings and nature. The dualistic
opposition between language and text has evolved into the dualistic opposition between spirit and matter,
subject and object, mind and body, essence and phenomenon, self-reliance and freedom, meaning and text, male
and female in the western philosophical tradition. [11]
In each pair of words mentioned above, the first word is
more important than the second one. It is in the central position of priority, while the second word is the
supplement and appendage of the first word, and it is in the marginal position. For example, in the couple of
men and women, men are always associated with those who are positive, civilized, bright, noble and optimistic,
while women are always associated with those who are negative, natural, dark, humble and pessimistic. And the
first term of the dichotomy of men and women is separated or deviated from the second term. The
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characteristics of women do not exist in the place where men do not respond to women. Therefore, postmodern
feminism holds that the traditional feminist theory of “equality between men and women” requires women by
the criterion of men, ignoring the subjectivity of women themselves. It is the continuation of patriarchal thinking
and a “masculine logo-centric” mode of thinking, and should disintegrate the establishment of patriarchy
through the deconstruction of the dualistic opposition of men and women.
Finally, discourse is power, and attention should be paid to and grasp the right to speak. It is widely
believed that women value things rather than words, and women are less concerned about their position in the
historical literature. For example, as a starting point for scientific research, or as a source of evidence to support
or oppose knowledge claims, women's different lives have been mistakenly devalued and ignored; for social
order, women are valuable “strangers”. Females, especially female researchers, are “outsiders in the field”, etc.
[12] P520-530
. Thus, postmodern feminists advocate a “model shift” within the female movement, from focusing
only on things to discourse. Because the most fundamental factor influencing and controlling the movement of
discourse is power, and the power with real special effects is also carried out through discourse. People's social
order as a social existence is a power system that enters people's discourse. Power is always expressed through
words. This is exactly the case. In the long trace of history, women are often under the cover of history, treated
as a dying person and absentee in the patriarchal mythology. They can only drift as a subculture group on the
edge of the patriarchal system, becoming a companion to the patriarchal system for a long period. Women have
lost not only their self in history but also their culture and basic character. In the cultural field of patriarchal
society, men have the right to operate the cultural symbol system and to create discourse theory to interpret
linguistic meaning. For women who are marginalized, in order to obtain this right of discourse, they must lose
themselves as the main body of women, discarding themselves as the unique way of life, experience and way of
speaking, having no choice but to use the rigid, institutionalized , rationalized voices, vocabulary, intentions, and
symbols of the male society to speak, thus losing some of their feminine characteristics in order to enter the
quasi-male discourse mechanism. [11]
It can be said that in a long period of time, women have lost their cultural
and spiritual gender despite their biological sex. Influenced by the masters of postmodern thought, one of the
ambitions of postmodern feminism is to invent women's words. The so-called female discourse is closely related
to the physical and psychological experience of women's bodies and women. They hope that this female
language will free women from male hegemonic discourse. The female writer Irene Shisu initiated the
establishment of a negative writing center for this purpose, and her own work became the earliest example of
negative writing. In her view, language is the power that controls the way culture and the subject think. To
overthrow the patriarchal control, we must start with the criticism of language. Through the language practice of
“writing”, the stability of the dual structure is shaken to subvert the privilege of the male central subject. In
postmodern feminism, there has been a new view on writing that women can only understand and grasp
themselves deeply by writing themselves, and women use their “rebel writing”. The language of writing your
own body, writing every delicate feeling of your own and subtle changes of the mind into the text, so that it is
possible to prevent yourself from disappearing in the boundless time and space, nor becoming a role for the
other in the male discourse. Only in this way is it possible to create a unique language to replace the commonly
used male written discourse, that is, the orderly, calm, conceptual, rational, institutional, and cold language. [11]
In a nutshell, women can only write themselves through their own writing and the new recognition of their own
body, it is possible to achieve a certain degree of unity between their own emotions and their pens, thus writing
has become a kind of flow of vitality and inspiration communication that originates from the inner world of
women's body. Women only need to grasp the flow of their inner vitality, which is enough to show the vitality of
life. Of course, the purpose of postmodern feminism in inventing female discourse is not to compete with men
for dominant discourse, but to hope for the transition from conflict to dialogue to complement each other, and
reach consensus so as to obliterate a single central language of women, forming a kind of Multiple gender
discourse fields. [11]
Although postmodern feminism has been blamed by many parties, such as non-political tendencies,
subjectivity disappearance, academic style, etc., the author believes that the equality view of postmodern
feminist appeal is the “people-oriented” human equality in the true sense. It is an ideal model for the pursuit of
gender equality. First of all, the research ideas of postmodern feminism are very different from traditional
feminism. Whether equality of identity or equality of difference, it is undoubtedly an equality of male thinking.
It is the right to seek women in the framework of men. Equality on the basis of male superiority completely
ignores the historical vision of women. Just as Sun Wukong can't escape the palm of the Buddha, no matter how
versatile, traditional feminism is pursuing women's individuality and pursuing women's rights. The aspect is
indispensable, but to seek equality in the ultimate sense of both sexes, it is the wrong direction. Postmodernism
is a kind of “female” thinking. The women here are not women who are traditionally corresponding to men, but
those who have eliminated all historical and cultural factors and returned to zero. Women are human beings only
not referring to male standards. In order to discover their natural needs and development direction, it is the
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natural growth of women that does not distort the growth of men. Secondly, in the research content, the
traditional feminist equality concept is to strive for the equality of women in the existing phenomenon, and
postmodern feminism also seeks to explore the existence of the female characteristics that have been rejected,
suppressed and hidden by men in history, which is more conducive to the study of women as a completely true
human. Finally, the concept of equality advocated by post-modern feminism is not an equality view based on
men or women, but an equality view of a harmonious dialogue between men and women, and a true concept of
equality in human nature. It has a good reference for women's studies in China. The ultimate equality of human
beings is also marked by the ultimate liberation of women. Therefore, in the process of focusing on realistic and
specific equality issues, it is necessary to look to the ideal and promising future.
V. CONCLUSION
In summary, the Western feminist equality concept has experienced three evolution of the equality of
identity, the equality of difference and equality of humanity. Feminists have explored the equality of women and
gradually matured. Although the concept of humanity equality has ideal models and ideas for the ultimate
meaning of gender equality, ideals must be in line with reality. Otherwise, it is a fantasy. Therefore, Western
feminism has not fundamentally solved the problem of gender equality and needs to be explored, it still has a
long way to go. However, the author believes that gender equality and women's liberation are the inevitable
development of history, and this goal can certainly be achieved. As an oppressed object, women must realize the
ultimate liberation not only as a feminist but as a whole human being. It requires all women and men to
participate and work together to achieve this human civilization goal.
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