Mycotoxins are toxic metabolites produced by fungi that can contaminate foods. Major mycotoxins include aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, patulin, fumonisins, deoxynivalenol, and zearalenone. Aflatoxins are produced by Aspergillus species and pose health risks as they are carcinogenic and can cause acute toxicity in humans and animals. Regulatory bodies set maximum limits for mycotoxins in foods and feeds.
Mycotoxins are toxic compounds that are naturally produced by certain types of moulds (fungi). Moulds that can produce mycotoxins grow on numerous foodstuffs such as cereals, dried fruits, nuts and spices. ... Mycotoxins appear in the food chain as a result of mould infection of crops both before and after harvest.Mycotoxins are toxic compounds that are naturally produced by certain types of moulds (fungi). Moulds that can produce mycotoxins grow on numerous foodstuffs such as cereals, dried fruits, nuts and spices. ... Mycotoxins appear in the food chain as a result of mould infection of crops both before and after harvest.
Mycotoxins are toxic compounds that are naturally produced by certain types of moulds (fungi). Moulds that can produce mycotoxins grow on numerous foodstuffs such as cereals, dried fruits, nuts and spices. ... Mycotoxins appear in the food chain as a result of mould infection of crops both before and after harvest.Mycotoxins are toxic compounds that are naturally produced by certain types of moulds (fungi). Moulds that can produce mycotoxins grow on numerous foodstuffs such as cereals, dried fruits, nuts and spices. ... Mycotoxins appear in the food chain as a result of mould infection of crops both before and after harvest.
Phytotoxin
phtotoxin produce by bacteria and fungi
Bacterial toxin are two types endotoxin and exotoxins
Fungi produce toxin Mycotoxins
Mycotoxins - Aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, G2,
Products contaminated by aflatoxins such as cereal, tree nuts, dry fruits, spices, dairy products, eggs, and medicinal plants.
There are various methods use for the detections of aflatoxins like HPLC, HPTLC, ELISA,TLC, and LC-MS.
Aflatoxins cause chronic and acute toxicity.
Chronic- slow growth, immunity problems, cirrhosis, and liver cancer.
Acute- Hemorrhage, edema and acute liver toxicity.
Phytochemical Profile and Antioxidant Potential of 12 Antimalarial Recipes Us...inventionjournals
The present work aims to identify the major chemical groups and to evaluate the anti-radical activity of 12 recipes of medicinal plants used in the treatment of malaria among children, pregnant women and adults in two lake villages (Ganvi , Aguegues Daho) of southern Benin. All the recipes contain molecules able to trap the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) which is a free radical. This activity would be due to the phenolic compounds identified in the phytochemical screening and whose presence in these recipes has been confirmed by quantitative test performed in a spectrophotometer. Aqueous extract obtain by decoction of recipes 3, 1 and 4 (E3, E1, E4) of the child have the higher contents of total phenolics compounds and good anti-radical activity compared to other extracts. The aqueous extract obtain by decoction of the recipe 3 which has the strongest content of total polyphenols (668.16 mg EAG/g DM) was the most active for trapping DPPH with an IC50 of 0.095 mg/mL similar to those of butylated hydroxyanisole (0.090 mg/mL) and quercetin (0.100 mg/mL) that are reference antioxidants used in this study. These results justify the use of these traditional recipes.
Abstract: Aflatoxicosis is among the major cause of economic losses in poultry production. Aflatoxins are a group of hepatotoxic compounds produced by the fungus of Aspergillus sps. when growing on feedstuffs. Aflatoxins are hepatotoxic, mutagenic and carcinogenic fungal toxin which is capable of producing diseases in farm animals as well as poultry. There are four primary aflatoxins: aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), aflatoxin B2 (AFB2), aflatoxin G1 (AFG1) and aflatoxin G2 (AFG2). Among these AFB1 is the most toxic aflatoxin. Aflatoxicosis in poultry is characterized by decreased growth rate, poor feed conversion, immunosuppression, passage of undigested food in the dropping, anemia, decrease egg production in layers quantitatively and qualitatively, decrease hatchability, embryonic mortality, reduced fertility due to decrease testicular weight, decrease semen volume and sometimes there may be lamness, ataxia, convulsions & death. In humans being acute aflatoxicosis is manifested by vomiting, abdominal pain, pulmonary edema, coma, convulsions, and death with cerebral edema and fatty involvement of the liver, kidney and heart. Keywords: Aflatoxin, Poultry, Hepatotoxic.
Title: Aflatoxicosis in Poultry
Author: Sakshi Tiwari, Vikash Sharma, Amrender Nath Tiwari, Amit Shukla
ISSN 2349-7823
International Journal of Recent Research in Life Sciences (IJRRLS)
Paper Publications
Aflatoxins and animal health: Case studies from AfricaILRI
Presentation by Johanna Lindahl, Christine Atherstone and Delia Grace at a Partnership for Aflatoxin Control in Africa (PACA) workshop on 'Engaging the Health and Nutrition Sectors in Aflatoxin Control in Africa', Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 23–24 March 2016.
LIVING WITH THE EARTHCHAPTER 8FOODBORNE ILLNESS.docxcroysierkathey
LIVING WITH THE EARTH
CHAPTER 8
FOODBORNE ILLNESS
FOODBORNE ILLNESS
Objectives for this ChapterA student reading this chapter will be able to:1. Recognize, list, and explain the major reasons for food protection programs.2. List and describe the major categories and subcategories of agents causing foodborne illness.3. Describe the major foodborne pathogens including parasitic,viral, and bacterial diseases.
Objectives for this ChapterA student reading this chapter will be able to:4. Explain the mechanisms by which these pathogens cause foodborne illness, and describe how the life cycles of these organisms are important in this transmission of disease.5. List and describe the major disease symptoms in humans for these foodborne pathogens.
Objectives for this ChapterA student reading this chapter will be able to:6. Describe and explain the HACCP system in protecting against foodborne disease.7. Discuss recent regulatory efforts in the area of food potection.
FOODBORNE ILLNESSWorldwide Distribution of Foodborne Pathogens1.5 billion children under the age of five suffer from diarrhea, and tragically, over 3 million die as a consequence.
FOODBORNE ILLNESSReasons for varying prevalence among geographic regionsClimatePopulation demographicsNutritional statusCultural aspects
Reason for Food Protection ProgramsThe implementation of programs to minimize foodborne diseases is important because of the problems associated with morbidity, mortality, and economic loss.
Morbidity and Mortality Due to Foodborne DiseaseIn the United States there are as many as 33 million cases of foodborne illness which are responsible for an estimated 9 thousand deaths annually.
Morbidity and Mortality Due to Foodborne DiseaseThe causative agents and modes of transmission (means through which an causative agent is spread) are known in less than 1% of the severe gastroenteritis cases.
Economic Consequences of Foodborne IllnessMedical CostsLoss of WagesRecallInvestigationLitigation (Fig. 8-1)
Fig. 8-1
CAUSATIVE AGENTS OF FOODBORNE DISEASEFoodborne illness is defined as any illness incurred from the consumption of contaminated food.
CAUSATIVE AGENTS OF FOODBORNE DISEASERadionuclidesChemicalsFood AdditivesPoisonous Plants and AnimalsPathogens (Table 8-1)
Table 1a
Table 1b
RadionuclidesRadiation is introduced into the food chain naturally from mineral deposits beneath the earth’s surface or from the atmosphere in the form of ultraviolet and cosmic rays.
RadionuclidesRadionuclides, which are deposited in the environment accidentally, or intentionally, as a direct result of human activity are of much greater concern.ChernobylIndia vs. Pakistan
ChemicalsIronically, man is responsible for many chemical contaminants presently found in food. Between 80%-90% of our exposure to potentially harmful chemicals is from food consumption.
ChemicalsChemicals enter the food from packaging materials, agricultural applications of pesti ...
Effect of some organic acids on some fungal growth and their toxins productionijabjournal
The effect of eight organic acids (propionic, acetic, formic, lactic, tartaric, citric, oxalic and malic acids) as antifungal agents on the growth of four fungi (Aspergillus flavus, Penicillium purpurogenum, Rhizopus nigricans and Fusarium oxysporum) were studied. The high acidity appeared for oxalic acid being 0.14 at the high concentration (10%), while the lowest acidity recorded for propionic acid and acetic acid being 2.71 and 2.56 at the low concentration (5%). It was observed that, there was no relationship between the efficacy of organic acid and its final pH. Acetic acid (10%) has the highest inhibitory effect on A. flavus being 45.21%, but tartaric acid (5%) and citric acid (5%) gave the same lowest inhibition effect (0.42%).
The lowest value of mycelium dry weight (MDW) of P. purpurogenum was 5.92 g/l when acetic acid was
used (10%), but the highest value was 9.38 g/l when tartaric acid (5%) was used. Formic acid (10%) had a
strong effect on the inhibition growth of R. nigricans being 28.65%, similar to propionic acid (10%), acetic
acid (10%), lactic acid (10%), tartaric acid (10%) and citric acid (10%) being 26.57%, 26.38%, 26.19%,
23.53% and 24.48%, respectively. But malic acid (5%) and oxalic acid (5%) were having a week effect on
R. nigricans being 5.31% and 6.45%, respectively. Lactic acid (10%) has the highest inhibitory effect on F.
oxysporum being 34.45% and the lowest value was in the case of tartaric acid (5%) being 1.68%. Four
treatments were used to determine aflatoxin B1 production. The highest inhibition (50%) was observed by
R. nigricans in the presence of formic acid (10%). Acetic acid in 10% level inhibited the toxic secretion of
A. flavus and P. purpurogenum to become 25% and 40%, respectively. Lactic acid (10%) gave 35% inhibition of toxin production in the presence of F. oxysporum.
Phytotoxin
phtotoxin produce by bacteria and fungi
Bacterial toxin are two types endotoxin and exotoxins
Fungi produce toxin Mycotoxins
Mycotoxins - Aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, G2,
Products contaminated by aflatoxins such as cereal, tree nuts, dry fruits, spices, dairy products, eggs, and medicinal plants.
There are various methods use for the detections of aflatoxins like HPLC, HPTLC, ELISA,TLC, and LC-MS.
Aflatoxins cause chronic and acute toxicity.
Chronic- slow growth, immunity problems, cirrhosis, and liver cancer.
Acute- Hemorrhage, edema and acute liver toxicity.
Phytochemical Profile and Antioxidant Potential of 12 Antimalarial Recipes Us...inventionjournals
The present work aims to identify the major chemical groups and to evaluate the anti-radical activity of 12 recipes of medicinal plants used in the treatment of malaria among children, pregnant women and adults in two lake villages (Ganvi , Aguegues Daho) of southern Benin. All the recipes contain molecules able to trap the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) which is a free radical. This activity would be due to the phenolic compounds identified in the phytochemical screening and whose presence in these recipes has been confirmed by quantitative test performed in a spectrophotometer. Aqueous extract obtain by decoction of recipes 3, 1 and 4 (E3, E1, E4) of the child have the higher contents of total phenolics compounds and good anti-radical activity compared to other extracts. The aqueous extract obtain by decoction of the recipe 3 which has the strongest content of total polyphenols (668.16 mg EAG/g DM) was the most active for trapping DPPH with an IC50 of 0.095 mg/mL similar to those of butylated hydroxyanisole (0.090 mg/mL) and quercetin (0.100 mg/mL) that are reference antioxidants used in this study. These results justify the use of these traditional recipes.
Abstract: Aflatoxicosis is among the major cause of economic losses in poultry production. Aflatoxins are a group of hepatotoxic compounds produced by the fungus of Aspergillus sps. when growing on feedstuffs. Aflatoxins are hepatotoxic, mutagenic and carcinogenic fungal toxin which is capable of producing diseases in farm animals as well as poultry. There are four primary aflatoxins: aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), aflatoxin B2 (AFB2), aflatoxin G1 (AFG1) and aflatoxin G2 (AFG2). Among these AFB1 is the most toxic aflatoxin. Aflatoxicosis in poultry is characterized by decreased growth rate, poor feed conversion, immunosuppression, passage of undigested food in the dropping, anemia, decrease egg production in layers quantitatively and qualitatively, decrease hatchability, embryonic mortality, reduced fertility due to decrease testicular weight, decrease semen volume and sometimes there may be lamness, ataxia, convulsions & death. In humans being acute aflatoxicosis is manifested by vomiting, abdominal pain, pulmonary edema, coma, convulsions, and death with cerebral edema and fatty involvement of the liver, kidney and heart. Keywords: Aflatoxin, Poultry, Hepatotoxic.
Title: Aflatoxicosis in Poultry
Author: Sakshi Tiwari, Vikash Sharma, Amrender Nath Tiwari, Amit Shukla
ISSN 2349-7823
International Journal of Recent Research in Life Sciences (IJRRLS)
Paper Publications
Aflatoxins and animal health: Case studies from AfricaILRI
Presentation by Johanna Lindahl, Christine Atherstone and Delia Grace at a Partnership for Aflatoxin Control in Africa (PACA) workshop on 'Engaging the Health and Nutrition Sectors in Aflatoxin Control in Africa', Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 23–24 March 2016.
LIVING WITH THE EARTHCHAPTER 8FOODBORNE ILLNESS.docxcroysierkathey
LIVING WITH THE EARTH
CHAPTER 8
FOODBORNE ILLNESS
FOODBORNE ILLNESS
Objectives for this ChapterA student reading this chapter will be able to:1. Recognize, list, and explain the major reasons for food protection programs.2. List and describe the major categories and subcategories of agents causing foodborne illness.3. Describe the major foodborne pathogens including parasitic,viral, and bacterial diseases.
Objectives for this ChapterA student reading this chapter will be able to:4. Explain the mechanisms by which these pathogens cause foodborne illness, and describe how the life cycles of these organisms are important in this transmission of disease.5. List and describe the major disease symptoms in humans for these foodborne pathogens.
Objectives for this ChapterA student reading this chapter will be able to:6. Describe and explain the HACCP system in protecting against foodborne disease.7. Discuss recent regulatory efforts in the area of food potection.
FOODBORNE ILLNESSWorldwide Distribution of Foodborne Pathogens1.5 billion children under the age of five suffer from diarrhea, and tragically, over 3 million die as a consequence.
FOODBORNE ILLNESSReasons for varying prevalence among geographic regionsClimatePopulation demographicsNutritional statusCultural aspects
Reason for Food Protection ProgramsThe implementation of programs to minimize foodborne diseases is important because of the problems associated with morbidity, mortality, and economic loss.
Morbidity and Mortality Due to Foodborne DiseaseIn the United States there are as many as 33 million cases of foodborne illness which are responsible for an estimated 9 thousand deaths annually.
Morbidity and Mortality Due to Foodborne DiseaseThe causative agents and modes of transmission (means through which an causative agent is spread) are known in less than 1% of the severe gastroenteritis cases.
Economic Consequences of Foodborne IllnessMedical CostsLoss of WagesRecallInvestigationLitigation (Fig. 8-1)
Fig. 8-1
CAUSATIVE AGENTS OF FOODBORNE DISEASEFoodborne illness is defined as any illness incurred from the consumption of contaminated food.
CAUSATIVE AGENTS OF FOODBORNE DISEASERadionuclidesChemicalsFood AdditivesPoisonous Plants and AnimalsPathogens (Table 8-1)
Table 1a
Table 1b
RadionuclidesRadiation is introduced into the food chain naturally from mineral deposits beneath the earth’s surface or from the atmosphere in the form of ultraviolet and cosmic rays.
RadionuclidesRadionuclides, which are deposited in the environment accidentally, or intentionally, as a direct result of human activity are of much greater concern.ChernobylIndia vs. Pakistan
ChemicalsIronically, man is responsible for many chemical contaminants presently found in food. Between 80%-90% of our exposure to potentially harmful chemicals is from food consumption.
ChemicalsChemicals enter the food from packaging materials, agricultural applications of pesti ...
Effect of some organic acids on some fungal growth and their toxins productionijabjournal
The effect of eight organic acids (propionic, acetic, formic, lactic, tartaric, citric, oxalic and malic acids) as antifungal agents on the growth of four fungi (Aspergillus flavus, Penicillium purpurogenum, Rhizopus nigricans and Fusarium oxysporum) were studied. The high acidity appeared for oxalic acid being 0.14 at the high concentration (10%), while the lowest acidity recorded for propionic acid and acetic acid being 2.71 and 2.56 at the low concentration (5%). It was observed that, there was no relationship between the efficacy of organic acid and its final pH. Acetic acid (10%) has the highest inhibitory effect on A. flavus being 45.21%, but tartaric acid (5%) and citric acid (5%) gave the same lowest inhibition effect (0.42%).
The lowest value of mycelium dry weight (MDW) of P. purpurogenum was 5.92 g/l when acetic acid was
used (10%), but the highest value was 9.38 g/l when tartaric acid (5%) was used. Formic acid (10%) had a
strong effect on the inhibition growth of R. nigricans being 28.65%, similar to propionic acid (10%), acetic
acid (10%), lactic acid (10%), tartaric acid (10%) and citric acid (10%) being 26.57%, 26.38%, 26.19%,
23.53% and 24.48%, respectively. But malic acid (5%) and oxalic acid (5%) were having a week effect on
R. nigricans being 5.31% and 6.45%, respectively. Lactic acid (10%) has the highest inhibitory effect on F.
oxysporum being 34.45% and the lowest value was in the case of tartaric acid (5%) being 1.68%. Four
treatments were used to determine aflatoxin B1 production. The highest inhibition (50%) was observed by
R. nigricans in the presence of formic acid (10%). Acetic acid in 10% level inhibited the toxic secretion of
A. flavus and P. purpurogenum to become 25% and 40%, respectively. Lactic acid (10%) gave 35% inhibition of toxin production in the presence of F. oxysporum.
Deep Behavioral Phenotyping in Systems Neuroscience for Functional Atlasing a...Ana Luísa Pinho
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) provides means to characterize brain activations in response to behavior. However, cognitive neuroscience has been limited to group-level effects referring to the performance of specific tasks. To obtain the functional profile of elementary cognitive mechanisms, the combination of brain responses to many tasks is required. Yet, to date, both structural atlases and parcellation-based activations do not fully account for cognitive function and still present several limitations. Further, they do not adapt overall to individual characteristics. In this talk, I will give an account of deep-behavioral phenotyping strategies, namely data-driven methods in large task-fMRI datasets, to optimize functional brain-data collection and improve inference of effects-of-interest related to mental processes. Key to this approach is the employment of fast multi-functional paradigms rich on features that can be well parametrized and, consequently, facilitate the creation of psycho-physiological constructs to be modelled with imaging data. Particular emphasis will be given to music stimuli when studying high-order cognitive mechanisms, due to their ecological nature and quality to enable complex behavior compounded by discrete entities. I will also discuss how deep-behavioral phenotyping and individualized models applied to neuroimaging data can better account for the subject-specific organization of domain-general cognitive systems in the human brain. Finally, the accumulation of functional brain signatures brings the possibility to clarify relationships among tasks and create a univocal link between brain systems and mental functions through: (1) the development of ontologies proposing an organization of cognitive processes; and (2) brain-network taxonomies describing functional specialization. To this end, tools to improve commensurability in cognitive science are necessary, such as public repositories, ontology-based platforms and automated meta-analysis tools. I will thus discuss some brain-atlasing resources currently under development, and their applicability in cognitive as well as clinical neuroscience.
Multi-source connectivity as the driver of solar wind variability in the heli...Sérgio Sacani
The ambient solar wind that flls the heliosphere originates from multiple
sources in the solar corona and is highly structured. It is often described
as high-speed, relatively homogeneous, plasma streams from coronal
holes and slow-speed, highly variable, streams whose source regions are
under debate. A key goal of ESA/NASA’s Solar Orbiter mission is to identify
solar wind sources and understand what drives the complexity seen in the
heliosphere. By combining magnetic feld modelling and spectroscopic
techniques with high-resolution observations and measurements, we show
that the solar wind variability detected in situ by Solar Orbiter in March
2022 is driven by spatio-temporal changes in the magnetic connectivity to
multiple sources in the solar atmosphere. The magnetic feld footpoints
connected to the spacecraft moved from the boundaries of a coronal hole
to one active region (12961) and then across to another region (12957). This
is refected in the in situ measurements, which show the transition from fast
to highly Alfvénic then to slow solar wind that is disrupted by the arrival of
a coronal mass ejection. Our results describe solar wind variability at 0.5 au
but are applicable to near-Earth observatories.
A brief information about the SCOP protein database used in bioinformatics.
The Structural Classification of Proteins (SCOP) database is a comprehensive and authoritative resource for the structural and evolutionary relationships of proteins. It provides a detailed and curated classification of protein structures, grouping them into families, superfamilies, and folds based on their structural and sequence similarities.
Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate PathwayAADYARAJPANDEY1
Normal Cell Metabolism:
Cellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function.
Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released.
Cell utilize energy in the form of ATP.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is formed during this process.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
The last step in the breakdown of glucose is called oxidative phosphorylation (Ox-Phos).
It takes place in specialized cell structures called mitochondria. This process produces a large amount of ATP. Importantly, cells need oxygen to complete oxidative phosphorylation.
If a cell completes only glycolysis, only 2 molecules of ATP are made per glucose. However, if the cell completes the entire respiration process (glycolysis - Kreb's - oxidative phosphorylation), about 36 molecules of ATP are created, giving it much more energy to use.
IN CANCER CELL:
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
introduction to WARBERG PHENOMENA:
WARBURG EFFECT Usually, cancer cells are highly glycolytic (glucose addiction) and take up more glucose than do normal cells from outside.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970) In 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
WARNBURG EFFECT : cancer cells under aerobic (well-oxygenated) conditions to metabolize glucose to lactate (aerobic glycolysis) is known as the Warburg effect. Warburg made the observation that tumor slices consume glucose and secrete lactate at a higher rate than normal tissues.
Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
1. Mycotoxins = Toxic metabolites of fungi.
Mycotoxins contaminate the wide variety of food
as a result of fungal infection in crops, during
growth or in storage.
Mycotoxins
Chandra Prakash Singh - Analytical Diligence Services
2. Mycotoxins Main Producing Fungi
Aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, G2 Aspergillus flavus, A.
parasiticus, A. nomius
Ochratoxin A Penicillium verrucosum, A.
alutaceus, A.carbonarius
Patulin P. expansum, A. clavatus,
Byssochlamys nivea
Fumonisins Fusarium moniliforme, F.
proliferatum
Deoxynivalenol
(trichothecenes)
F. graminearum, F. culmorum,
F. crookwellense
Zearalenone F. graminearum, F. culmorum,
F. crookwellense
In summary: 6 major chemical types of mycotoxins
Chandra Prakash Singh - Analytical Diligence Services
3. The name Aflatoxin comes from
A (Aspergillus)
FLA (flavus)
toxin.
Aflatoxins
Chandra Prakash Singh - Analytical Diligence Services
4. Aflatoxins are a group of structurally related toxic
secondary metabolites produced by three species:
Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus parasiticus and the rare
species A. nomius (Kurtzman et aL., 1987) and known to
be highly toxic and potential carcinogens.
Aflatoxins were first identified in 1961 in animal feed
contaminated by Aspergillus parasiticus (Sargeant et al.,
1961).
Aflatoxins
Chandra Prakash Singh - Analytical Diligence Services
5. The things which evoke scientist to study Aflatoxin
Consequently, more than five billion people in
developing country worldwide are at risk of chronic
exposure to Aflatoxins through contaminated foods
and medicinal plants. Aflatoxin-associated health
effects pervade the developing world.
Aflatoxins are the only mycotoxins currently
regulated by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration.
Chandra Prakash Singh - Analytical Diligence Services
6. According to International Agency for Research on
Cancer(IARC), Evidence of acute aflatoxicosis in
humans has been reported from many parts of the
world, namely the Third World Countries, like Taiwan,
Ouganda, India, and many others. And In 1988, the
IARC placed aflatoxin B1 on the list of human
carcinogens.
This is supported by a number of epidemiological
studies done in Asia and Africa that have demonstrated
a positive association between dietary aflatoxins and
Liver Cell Cancer (LCC).
Chandra Prakash Singh - Analytical Diligence Services
7. Studies have shown that concurrent infection with the
Hepatitis B virus (HBV) during aflatoxin exposure
increases the risk of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC).
As HBV interferes with the ability of hepatocytes to
metabolize aflatoxins, an aflatoxin M1-DNA conjugate
exists for a longer period of time in the liver, increasing
the probability of damage to tumor suppressor genes
such as p53.
Chandra Prakash Singh - Analytical Diligence Services
8. FAO estimates, 25% of the world food crops are
affected by mycotoxins each year.
Crop loss due to aflatoxins contamination costs US
producers more than $100 million per year on average
including $ 26 millions to peanuts ($69.34/ha).
Chandra Prakash Singh - Analytical Diligence Services
9. Food products contaminated with aflatoxins include
Cereal (maize, sorghum, pearl millet, rice, wheat),
Oil seeds (groundnut, soybean, sunflower, cotton),
Spices (chillies, black pepper, coriander, turmeric,
zinger),
Tree nuts (almonds, pistachio, walnuts, coconut)
Natural occurrence of Aflatoxin
Chandra Prakash Singh - Analytical Diligence Services
12. The aflatoxin-producing Aspergillus species, and
consequently dietary aflatoxin contamination, are
ubiquitous in are as of the world with hot, humid
climates, including sub-Saharan Africa and
Southeast Asia. Exposure in those countries results
from contamination of dietary staples and is
therefore likely to be chronic.
Geographical Occurrence
Chandra Prakash Singh - Analytical Diligence Services
13. Origin No. of lots Lots %
Determinable > 26µ g/kg
China 2585 15 2.5
India 1453 92 58.0
Sudan 932 94 78.0
Argentina 446 40 4.0
South Africa 112 41 95.0
Malawi 80 60 2.0
FAO/WO/UNEP Monitoring Program: Afatoxins in raw,
shelled groundnuts imported into the USA, 1981
Chandra Prakash Singh - Analytical Diligence Services
14. It is probably not possible to eliminate completely
exposure of humans to aflatoxins.
In 1987, at least 50 countries had existing or
proposed regulations for aflatoxins in foodstuffs. And
the maximum limits range from none detectable to 50
µg/kg of food for either the sum of Aflatoxins B1, B2,
G1 and G2 or for Aflatoxin B1 alone; 5 µg/kg is the
commonest maximal limit.
Regulations and guidelines
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15. ln 1987, aflatoxin M1 levels in dairy products were
regulated in 14 countries. The tolerances in infants' and
children's food were 0.05-0.5 µg/kg milk.
Aflatoxins were reviewed by a joint FAO/WHO
Expert Committee on Food Additives in 1987 (WHO,
1987).
No acceptable daily intake was given; it was
recommended that human intake be reduced to the
lowest practicable level.
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16. 20 ppb For corn and other grains intended for immature
animals (including immature poultry) and for dairy
animals, or when its destination is not known;
20 ppb For animal feeds, other than corn or cottonseed
meal;
100 ppb For corn and other grains intended for breeding
beef cattle, breeding swine, or mature poultry;
200 ppb For corn and other grains intended for finishing
swine of 100 pounds or greater;
200 ppb For corn and other grains intended for finishing (i.e.
feedlot) beef cattle and for cottonseed meal
intended for beef cattle, swine or poultry.
The FDA will consider action if Aflatoxin levels exceed
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17. Aflatoxins are normally refers to the group of
difuranocoumarins and classified in two broad groups
according to their chemical structure.
A. Difurocoumarocyclopentenone series (AFB1, AFB2,
AFB2A, AFM1, AFM2, AFM2A and aflatoxicol)
B. Difurocoumarolactone series (AFG1, AFG2, AFG2A,
AFGM1, AFGM2, AFGM2A and AFB3).
Aflatoxins and its Physio-chemical dimensions
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18. Main type
Aflatoxin B1
Aflatoxin B2
Aflatoxin G1
Aflatoxin G2
Major metabolites of Aflatoxin B1
Aflatoxin M1
Aflatoxin D1
Aflatoxin P1
Aflatoxin Q1
Aflatoxin M2
Aflatoxin B2a
Aflatoxicol
Aflatoxicol H1
Aflatoxcol M1
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19. The relative proportions of Aflatoxin B1, Aflatoxin G1,
Aflatoxin B2 and Aflatoxin G2 on crops depend on the
particular Aspergillus species present.
A. flavus produces aflatoxins B1 and B2, whereas
A. parasiticus produces aflatoxins B1, B2, G1 and G2
(Dorner et al., 1984).
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23. Very slightly soluble in water (10-30 µg/ml)
Insoluble in non-polar solvents
Freely soluble in moderately polar organic solvents
(e.g., chloroform and methanol)
Especially in dimethyl sulfoxide.
Unstable to ultraviolet light in the presence of oxygen,
to extremes of pH (< 3, >10) and to oxidizing agents.
Solubility
Stability
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24. The lactone ring is susceptible to alkaline hydrolysis.
Aflatoxins are also degraded by reaction with ammonia
or sodium hypochlorite.
Reactivity
Structurally the dihydrofuran moiety, containing double
bond, and the constituents liked to the coumarin moiety
are of importance in producing biological effects.
Biological effects
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25. “No animal species is resistant to the acute toxic effects
of aflatoxins; hence it is logical to assume that humans
may be similarly affected.”
The aflatoxins display potency of toxicity,
carcinogenicity, mutagenicity in the order of AFB1 >
AFG1 > AFB2 > AFG2 as illustrated by their LD50
values for day-old ducklings.
Life-threatening effect of Aflatoxins and its mechanism
Chandra Prakash Singh - Analytical Diligence Services
26. 1. Liver damage 2. Liver necrosis
3. Liver cirrhosis 4. Fever
5. Progressive jaundice 6. Limb swelling
7. Pain Vomiting 8. Enlarged liver
Symptoms of Aflatoxin B1 exposure
Aflatoxicosis in humans
The syndrome is characterized by vomiting, abdominal
pain, pulmonary edema, convulsions, coma, and death
with cerebral edema and fatty involvement of the liver,
kidneys, and heart.
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27. Schematic representation of AFB1 metabolism highlighting the
formation of its critical product AFB1-exo-8,9-epoxide, its DNA-
and protein adducts and major urinary metabolites.
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28. Farming Storage Processing
Transport
Distribution
Retail
Consumer
ENVIRONMENT
Natural Toxins
Mycotoxins
Veterinary
drugs
Mycotoxins
/ Aflatoxin
In situ formation
due to heat, pH,
etc.
Migration
from
packaging
Heat-induced
carcinogens
e.g. heterocyclic
aromatic amines,
acrylamide
Routes of Aflatoxin contamination
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30. Timing of planting;
Crop planted;
Genotype of seed planted;
Irrigation;
Insecticides;
Competitive exclusion;
Timing of harvest;
Pre-Harvest
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31. Hand sorting
Drying on mats
Sun drying
Rodent control
Storing bags on
wooden pallets or
elevated off ground
Insecticides
Post-Harvest: Drying & Storage
Hand sorting
Winnowing
Washing
Nixtamalization
Acidification
Chemoprotectant
Enterosorption
Crushing and dehulling
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32. Thanks for your attention
Analytical Diligence Services
analyticaldiligenceservices@gmail.com
singhprakash06@gmail.com
Special thanks
to
Mr. Rajesh Garg, Mrs. Anurekha Jain and all BRNCOP family
B.R. Nahata College of Pharmacy, Mandsaur (M.P) 458001
&
Ashwagandha Technology Development & Extension Center
National Medicinal Plant Board, Department of AYUSH, GOI