4/22/12 Washingtonpost.com: New York Art Show in a Heap of Controversy
1/4www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/national/daily/sept99/brooklyn24.htm
On The Web
The Brooklyn
Museum of Art
New York Art Show in a Heap of Controversy
By Paula Span
Washington Post Staff Writer
Friday, September 24, 1999; Page C1
NEW YORK, Sept. 23—He's particularly outraged, Mayor Rudolph
Giuliani has said, by a collage of the Virgin Mary dotted with elephant
dung. He isn't impressed by the pickled pig carcasses, either. And he's
taken dead aim at the Brooklyn Museum of Art: It will lose $7 million
in city funds, he warns, unless it cancels a "sick" exhibit of British
works scheduled to open next week.
But the museum has vowed that the show will proceed regardless.
And all the usual parties--outraged defenders of religion, infuriated
civil libertarians, art world types rolling their eyes--are taking up their
now-accustomed positions. The Culture Wars have flared anew, this
time in a city that likes to think it's above such things and a state where
the jousting may draw in would-be senator Hillary Rodham Clinton.
"Sensation: Young British Artists From the Saatchi Collection," which
has already drawn throngs in London and Berlin, always aimed to be
provocative. Its 90 works include a rotting cow's head and a shark
preserved in a tank of formaldehyde, both by internationally known
take-that artist Damien Hirst, another artist's sculpture made from his
own frozen blood, and a portrait of a convicted child murderer
fashioned from what look like tiny handprints. The Brooklyn
Museum's ad agency came up with a cheerful mock "health warning"
that's run in several publications and is slated to appear on city buses
and in a half-page New York Times ad: "The contents of this
exhibition may cause shock, vomiting, confusion, panic, euphoria and
anxiety."
But shock and confusion arose earlier than expected, once a Daily
News story brought the show to the attention of the combative mayor.
The City of New York provides almost a third of the Brooklyn
Museum's $23 million annual operating budget, and Giuliani has
announced that its monthly check won't be in the mail on Oct. 1 as
long as "Sensation" remains on the calendar. Giuliani's probable
opponent in next year's Senate race had nothing to say on the subject
today, but the mayor had plenty.
When a reporter asked Giuliani at his regular news briefing
Wednesday whether the exhibit was offensive, he let fly. "Well, it
offends me," he said. "The idea, in the name of art, of having a city-
4/22/12 Washingtonpost.com: New York Art Show in a Heap of Controversy
2/4www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/national/daily/sept99/brooklyn24.htm
subsidized building have so-called works of art in which people are
throwing elephant dung at a picture of the Virgin Mary is sick. If
someone wants to do that privately and pay for it privately, that's what
the First Amendment is all about. . . . But to have the government
subsidize something like t.
The Sensation exhibition at the Brooklyn Museum of Art in 1999 featured controversial works that sparked intense debate. The exhibition included Marcus Harvey's portrait of Myra Hindley made from children's handprints and Chris Ofili's depiction of the Virgin Mary adorned with elephant dung. New York City Mayor Giuliani strongly condemned Ofili's work and threatened to cut funding to the museum if it was not removed. Supporters viewed the works as challenging art while critics saw them as disrespectful of religion. The media coverage intensified the controversy.
The Sensation exhibition at the Brooklyn Museum of Art in 1999 featured controversial works that sparked intense debate. The exhibition included Marcus Harvey's portrait of Myra Hindley made from children's handprints and Chris Ofili's depiction of the Virgin Mary adorned with elephant dung. New York City Mayor Giuliani strongly condemned Ofili's work and threatened to cut funding to the museum if it was not removed. Supporters viewed the works as challenging art while critics saw them as disrespectful of religion. The media coverage intensified the controversy.
The Sensation exhibition at the Brooklyn Museum of Art in 1999 featured controversial works that sparked intense debate. The exhibition included Marcus Harvey's portrait of Myra Hindley made from children's handprints and Chris Ofili's depiction of the Virgin Mary adorned with elephant dung. New York City Mayor Giuliani strongly condemned Ofili's work and threatened to cut funding to the museum if it was not removed. Supporters viewed the works as challenging art while critics saw them as disrespectful of religion. The media coverage intensified the controversy.
In 1990, Johannes Vermeer's painting "The Concert" was stolen from the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum in Boston and has yet to be recovered, making it the highest valued stolen painting. Art theft has become the third largest illicit trade after drugs and arms, generating $6-8 billion annually. A 2014 meeting at New York University Law School discussed "art crime and cultural heritage" and uncovered that each year 5-100,000 works of art are stolen, with only 10% ever recovered, showing the scale of global art crime.
Girolamo Savonarola was a Dominican friar in 15th century Florence who began preaching against the corruption of Renaissance culture and the ruling Medici family. He developed a large following that temporarily expelled the Medici from power and reorganized Florence's government. Savonarola organized "Bonfires of the Vanities" to destroy works believed to promote an unchristian lifestyle, and was eventually executed in 1498.
Hist. 141 ass. 3 american urbanization and new york citychelseagoggin
American urbanization and New York City's rise in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Between 1870-1914, over 23 million immigrants arrived in the US, many settling in cities where factories and construction provided jobs. New York City's leaders helped it dominate the national economy by building infrastructure like the Erie Canal and establishing industries. New York continued to capture economic gains from other regions, like steel from Pittsburgh and oil from Houston. By the early 20th century, New York had become the nation's economic center, exemplified by landmarks like the Woolworth Building completed in 1913.
The Chicago Renaissance turn of 20th c.-1960s(ish)a ga.docxmamanda2
The Chicago Renaissance: turn of 20th c.-1960s(ish)
“a gathering of writers, a flowering of institutions that supported and guided them, and the outpouring of writing they produced”
http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/257.html
*
Chicago in the 1890s—Setting the Stage for the Renaissance
*
Historical significance of the World's Columbian Exposition
The second half of the 19th century was an age of fairs and expositions held in London, Paris, and other great cities throughout the world. The World's Columbian Exposition, held in Chicago in 1893, was the first critically and economically successful U.S. world's fair. Conceived as a celebration of the 400th anniversary of Columbus' landing in the new world, the Exposition held a near-mythological appeal for people of the time.
The Columbian Exposition showcased a city just 60 years old, a city magnificently reborn just 22 years after the Chicago Fire. It also placed before the world the genius of Chicago architects Daniel Burnham, Frederick Law Olmsted, and Louis Sullivan. In effect, the Columbian Exposition was Chicago's debut on a world stage as a locus of great architecture and burgeoning economic power.
http://columbus.gl.iit.edu/index.html
*
"The exterior of the gigantic bubble of glass and iron that rises over the central pavilion of Horticultural Hall has already been shown in these plates, and here we are admitted into the luxurious tropical garden that flourishes in the interior. Here in a great space of light and air may be seen a miniature mountain covered with strange foliage and with a little stream dashing down its sides, great tubs of palms and tree ferns, bamboos, century plants, "elk horns," a miniature Japanese garden, bridges and all, and shady, inviting nooks, in which the tourisht may find picturesque rest - much as the painter has here shown." Art & Architecture (the White City Edition)
*
The Chicago Defender, 1905
The Chicago Defender, which was founded by Robert S. Abbott on May 5, 1905, once heralded itself as "The World's Greatest Weekly." The newspaper was the nation's most influential black weekly newspaper by the advent of World War I, with more than two thirds of its readership base located outside of Chicago.
As a northern paper, The Defender had more freedom to denounce issues outright, and its editorial position was very militant, attacking racial inequities head-on. The Defender did not use the words "Negro" or "black" in its pages. Instead, African Americans were referred to as "the Race" and black men and women as "Race men and Race women.“
During World War I The Chicago Defender waged its most aggressive (and successful) campaign in support of "The Great Migration" movement. This movement resulted in over one and a half million southern blacks migrating to the North between 1915-1925.
*
,
Richard Wright, born 1908
Native Son, 1940
Black Boy, 1945
*
Harriet Monroe and Poetry, 1912
The word "Imagiste" a.
The Sensation exhibition at the Brooklyn Museum of Art in 1999 featured controversial works that sparked intense debate. The exhibition included Marcus Harvey's portrait of Myra Hindley made from children's handprints and Chris Ofili's depiction of the Virgin Mary adorned with elephant dung. New York City Mayor Giuliani strongly condemned Ofili's work and threatened to cut funding to the museum if it was not removed. Supporters viewed the works as challenging art while critics saw them as disrespectful of religion. The media coverage intensified the controversy.
The Sensation exhibition at the Brooklyn Museum of Art in 1999 featured controversial works that sparked intense debate. The exhibition included Marcus Harvey's portrait of Myra Hindley made from children's handprints and Chris Ofili's depiction of the Virgin Mary adorned with elephant dung. New York City Mayor Giuliani strongly condemned Ofili's work and threatened to cut funding to the museum if it was not removed. Supporters viewed the works as challenging art while critics saw them as disrespectful of religion. The media coverage intensified the controversy.
The Sensation exhibition at the Brooklyn Museum of Art in 1999 featured controversial works that sparked intense debate. The exhibition included Marcus Harvey's portrait of Myra Hindley made from children's handprints and Chris Ofili's depiction of the Virgin Mary adorned with elephant dung. New York City Mayor Giuliani strongly condemned Ofili's work and threatened to cut funding to the museum if it was not removed. Supporters viewed the works as challenging art while critics saw them as disrespectful of religion. The media coverage intensified the controversy.
In 1990, Johannes Vermeer's painting "The Concert" was stolen from the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum in Boston and has yet to be recovered, making it the highest valued stolen painting. Art theft has become the third largest illicit trade after drugs and arms, generating $6-8 billion annually. A 2014 meeting at New York University Law School discussed "art crime and cultural heritage" and uncovered that each year 5-100,000 works of art are stolen, with only 10% ever recovered, showing the scale of global art crime.
Girolamo Savonarola was a Dominican friar in 15th century Florence who began preaching against the corruption of Renaissance culture and the ruling Medici family. He developed a large following that temporarily expelled the Medici from power and reorganized Florence's government. Savonarola organized "Bonfires of the Vanities" to destroy works believed to promote an unchristian lifestyle, and was eventually executed in 1498.
Hist. 141 ass. 3 american urbanization and new york citychelseagoggin
American urbanization and New York City's rise in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Between 1870-1914, over 23 million immigrants arrived in the US, many settling in cities where factories and construction provided jobs. New York City's leaders helped it dominate the national economy by building infrastructure like the Erie Canal and establishing industries. New York continued to capture economic gains from other regions, like steel from Pittsburgh and oil from Houston. By the early 20th century, New York had become the nation's economic center, exemplified by landmarks like the Woolworth Building completed in 1913.
The Chicago Renaissance turn of 20th c.-1960s(ish)a ga.docxmamanda2
The Chicago Renaissance: turn of 20th c.-1960s(ish)
“a gathering of writers, a flowering of institutions that supported and guided them, and the outpouring of writing they produced”
http://www.encyclopedia.chicagohistory.org/pages/257.html
*
Chicago in the 1890s—Setting the Stage for the Renaissance
*
Historical significance of the World's Columbian Exposition
The second half of the 19th century was an age of fairs and expositions held in London, Paris, and other great cities throughout the world. The World's Columbian Exposition, held in Chicago in 1893, was the first critically and economically successful U.S. world's fair. Conceived as a celebration of the 400th anniversary of Columbus' landing in the new world, the Exposition held a near-mythological appeal for people of the time.
The Columbian Exposition showcased a city just 60 years old, a city magnificently reborn just 22 years after the Chicago Fire. It also placed before the world the genius of Chicago architects Daniel Burnham, Frederick Law Olmsted, and Louis Sullivan. In effect, the Columbian Exposition was Chicago's debut on a world stage as a locus of great architecture and burgeoning economic power.
http://columbus.gl.iit.edu/index.html
*
"The exterior of the gigantic bubble of glass and iron that rises over the central pavilion of Horticultural Hall has already been shown in these plates, and here we are admitted into the luxurious tropical garden that flourishes in the interior. Here in a great space of light and air may be seen a miniature mountain covered with strange foliage and with a little stream dashing down its sides, great tubs of palms and tree ferns, bamboos, century plants, "elk horns," a miniature Japanese garden, bridges and all, and shady, inviting nooks, in which the tourisht may find picturesque rest - much as the painter has here shown." Art & Architecture (the White City Edition)
*
The Chicago Defender, 1905
The Chicago Defender, which was founded by Robert S. Abbott on May 5, 1905, once heralded itself as "The World's Greatest Weekly." The newspaper was the nation's most influential black weekly newspaper by the advent of World War I, with more than two thirds of its readership base located outside of Chicago.
As a northern paper, The Defender had more freedom to denounce issues outright, and its editorial position was very militant, attacking racial inequities head-on. The Defender did not use the words "Negro" or "black" in its pages. Instead, African Americans were referred to as "the Race" and black men and women as "Race men and Race women.“
During World War I The Chicago Defender waged its most aggressive (and successful) campaign in support of "The Great Migration" movement. This movement resulted in over one and a half million southern blacks migrating to the North between 1915-1925.
*
,
Richard Wright, born 1908
Native Son, 1940
Black Boy, 1945
*
Harriet Monroe and Poetry, 1912
The word "Imagiste" a.
CULTUREWARSDocuments from the Recent Controversies OllieShoresna
CULTURE
WARS
Documents from
the Recent Controversies
in the Arts
Edited by
RICHARD BOLTON
NEW PRESS
New York
Preface
Philip Brookman
O
n June 14, 1989, The Washington Post reported that the Corcoran Gallery
of Art in Washington, D.C., had canceled their planned exhibition of
Robert Mapplethorpe: The Perfect Moment. According to the Post, the museum’s
trustees had abruptly changed their agenda to avoid becoming involved in a
growing political debate over the sexual content of the artist’s work. Apparently,
they feared that the exhibition would jeopardize the upcoming congressional
reauthorization of the National Endowment for the Arts (NEA), a federal agency
that had partially funded the show. Their decision changed the course of arts
funding in 1990s.
At the time, I was working as a curator at Washington Project for the Arts, a
nonprofit, experimental gallery in the nation’s capital. I had been following
closely the political debates over arts funding and content, and the specific
controversies that were beginning to engulf the art world. The country was
moving into an election year, and certain politicians seemed ready to exploit a
handful of artists and their work in order to capture the attention of the
electorate. These artists, who had received NEA funding, directly or indirectly,
had struck a raw nerve in Congress and in some segments of the public: federal
money, it was thought, should not support the creation and exhibition of ideas
that questioned the status quo.
Between 1985 and 1990, artists were increasingly confronted by government
agencies and special interest groups for creating work that some considered to
be obscene, pornographic, blasphemous, politically motivated, or degrading of
national symbols. Those artists — whose work addressed specific social issues
such as war, economics, racism, environmental concerns, immigration, multi
culturalism, gender representations, sexuality, and AIDS — and by extension
their sponsors (the NEA, state arts councils, foundations, museums, and so on),
were criticized in Congress and the national media for the content of their
outspoken work. For example, Representative Richard Armey (R-Tex.), a
vociferous critic who tried to eliminate the NEA, admonished the agency in
1985 for funding gay-oriented literary journals. In response, the arts community
began to question congressional criticism, arguing that any attempt to legislate
the content of work that qualified for federal funding was tantamount to
censorship. Armey’s response: “This is not a matter of censorship, it is a matter
of judgement, of values.”1 Arguments about symbolic speech and public moral
ity politicized the issue of arts patronage.
Less than four years later, the NEA again came under attack from members
of Congress, and from a handful of confrontational religious groups, led by
Reverend Donald Wildmon, executive director of the American Family Associ
ation (AFA) in Tupelo, Miss ...
Appendix B: Erin Riggins, “Stateside Modern: Marguerite Zorach and the American Modernists,” Visual Essay Exhibition Project for American Modernism: Alfred Stieglitz’s America, Fall 2017
The California Midwinter International Exposition, San Francisco, 1894DoctorSequoia
This document provides an overview of the California Midwinter International Exposition held in San Francisco in 1894. It summarizes the key events and people involved in planning the exposition in just 7 months, led by newspaper publisher Michael de Young. The exposition featured over 180 structures built in a variety of architectural styles from around the world, clustered around the Grand Court of Honor. Major buildings highlighted the industries, arts, and agriculture of California and participating countries. The exposition aimed to boost San Francisco's economy and culture and showcase it on a global stage.
The Brooklyn Bridge was built in the late 1800s to connect New York City to Brooklyn as the city was expanding rapidly. It took 14 years to complete due to financial and construction challenges but became a symbol of New York City when it opened in 1883. Boss Tweed was a corrupt New York City politician in the late 1800s who defrauded taxpayers of millions through real estate schemes. The Statue of Liberty was originally offered as a gift from France in 1875 but financial issues delayed its construction and unveiling in New York Harbor until 1886.
New York City: The Crossroad of World TradeKristi Beria
1) New York City struggled to remain the economic and cultural center of America but was able to capitalize on developments in other cities. The merger of AOL and Time Warner helped keep New York's headquarters and status.
2) Chicago grew rapidly in the late 19th century, pioneering skyscrapers and urban design. The 1893 World's Fair transformed the city's landscape and civic identity.
3) New York's population exploded in the early and mid-19th century due to immigration and the Erie Canal, leading to overcrowding and slum conditions. Tensions rose during economic crises and the Civil War draft.
The Pop Art Movement began in the 1950s in Britain and the US and lasted until the late 1960s. It featured bold, colorful works depicting popular culture and mass media imagery. A key work was Andy Warhol's 1962 painting Marilyn Diptych, which depicted Marilyn Monroe. The movement reflected the increasing influence of advertising, celebrities, and consumerism in postwar Western culture. While initially popular, it declined as the Vietnam War intensified and social values shifted in the late 1960s.
The document discusses the urbanization of New York City during the early 20th century. Specifically, it describes (1) New York's emergence as a glamorous and culturally diverse city during the 1920s 2nd Industrial Revolution, which marked the birth of modern American culture; (2) the stock market crash of 1929 known as "Black Tuesday" that spread worldwide; and (3) how advertising and music like jazz flourished in New York during this time period as the city grew into a cosmopolitan center.
1. Throughout history, visual art has played an important role in documenting conflict and resistance against those seeking to control others.
2. In China, art was historically used to convey political messages, though contemporary Chinese artists now operate on the margins of society to avoid government censorship and pressure.
3. The recent disappearance and arrest of dissident Chinese artist Ai Weiwei and his associates illustrate the Chinese government's ongoing censorship of political expressions that challenge its control.
This document summarizes online resources for researching auction sales and sellers of artworks, including:
1) Auction catalogs from the 1700s to present in the Watsonline and Art Sales Catalogues Online databases, providing bibliographic and full-text records.
2) The SCIPIO database containing over 300,000 auction catalog citations from the 1500s to present.
3) Indexes like ArtNet, AskART, and Art Fact Pro providing information on recent auction sales.
4) Newspaper archives like the Times Digital Archive and New York Times to research past owners and auction sales.
The New Mexico Museum of Art has been selected to receive 50 works of art from the Dorothy and Herbert Vogel Collection as part of a program to distribute their collection of 2,500 contemporary art works to institutions across the United States. The museum will receive drawings, paintings, sculptures, photographs, and prints by over 170 artists representing different movements from the post-minimalist period. An exhibition of the works from the Vogel Collection will be held at the museum in 2010.
The document provides an overview of life in the United States during the 1920s, known as the Jazz Age. It discusses the rise of consumerism driven by new technologies like cars and appliances. Mass culture expanded through radio, movies, and music like jazz. Social and cultural conflicts emerged, such as Prohibition, immigration restrictions, and the resurgence of the Ku Klux Klan. Politically, Republican presidents like Harding and Coolidge pursued business-friendly policies emphasizing tax cuts, spending reductions, and protectionist tariffs. The overall period was marked by economic prosperity and widespread social change.
This document discusses the paradox of how the Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) in New York excluded women artists in its early exhibitions and collections, despite several influential women playing key roles in its founding. While MoMA aimed to showcase modern art, it presented an incomplete view that disappeared the significant contributions of women artists. The document analyzes how modernism and notions of gender were intimately linked, yet MoMA promoted a universalizing vision of modern art as predominantly a masculine domain, excluding the diversity of women's experiences and participation in shaping modern culture.
Between 1870 and World War 1, factors like steam-powered transportation, lack of legal restrictions on migration, agricultural development opportunities in the New World, and industrialization promoted large-scale migration from Europe to places like the United States. Many migrants found jobs in factories, mines, construction, or skilled trades and services in cities undergoing rapid industrialization and commercial expansion, such as Chicago, which was the fastest growing city in the U.S. and possibly the world in the late 1800s as it transformed through industry and held the 1893 World's Fair that demonstrated how urban design could civilize a downtown area.
Between 1870 and World War 1, factors like steam-powered transportation, lack of legal restrictions on migration, agricultural development opportunities in the New World, and industrialization promoted large-scale migration from Europe to places like the United States. Many migrants found jobs in factories, mines, construction, or skilled trades and services in cities undergoing rapid industrialization and commercial expansion, such as Chicago, which was the fastest growing city in the U.S. and possibly the world in the late 1800s as it transformed through industry and held the 1893 World's Fair that demonstrated how urban design could civilize a downtown area.
Art1100 LVA 21_4 American Modernism onlineDan Gunn
The document discusses several American art movements from the early 20th century including Regionalism, Modernism, and the Harlem Renaissance. It provides background on Regionalist artists like Grant Wood and Thomas Hart Benton who depicted rural Midwest scenes. It also summarizes the influential 1913 Armory Show which introduced Modernist works to American audiences and the role of Alfred Stieglitz in promoting Modernism through his 291 gallery in New York City, giving early exhibitions to Georgia O'Keeffe and Marsden Hartley among others. Finally, it outlines the Harlem Renaissance period when talented African American artists and thinkers produced prominent works in Harlem amid the Great Migration and New Negro movement.
· Present a discussion of what team is. What type(s) of team do .docxalinainglis
· Present a discussion of what team is. What type(s) of team do you have in your organization?
· What is meant by the “internal processes” of a team? Why is it important to manage both the internal processes and external opportunities/constraints of a team?
Note: It should contain 3 pages with citation included and References should be in APA format
.
· Presentation of your project. Prepare a PowerPoint with 8 slid.docxalinainglis
· Presentation of your project. Prepare a PowerPoint with 8 slides illustrating the role in Interdisciplinary care for our aging population (Outcome 1,2,3,4,5) (6 hours).
Make sure it has nursing diagnosis
make sure it's a APA STYLE
make sure it has reference
.
· Prepare a research proposal, mentioning a specific researchabl.docxalinainglis
· Prepare a research proposal, mentioning a specific researchable title, background, Review of literature, research questions and objectives, methodology, resources and references.
· Prepare the Gant Chart to indicate the timescale for completing the proposal
RESEARCH PROPOSAL OUTLINE
1. Title
2. Background (introduction)
3. Review of literature
4. Research Questions & objectives
5. Methodology
4.1 Research Design
4.2 Participants
4.3 Techniques
4.4 Ethical Considerations
6. Time scale (Gantt chart)
7. Resources
8. References
.
· Previous professional experiences that have had a profound.docxalinainglis
· Previous professional experiences that have had a profound effect:
Before I started college, my parents wanted me to excel in healthcare knowing its high demand. The path to health care and eventual employment in a notable hospital setting seemed less risky than the one of Art and design. A few networking events and some LinkedIn leads later I came across an opportunity to start a Biomedical Engineering startup in South Florida with two investors willing to mentor me in a field I wasn’t familiar with. Luckily this new venture I was undertaking had a somewhat speculative risk. I made sure they were mostly in my favor thanks to the connections my investors had in the industry, and my background in health care. My hard work and diligence paid off slowly teaching myself the mechanics of the industry through the engineers we would hire. I remember watching how they would calibrate medical devices from pumps to life-saving equipment in awe. And with the same tenacity absorbing all the medical jargon in the Biomed world. I was adamant about doing my best and being the best even if that meant leaving my creative dreams behind. We started the business almost four years ago as a small minority women-owned business in the corner of a business complex. Five biomedical engineers and six technicians later we are still scaling and have since expanded our office from that small corner to the entire business building. Currently, we are a nationally recognized Biomed and medical supply company for some of the largest healthcare facilities in both the civilian and government sector. Yet through out all the achievement I felt the only sense of raw passion was when I collaborated with my engineers in delivering problem solving services to the hospital we served. Their job was to service devices in a hospital at a micro level and I would bridge that gap by identifying problems and finding opportunities in product service at a large-scale. Working hand in hand with the engineers in articulating the hospital need for turnover I would use design through projective process in creating a plan that would work in the most practical sense.
This moment of free creative problem solving was the highlight of my job. It gave me an opportunity to realize that although at times my approach was unconventional it would work. My systematic methodology I had adapted from working with engineers and my innate out of the box idea would come to together to solve some of the most challenging issues. Little did I know that this minor stroke of self-awareness would one day have me consider architecture.
Your current strengths and weaknesses in reaching your goal.
I realized my creative talents in design could not flourish under the pressures of work. I would constantly leave the office feeling drained in a profession my heart was not set on. In this I learned my weakness was how far I was willing to neglect the urge for creativity, and in exchange it jeopardized my sense of purpos.
· Please select ONE of the following questions and write a 200-wor.docxalinainglis
· Please select ONE of the following questions and write a 200-word discussion.
1. The Federal Reserve Board has enormous power over people's lives with its power to set and influence policy that determines monetary policy in the United States. Do you think this is proper for a democracy to provide the FED with so such power? How is the FED held accountable?
2. Do you believe that the roles of government should change from era to era, or should the US determine the proper role of government and try to maintain it through the ages?
3. Explain Executive Power in the US Constitution and briefly the process by which it developed over the years. Do you think the Framers should have been more specific about the powers of the presidency? Should the country try to make it more specific today?
· Please read the discussions below and write a 100 to 150 words respond for each discussion.
1. (question 1) I do believe that this is proper for a democracy to provided such power to FED. Without the FED the economy would face two problem, which are recessions that can lead into depressions, and inflation. The FED needs to have power to endures the country will not fall into economic trouble. In class professor McWeeney stated that the FED has the power to increase interest rates to control inflation, and the power to decrease interest rates so that theres more money in the economy to create more business and jobs so there wont be a recession. The FED needs these power to try to put the economy in a sweet spot. The FED is held accountable to the government and public. The FED does this by being transparent and giving and annual report to congress.
2. (question 2) I believe that the roles of the government should be changed from era to era. My main reason the roles should be changed is because major changes are constantly happening in the field of law. For example, the progressive era and modern era had several economic reforms that had taken place including increased regulation, anti-trust activity, application of an income tax, raise on social insurance programs, etc. Throughout this time, the government gave women the right to vote. I believe the economy is growing rapidly due to employment relationships, better technology, education, new polices, social and economic changes. This is the reason why the roles of the government should be changed from era to era.
Communicating professionally and ethically is one of the
essential skill sets we can teach you at Strayer. The following
guidelines will ensure:
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· You give credit to others in your work
Visit Strayer’s Academic Integrity Center for more information.
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� Include page numbers.
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· Please use Firefox for access to cronometer.com16 ye.docxalinainglis
· Please use
Firefox
for access to
cronometer.com
16 years old Female. Born on 01/05/2005. Height 5’4, 115 lbs
· Menu Analysis
DAY 2
Quesadilla
Fiesta beans
Salsa
Sour cream
Corn
Fruit
· Submit Screen Shot for Nutrient report for assignment menu(s)
§ Right click to use “Take a screenshot” feature (Firefox only) on specific date you want to have screen shot to save/obtain.
Nutrient Report and Food Intake
· The paper must include all required elements including
each
Cronometer, Excess, Deficit, and
G
roup
Summary of your nutrient report and food intake
Excess
:
· List
ALL
Nutrients that are
Over 100% (Except Amino Acids)
on Cronometer Nutrient report
· List
Food Items
on menu that may reflect excess nutrients on Cronometer Nutrient report
Deficit
:
· List
ALL
Nutrients that are
Less than 50% (Except Amino Acids)
on Cronometer Nutrient report
· List
Food Items
on menu that may reflect deficit nutrients on Cronometer Nutrient report
Summary
:
§ Summarize your overall in 1-2 paragraph, evaluation and conclusion of nutrients and food items on the menu.
.
· Please share theoretical explanations based on social, cultural an.docxalinainglis
· Please share theoretical explanations based on social, cultural and environmental factors, which may contribute to victimization from criminal behavior
· Based on your personal or professional experience share your thoughts on what coping mechanism (internal and external), and support processes can be considered if becoming a crime victim?
.
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Edited by
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NEW PRESS
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n June 14, 1989, The Washington Post reported that the Corcoran Gallery
of Art in Washington, D.C., had canceled their planned exhibition of
Robert Mapplethorpe: The Perfect Moment. According to the Post, the museum’s
trustees had abruptly changed their agenda to avoid becoming involved in a
growing political debate over the sexual content of the artist’s work. Apparently,
they feared that the exhibition would jeopardize the upcoming congressional
reauthorization of the National Endowment for the Arts (NEA), a federal agency
that had partially funded the show. Their decision changed the course of arts
funding in 1990s.
At the time, I was working as a curator at Washington Project for the Arts, a
nonprofit, experimental gallery in the nation’s capital. I had been following
closely the political debates over arts funding and content, and the specific
controversies that were beginning to engulf the art world. The country was
moving into an election year, and certain politicians seemed ready to exploit a
handful of artists and their work in order to capture the attention of the
electorate. These artists, who had received NEA funding, directly or indirectly,
had struck a raw nerve in Congress and in some segments of the public: federal
money, it was thought, should not support the creation and exhibition of ideas
that questioned the status quo.
Between 1985 and 1990, artists were increasingly confronted by government
agencies and special interest groups for creating work that some considered to
be obscene, pornographic, blasphemous, politically motivated, or degrading of
national symbols. Those artists — whose work addressed specific social issues
such as war, economics, racism, environmental concerns, immigration, multi
culturalism, gender representations, sexuality, and AIDS — and by extension
their sponsors (the NEA, state arts councils, foundations, museums, and so on),
were criticized in Congress and the national media for the content of their
outspoken work. For example, Representative Richard Armey (R-Tex.), a
vociferous critic who tried to eliminate the NEA, admonished the agency in
1985 for funding gay-oriented literary journals. In response, the arts community
began to question congressional criticism, arguing that any attempt to legislate
the content of work that qualified for federal funding was tantamount to
censorship. Armey’s response: “This is not a matter of censorship, it is a matter
of judgement, of values.”1 Arguments about symbolic speech and public moral
ity politicized the issue of arts patronage.
Less than four years later, the NEA again came under attack from members
of Congress, and from a handful of confrontational religious groups, led by
Reverend Donald Wildmon, executive director of the American Family Associ
ation (AFA) in Tupelo, Miss ...
Appendix B: Erin Riggins, “Stateside Modern: Marguerite Zorach and the American Modernists,” Visual Essay Exhibition Project for American Modernism: Alfred Stieglitz’s America, Fall 2017
The California Midwinter International Exposition, San Francisco, 1894DoctorSequoia
This document provides an overview of the California Midwinter International Exposition held in San Francisco in 1894. It summarizes the key events and people involved in planning the exposition in just 7 months, led by newspaper publisher Michael de Young. The exposition featured over 180 structures built in a variety of architectural styles from around the world, clustered around the Grand Court of Honor. Major buildings highlighted the industries, arts, and agriculture of California and participating countries. The exposition aimed to boost San Francisco's economy and culture and showcase it on a global stage.
The Brooklyn Bridge was built in the late 1800s to connect New York City to Brooklyn as the city was expanding rapidly. It took 14 years to complete due to financial and construction challenges but became a symbol of New York City when it opened in 1883. Boss Tweed was a corrupt New York City politician in the late 1800s who defrauded taxpayers of millions through real estate schemes. The Statue of Liberty was originally offered as a gift from France in 1875 but financial issues delayed its construction and unveiling in New York Harbor until 1886.
New York City: The Crossroad of World TradeKristi Beria
1) New York City struggled to remain the economic and cultural center of America but was able to capitalize on developments in other cities. The merger of AOL and Time Warner helped keep New York's headquarters and status.
2) Chicago grew rapidly in the late 19th century, pioneering skyscrapers and urban design. The 1893 World's Fair transformed the city's landscape and civic identity.
3) New York's population exploded in the early and mid-19th century due to immigration and the Erie Canal, leading to overcrowding and slum conditions. Tensions rose during economic crises and the Civil War draft.
The Pop Art Movement began in the 1950s in Britain and the US and lasted until the late 1960s. It featured bold, colorful works depicting popular culture and mass media imagery. A key work was Andy Warhol's 1962 painting Marilyn Diptych, which depicted Marilyn Monroe. The movement reflected the increasing influence of advertising, celebrities, and consumerism in postwar Western culture. While initially popular, it declined as the Vietnam War intensified and social values shifted in the late 1960s.
The document discusses the urbanization of New York City during the early 20th century. Specifically, it describes (1) New York's emergence as a glamorous and culturally diverse city during the 1920s 2nd Industrial Revolution, which marked the birth of modern American culture; (2) the stock market crash of 1929 known as "Black Tuesday" that spread worldwide; and (3) how advertising and music like jazz flourished in New York during this time period as the city grew into a cosmopolitan center.
1. Throughout history, visual art has played an important role in documenting conflict and resistance against those seeking to control others.
2. In China, art was historically used to convey political messages, though contemporary Chinese artists now operate on the margins of society to avoid government censorship and pressure.
3. The recent disappearance and arrest of dissident Chinese artist Ai Weiwei and his associates illustrate the Chinese government's ongoing censorship of political expressions that challenge its control.
This document summarizes online resources for researching auction sales and sellers of artworks, including:
1) Auction catalogs from the 1700s to present in the Watsonline and Art Sales Catalogues Online databases, providing bibliographic and full-text records.
2) The SCIPIO database containing over 300,000 auction catalog citations from the 1500s to present.
3) Indexes like ArtNet, AskART, and Art Fact Pro providing information on recent auction sales.
4) Newspaper archives like the Times Digital Archive and New York Times to research past owners and auction sales.
The New Mexico Museum of Art has been selected to receive 50 works of art from the Dorothy and Herbert Vogel Collection as part of a program to distribute their collection of 2,500 contemporary art works to institutions across the United States. The museum will receive drawings, paintings, sculptures, photographs, and prints by over 170 artists representing different movements from the post-minimalist period. An exhibition of the works from the Vogel Collection will be held at the museum in 2010.
The document provides an overview of life in the United States during the 1920s, known as the Jazz Age. It discusses the rise of consumerism driven by new technologies like cars and appliances. Mass culture expanded through radio, movies, and music like jazz. Social and cultural conflicts emerged, such as Prohibition, immigration restrictions, and the resurgence of the Ku Klux Klan. Politically, Republican presidents like Harding and Coolidge pursued business-friendly policies emphasizing tax cuts, spending reductions, and protectionist tariffs. The overall period was marked by economic prosperity and widespread social change.
This document discusses the paradox of how the Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) in New York excluded women artists in its early exhibitions and collections, despite several influential women playing key roles in its founding. While MoMA aimed to showcase modern art, it presented an incomplete view that disappeared the significant contributions of women artists. The document analyzes how modernism and notions of gender were intimately linked, yet MoMA promoted a universalizing vision of modern art as predominantly a masculine domain, excluding the diversity of women's experiences and participation in shaping modern culture.
Between 1870 and World War 1, factors like steam-powered transportation, lack of legal restrictions on migration, agricultural development opportunities in the New World, and industrialization promoted large-scale migration from Europe to places like the United States. Many migrants found jobs in factories, mines, construction, or skilled trades and services in cities undergoing rapid industrialization and commercial expansion, such as Chicago, which was the fastest growing city in the U.S. and possibly the world in the late 1800s as it transformed through industry and held the 1893 World's Fair that demonstrated how urban design could civilize a downtown area.
Between 1870 and World War 1, factors like steam-powered transportation, lack of legal restrictions on migration, agricultural development opportunities in the New World, and industrialization promoted large-scale migration from Europe to places like the United States. Many migrants found jobs in factories, mines, construction, or skilled trades and services in cities undergoing rapid industrialization and commercial expansion, such as Chicago, which was the fastest growing city in the U.S. and possibly the world in the late 1800s as it transformed through industry and held the 1893 World's Fair that demonstrated how urban design could civilize a downtown area.
Art1100 LVA 21_4 American Modernism onlineDan Gunn
The document discusses several American art movements from the early 20th century including Regionalism, Modernism, and the Harlem Renaissance. It provides background on Regionalist artists like Grant Wood and Thomas Hart Benton who depicted rural Midwest scenes. It also summarizes the influential 1913 Armory Show which introduced Modernist works to American audiences and the role of Alfred Stieglitz in promoting Modernism through his 291 gallery in New York City, giving early exhibitions to Georgia O'Keeffe and Marsden Hartley among others. Finally, it outlines the Harlem Renaissance period when talented African American artists and thinkers produced prominent works in Harlem amid the Great Migration and New Negro movement.
Similar to 42212 Washingtonpost.com New York Art Show in a Heap of Con.docx (15)
· Present a discussion of what team is. What type(s) of team do .docxalinainglis
· Present a discussion of what team is. What type(s) of team do you have in your organization?
· What is meant by the “internal processes” of a team? Why is it important to manage both the internal processes and external opportunities/constraints of a team?
Note: It should contain 3 pages with citation included and References should be in APA format
.
· Presentation of your project. Prepare a PowerPoint with 8 slid.docxalinainglis
· Presentation of your project. Prepare a PowerPoint with 8 slides illustrating the role in Interdisciplinary care for our aging population (Outcome 1,2,3,4,5) (6 hours).
Make sure it has nursing diagnosis
make sure it's a APA STYLE
make sure it has reference
.
· Prepare a research proposal, mentioning a specific researchabl.docxalinainglis
· Prepare a research proposal, mentioning a specific researchable title, background, Review of literature, research questions and objectives, methodology, resources and references.
· Prepare the Gant Chart to indicate the timescale for completing the proposal
RESEARCH PROPOSAL OUTLINE
1. Title
2. Background (introduction)
3. Review of literature
4. Research Questions & objectives
5. Methodology
4.1 Research Design
4.2 Participants
4.3 Techniques
4.4 Ethical Considerations
6. Time scale (Gantt chart)
7. Resources
8. References
.
· Previous professional experiences that have had a profound.docxalinainglis
· Previous professional experiences that have had a profound effect:
Before I started college, my parents wanted me to excel in healthcare knowing its high demand. The path to health care and eventual employment in a notable hospital setting seemed less risky than the one of Art and design. A few networking events and some LinkedIn leads later I came across an opportunity to start a Biomedical Engineering startup in South Florida with two investors willing to mentor me in a field I wasn’t familiar with. Luckily this new venture I was undertaking had a somewhat speculative risk. I made sure they were mostly in my favor thanks to the connections my investors had in the industry, and my background in health care. My hard work and diligence paid off slowly teaching myself the mechanics of the industry through the engineers we would hire. I remember watching how they would calibrate medical devices from pumps to life-saving equipment in awe. And with the same tenacity absorbing all the medical jargon in the Biomed world. I was adamant about doing my best and being the best even if that meant leaving my creative dreams behind. We started the business almost four years ago as a small minority women-owned business in the corner of a business complex. Five biomedical engineers and six technicians later we are still scaling and have since expanded our office from that small corner to the entire business building. Currently, we are a nationally recognized Biomed and medical supply company for some of the largest healthcare facilities in both the civilian and government sector. Yet through out all the achievement I felt the only sense of raw passion was when I collaborated with my engineers in delivering problem solving services to the hospital we served. Their job was to service devices in a hospital at a micro level and I would bridge that gap by identifying problems and finding opportunities in product service at a large-scale. Working hand in hand with the engineers in articulating the hospital need for turnover I would use design through projective process in creating a plan that would work in the most practical sense.
This moment of free creative problem solving was the highlight of my job. It gave me an opportunity to realize that although at times my approach was unconventional it would work. My systematic methodology I had adapted from working with engineers and my innate out of the box idea would come to together to solve some of the most challenging issues. Little did I know that this minor stroke of self-awareness would one day have me consider architecture.
Your current strengths and weaknesses in reaching your goal.
I realized my creative talents in design could not flourish under the pressures of work. I would constantly leave the office feeling drained in a profession my heart was not set on. In this I learned my weakness was how far I was willing to neglect the urge for creativity, and in exchange it jeopardized my sense of purpos.
· Please select ONE of the following questions and write a 200-wor.docxalinainglis
· Please select ONE of the following questions and write a 200-word discussion.
1. The Federal Reserve Board has enormous power over people's lives with its power to set and influence policy that determines monetary policy in the United States. Do you think this is proper for a democracy to provide the FED with so such power? How is the FED held accountable?
2. Do you believe that the roles of government should change from era to era, or should the US determine the proper role of government and try to maintain it through the ages?
3. Explain Executive Power in the US Constitution and briefly the process by which it developed over the years. Do you think the Framers should have been more specific about the powers of the presidency? Should the country try to make it more specific today?
· Please read the discussions below and write a 100 to 150 words respond for each discussion.
1. (question 1) I do believe that this is proper for a democracy to provided such power to FED. Without the FED the economy would face two problem, which are recessions that can lead into depressions, and inflation. The FED needs to have power to endures the country will not fall into economic trouble. In class professor McWeeney stated that the FED has the power to increase interest rates to control inflation, and the power to decrease interest rates so that theres more money in the economy to create more business and jobs so there wont be a recession. The FED needs these power to try to put the economy in a sweet spot. The FED is held accountable to the government and public. The FED does this by being transparent and giving and annual report to congress.
2. (question 2) I believe that the roles of the government should be changed from era to era. My main reason the roles should be changed is because major changes are constantly happening in the field of law. For example, the progressive era and modern era had several economic reforms that had taken place including increased regulation, anti-trust activity, application of an income tax, raise on social insurance programs, etc. Throughout this time, the government gave women the right to vote. I believe the economy is growing rapidly due to employment relationships, better technology, education, new polices, social and economic changes. This is the reason why the roles of the government should be changed from era to era.
Communicating professionally and ethically is one of the
essential skill sets we can teach you at Strayer. The following
guidelines will ensure:
· Your writing is professional
· You avoid plagiarizing others, which is essential to writing ethically
· You give credit to others in your work
Visit Strayer’s Academic Integrity Center for more information.
Winter 2019
https://pslogin.strayer.edu/?dest=academic-support/academic-integrity-center
Strayer University Writing Standards 2
� Include page numbers.
� Use 1-inch margins.
� Use Arial, Courier, Times New Roman.
· Please use Firefox for access to cronometer.com16 ye.docxalinainglis
· Please use
Firefox
for access to
cronometer.com
16 years old Female. Born on 01/05/2005. Height 5’4, 115 lbs
· Menu Analysis
DAY 2
Quesadilla
Fiesta beans
Salsa
Sour cream
Corn
Fruit
· Submit Screen Shot for Nutrient report for assignment menu(s)
§ Right click to use “Take a screenshot” feature (Firefox only) on specific date you want to have screen shot to save/obtain.
Nutrient Report and Food Intake
· The paper must include all required elements including
each
Cronometer, Excess, Deficit, and
G
roup
Summary of your nutrient report and food intake
Excess
:
· List
ALL
Nutrients that are
Over 100% (Except Amino Acids)
on Cronometer Nutrient report
· List
Food Items
on menu that may reflect excess nutrients on Cronometer Nutrient report
Deficit
:
· List
ALL
Nutrients that are
Less than 50% (Except Amino Acids)
on Cronometer Nutrient report
· List
Food Items
on menu that may reflect deficit nutrients on Cronometer Nutrient report
Summary
:
§ Summarize your overall in 1-2 paragraph, evaluation and conclusion of nutrients and food items on the menu.
.
· Please share theoretical explanations based on social, cultural an.docxalinainglis
· Please share theoretical explanations based on social, cultural and environmental factors, which may contribute to victimization from criminal behavior
· Based on your personal or professional experience share your thoughts on what coping mechanism (internal and external), and support processes can be considered if becoming a crime victim?
.
· If we accept the fact that we may need to focus more on teaching.docxalinainglis
· If we accept the fact that we may need to focus more on teaching civic responsibility, how can this work with both "policies and people" in the school where you become principal?
In order to increase the focus on teaching civic responsibility, policy must be in place supporting this goal. A school leader must be willing to invest time and funds into planning, training, and implementing curriculum that emphasizes civics. Staff members may have different levels of interest, understanding, and comfort when it comes to incorporating civic responsibility into their teaching, so providing professional development in this area would be critical. The strategic plan for integrating civic responsibility and the expectations for each teacher’s involvement should be clearly communicated. In addition to establishing these policies regarding civics education, the school leader and teachers must work to model civic responsibility. In addition to sharing his or her vision for increased focus on civics with the school staff, the school leader should work to share his or her vision with school board members, other district personnel including the superintendent, and the greater community. Lastly, school leaders need to support their staff as they take risks and work to develop and implement new activities, discussions, and projects centered around teaching civic responsibility.
· How will you lead your staff in this part of the curriculum?
In leading my staff in this part of the curriculum, I would work to secure professional development related to civic responsibility, as this is not an area that I have expertise in, and work as a staff to develop our vision and implementation goals. I would also provide examples such as the work of the exemplar schools described in the article in integrating civic responsibility across all content areas, implementing service-learning programs, and creating partnerships between the school and community. I would also work within PLTs to develop ways that civic responsibility could be incorporated within their curriculum and remind them that they have my support as they embark on this endea
Required Resources
Text
Baack, D. (2017). Organizational behavior (2nd ed.). Retrieved from https://ashford.content.edu
· Chapter 8: Leadership
Articles
Austen, B. (2012, July 23). The story of Steve Jobs: An inspiration or a cautionary tale? (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.Wired. Retrieved fom http://www.wired.com/2012/07/ff_stevejobs/all/
Charan, R. (2006). Home Depot’s blueprint for culture change. Harvard Business Review. 84(4), 60-70. Retrieved from EBSCOhost database
Grow, B., Foust, D., Thornton, E., Farzad, R., McGregor, J., & Zegal, S. (2007). Out at home depot (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.. Business Week.
Retrieved from http://www.businessweek.com/stories/2007-01-14/out-at-home-depot
Stark, A. (1993). What's the matter with business ethics? Harvard Business Review, 71(3), 38-48. .
· How many employees are working for youtotal of 5 employees .docxalinainglis
· How many employees are working for you?
total of 5 employees
· How did you get your idea or concept for the business?
· CLEAR is a reflection by transparency, manifest and understood, our product is new in the market, and it follows the international fashion style that suits every lady,
· A bag represents you, bags are women priority, and its something women can't go outside without, our bags differ by other bags is that its clear, which is the new form of fashion style, we also made customization on bags so it is a remarkable tool that can lead to higher profit through increased customer satisfaction and loyalty, although it brings for our small factory a lot of work, the good work pays off, we entered these industry because there are no locals designer in it and we started in2016 and hope to reach a global position.
· What do you look for in an employee? (the most important things)
- helping customers on their choice
-stylist
- team work spirit
- deciplant & committed to work ethics
- Good Communication skills
- Ability to manage the conflict
- Is the company socially responsible?
Yes , we try our best to make some of sell go for the charity and especially to help poor people get new clothes , we donate 5% yearly in our total sales .
· What made you choose your current location?
Main criterias for selecting current location :
1- Close to the residence areas , meliha road, near the university of Sharjah
2- Easy access to the visiting customers
3- Its in a big avenue that has many designers and clothing brands
4- Easy to pick up from the shop
5- Serve a big segmentation
· What are your responsibilities as a business owner?
the main responsibility of the Business owner is to maintain the successful of the business, but in order to achieve this have to do so many tasks like:
1- Hire and manage the staff
2- Oversees the financial status , weekly and monthly .
3- Create marketing plans of how the business will be in a year
4- Update the website and chick the system
5- Rent fees
6- Make sure how customers are satisfied by the product
7- Make sure about product quality and chick up
8- Maintain a healthy work environment
9- Develop and fine tune the business according to the market situation
· How do you motivate your employees?
We follow different methods for motivations
1- Personal appreciation for individuals for hard work or personal achievements
2- Kind words
3- Flexible working hours
4- Daily bonus if achieved the daily sales targets
5- Giving the new collection bags as a gift before dropping it to the market , it makes them feel appreciated and special
· Can you give me an example of any challenges or problems that you faced with your shop and employees?
Hiring the right employee is always challenge, last Ramadan we had a huge unread massage for eid orders as well, our customer started to get angry and write under the inestgram comments that there was no respond for online shopping , we struggl.
· How should the risks be prioritized· Who should do the priori.docxalinainglis
· How should the risks be prioritized?
· Who should do the prioritization of the project risks?
· How should project risks be monitored and controlled?
· Who should develop risk responses and contingency plans?
· Who should own these responses and plans?
Introduction
This week, we will explore risk management. Risk management is one of those areas in project management that separates good project managers from great project managers. A good project manager makes risk management an integral part of every phase of project work. Risks are identified, prioritized, and understood. There are clear responsibilities within the team as to whose is responsible for implementing a risk response to reduce the impact should it occur. So let's get started.
What is Risk?
*Risk: An uncertain event or condition that, if it occurs, has a positive or negative effect on one or more project objectives.
Risks can be positive, meaning beneficial to the project, or they can be negative, meaning detrimental to the project.
Many students have a difficult time visualizing positive risks. A positive risk is an opportunity that may increase the probability of success, the return on investment, or the benefits of the project. They may also be ways to reduce project costs or ways to complete the project early. There may even be methods to improve project quality or overall performance. These are all examples of positive risks.
A negative risk can be easier to understand. It is the possibility that something will go wrong, a threat to the success of the project. It is important to remember that a risk is a possibility, not a fact. It is a potential problem. At GettaByte Software, there is the potential that a power outage would occur during data transfer. The potential exists that a key resource could become unavailable due to some unforeseen circumstance, like illness. Those are threats to the success of the project.
When buying a house to renovate, there are potential risks with respect to plumbing, wiring, the foundation, and so on.
A project manager needs to consider trying to make positive risks happen while trying to prevent negative ones from occurring. To do this, a project manager can take a proactive approach to risk management. This means he or she plans a risk response should it look as though the risk will become a reality. In this way, everyone knows exactly how to prepare and respond to the risk once it does become an issue.
The Risk Management Process
A project has both good and bad risks, which are referred to as positive and negative risks or opportunities and threats. For positive risks or opportunities, the project manager can choose from a range of risk responses. For threats, a project manager has a similar range of choices. The following, as described in the PMBOK® Guide, are the risk management processes.
Plan Risk Management:
· Risk Strategy
· Defines the general approach to managing risk on the project
· Methodology
· Defines the specific, tools, .
· How does the distribution mechanism control the issues address.docxalinainglis
· How does the distribution mechanism control the issues addressed in Music and TV, when in regards to race/ethnicity?
· Determine who controls the distribution of Music and TV, when in regards to race/ethnicity?
· In what ways does the controller of distribution affect the shared experience of the audience and community? Keep in mind that a community may be local, regional, national, or global. Be specific in your discussion.
.
· Helen Petrakis Identifying Data Helen Petrakis is a 5.docxalinainglis
·
Helen Petrakis Identifying Data: Helen Petrakis is a 52-year-old, Caucasian female of Greek descent living in a four-bedroom house in Tarpon Springs, FL. Her family consists of her husband, John (60), son, Alec (27), daughter, Dmitra (23), and daughter Althima (18). John and Helen have been married for 30 years. They married in the Greek Orthodox Church and attend services weekly.
Presenting Problem: Helen reports feeling overwhelmed and “blue.” She was referred by a close friend who thought Helen would benefit from having a person who would listen. Although she is uncomfortable talking about her life with a stranger, Helen says that she decided to come for therapy because she worries about burdening friends with her troubles. John has been expressing his displeasure with meals at home, as Helen has been cooking less often and brings home takeout. Helen thinks she is inadequate as a wife. She states that she feels defeated; she describes an incident in which her son, Alec, expressed disappointment in her because she could not provide him with clean laundry. Helen reports feeling overwhelmed by her responsibilities and believes she can’t handle being a wife, mother, and caretaker any longer.
Family Dynamics: Helen describes her marriage as typical of a traditional Greek family. John, the breadwinner in the family, is successful in the souvenir shop in town. Helen voices a great deal of pride in her children. Dmitra is described as smart, beautiful, and hardworking. Althima is described as adorable and reliable. Helen shops, cooks, and cleans for the family, and John sees to yard care and maintaining the family’s cars. Helen believes the children are too busy to be expected to help around the house, knowing that is her role as wife and mother. John and Helen choose not to take money from their children for any room or board. The Petrakis family holds strong family bonds within a large and supportive Greek community.
Helen is the primary caretaker for Magda (John’s 81-year-old widowed mother), who lives in an apartment 30 minutes away. Until recently, Magda was self-sufficient, coming for weekly family dinners and driving herself shopping and to church. Six months ago, she fell and broke her hip and was also recently diagnosed with early signs of dementia. Helen and John hired a reliable and trusted woman temporarily to check in on Magda a couple of days each week. Helen would go and see Magda on the other days, sometimes twice in one day, depending on Magda’s needs. Helen would go food shopping for Magda, clean her home, pay her bills, and keep track of Magda’s medications. Since Helen thought she was unable to continue caretaking for both Magda and her husband and kids, she wanted the helper to come in more often, but John said they could not afford it. The money they now pay to the helper is coming out of the couple’s vacation savings. Caring for Magda makes Helen think she is failing as a wife and mother because she no longer ha.
· Global O365 Tenant Settings relevant to SPO, and recommended.docxalinainglis
· Global O365 Tenant Settings relevant to SPO, and recommended settings
Multi Factor Authentication
Sign In Page customization
External Sharing
· Global SPO settings and recommended settings
Manage External Sharing
Site Creation Settings
· Information Architecture and Hub Site Management
Site Structure
Create and manage Hub Site
· Site Administration
Create Sites
Delete Sites
Restored Deleted Sites
Manage Site Admins
Manage Site creation
Manage Site Storage limits
Change Site Address
· Managed Metadata (Term Store)
Introduction
Setup new term group sets
Create and manage Terms
Assign roles and permission to Manage term sets
· Search
Search Content
Search Center
Crawl Site content
Remove Search results
Search Results
Manage Search Query
Manage Query Rules
Manage Query Suggestion
Manage result sources
Manage search dictionaries
· Security (identity – internal / external, and authorization – management of platform level)
Control Access of Unmanaged devices
Control Access of Network location
Authentication
Safeguarding Data
Sign out inactive users
· Governance – e.g. labels, retention, etc.
Data Classification
Create and Manage labels
· Data loss prevention
· Create and Manage security policies
· Devices Security policies
· App permission policies
· Data Governance
· Retention Policies
· Monitoring and alerting
Create and Manage Alerts
Alert Policies
· SharePoint Migration Tool
Overview
· Operational tasks for managing the health of the environment, alerting, etc.
File Activity report
Site usage report
Message Center
Service Health
· Common issue resolution and FAQ
.
· Focus on the identified client within your chosen case.· Analy.docxalinainglis
· Focus on the identified client within your chosen case.
· Analyze the case using a systems approach, taking into consideration both family and community systems.
· Complete and submit the “Dissecting a Theory and Its Application to a Case Study” worksheet based on your analysis
Helen Petrakis Identifying Data: Helen Petrakis is a 52-year-old, Caucasian female of Greek descent living in a four-bedroom house in Tarpon Springs, FL. Her family consists of her husband, John (60), son, Alec (27), daughter, Dmitra (23), and daughter Althima (18). John and Helen have been married for 30 years. They married in the Greek Orthodox Church and attend services weekly.
Presenting Problem: Helen reports feeling overwhelmed and “blue.” She was referred by a close friend who thought Helen would benefit from having a person who would listen. Although she is uncomfortable talking about her life with a stranger, Helen says that she decided to come for therapy because she worries about burdening friends with her troubles. John has been expressing his displeasure with meals at home, as Helen has been cooking less often and brings home takeout. Helen thinks she is inadequate as a wife. She states that she feels defeated; she describes an incident in which her son, Alec, expressed disappointment in her because she could not provide him with clean laundry. Helen reports feeling overwhelmed by her responsibilities and believes she can’t handle being a wife, mother, and caretaker any longer.
Family Dynamics: Helen describes her marriage as typical of a traditional Greek family. John, the breadwinner in the family, is successful in the souvenir shop in town. Helen voices a great deal of pride in her children. Dmitra is described as smart, beautiful, and hardworking. Althima is described as adorable and reliable. Helen shops, cooks, and cleans for the family, and John sees to yard care and maintaining the family’s cars. Helen believes the children are too busy to be expected to help around the house, knowing that is her role as wife and mother. John and Helen choose not to take money from their children for any room or board. The Petrakis family holds strong family bonds within a large and supportive Greek community.
Helen is the primary caretaker for Magda (John’s 81-year-old widowed mother), who lives in an apartment 30 minutes away. Until recently, Magda was self-sufficient, coming for weekly family dinners and driving herself shopping and to church. Six months ago, she fell and broke her hip and was also recently diagnosed with early signs of dementia. Helen and John hired a reliable and trusted woman temporarily to check in on Magda a couple of days each week. Helen would go and see Magda on the other days, sometimes twice in one day, depending on Magda’s needs. Helen would go food shopping for Magda, clean her home, pay her bills, and keep track of Magda’s medications. Since Helen thought she was unable to continue caretaking for both Magda and her husba.
· Find current events regarding any issues in public health .docxalinainglis
·
Find current events
regarding any issues in public health Anything about infectious diseases ( Don not pick one disease, you have you dig more infectious diseases)
· These current events can be articles, news reports, outbreaks, videos.
· Type down brief 2 sentences describing the event (don’t copy paste title)
· You should have
at least 7 diseases in
total
· No Malaria disease events, please
.
· Explore and assess different remote access solutions.Assig.docxalinainglis
· Explore and assess different remote access solutions.
Assignment Requirements
Discuss with your peers which of the two remote access solutions, virtual private networks (VPNs) or hypertext transport protocol secure (HTTPS), you will rate as the best. You need to make a choice between the two remote access solutions based on the following features:
· Identification, authentication, and authorization
· Cost, scalability, reliability, and interoperability
.
· FASB ASC & GARS Login credentials LinkUser ID AAA51628Pas.docxalinainglis
This document provides an overview and summary of the Governmental Accounting Standards Board (GASB) Codification of Governmental Accounting and Financial Reporting Standards.
The summary includes:
1) An explanation of the authoritative sources incorporated into the Codification including GASB statements, interpretations, and other pronouncements as well as NCGA and AICPA standards.
2) Details on the organization and structure of the Codification including its five parts addressing general principles, financial reporting, measurement, specific items, and specialized activities.
3) Guidance on using the Codification and on the authoritative status and hierarchy of GAAP for state and local governments.
4) Background information on the
· Due Sat. Sep. · Format Typed, double-spaced, sub.docxalinainglis
·
Due:
Sat. Sep.
·
Format
: Typed, double-spaced, submitted as a word-processing document.
12 point, text-weight font, 1-inch margins.
·
·
Length
: 850 - 1000 words (approx. 3-4 pages)
·
·
Overview
: In Unit 1 and Unit 2, we focused on ways that writers build ideas from personal memories and experiences into interesting narratives that convey significance and meaning to new audiences. In Unit 3, we have been discussing how writers invent ideas by interacting with other communities through firsthand observation and description. These relationships and discoveries can give writers insight into larger concepts or ideas that are valuable to specific communities. For this writing project, you will use firsthand observations and discoveries to write about people and the issues that are important to them. Your evidence will come from the details you observe as you investigate other people, places, and events.
Assignment
Write an ethnography essay focused on a particular group of people and the routines or practices that best reveal their unique significance as a group.
An ethnography is a written description of a particular cultural group or community. For the ethnography essay, you can follow the guidelines in the CEL, p. 110-112. Your ethnography should:
· Begin with your observations of a particular group. Plan to observe this group 2-3 times, so that you can get a better sense of their routines, habits, and practices.
o
Note: if you cannot travel to observe a group or community, plan to observe that community digitally through website documents, social media, and/or emails exchanged with group members.
· Convey insight into the characteristics that give the group unique significance.
· Provide context and background, including location, values, beliefs, histories, rituals, dialogue, and any other details that help convey the group's significance.
· Follow a deliberate organizational pattern that focuses on one or more insights about the group while also providing details and information about the group's culture and routine
As you look back over your observations and notes, remember that your essay should do more than simply relate details without any larger significance. Ethnographies also draw out the unique, interesting, and special qualities of a group or culture that help readers connect to their values or motivations. Note: Please keep in mind that writing in this class is public, and anything you write about may be shared with other students and instructors. Please only write about details that you are comfortable making public within our classroom community.
Assignment Components
In order to finish this project, we will work on the following parts together over the next few weeks:
Draft
: Include at least one pre-revised draft of your essay. The draft needs to meet the word count of 850 words and must also apply formatting requirements for the project—in other words it must be complete. Make sure that your.
· Expectations for Power Point Presentations in Units IV and V I.docxalinainglis
This document provides guidance for PowerPoint presentations in two units. It outlines 7 requirements for the presentations: 1) include a title slide, 2) include an overview slide after the title, 3) include a summary slide before the references, 4) cite sources on slides with information from readings, 5) do not use direct quotes, 6) include graphics, and 7) format references in APA style with matching in-text citations and reference list entries. It also notes that students can ask the instructor questions and should contact the instructor if they disagree with feedback.
· Due Friday by 1159pmResearch Paper--IssueTopic Ce.docxalinainglis
·
Due
Friday by 11:59pm
Research Paper--
Issue/Topic:
Celebrity, Celebrity Culture and the effects on society
1500 or more words
MLA format
Must include research from
at least 4
scholarly sources (use HCC Library and GoogleScholar) I have attached 20 pdf with scholarly sources to choose from. 2 were provided from teacher Celebrity Culture Beneficial and The Culture of Celebrity. I have also attached a Word Document Research Paper Guide. Please read all the way to bottom more instructions at the bottom. Disregards Links and external cites those are the PDFs.
Celebrity
is a
popular cultural Links to an external site.
phenomenon surrounding a well-known person. Though many
celebritiesLinks to an external site.
became famous as a result of their achievements or experiences, a person who obtains celebrity status does not necessarily need to have accomplished anything significant beyond being widely recognized by the public. Some celebrities use their
fameLinks to an external site.
to reach the upper levels of social status. Popular celebrities can wield significant influence over their fans and followers. Cultural historian and film critic Neal Gabler has described the phenomenon of celebrity as a process similar to performance art in which the celebrity builds intrigue and allure by presenting a manufactured image to the public. This image is reinforced through
advertisingLinks to an external site.
endorsements, appearances at high-profile events, tabloid gossip, and
social mediaLinks to an external site.
presence.
In previous decades, celebrity status was mainly reserved for film stars,
televisionLinks to an external site.
personalities,
entertainersLinks to an external site.
, politicians, and
athletesLinks to an external site.
. Contemporary celebrities come from diverse fields ranging from astrophysics to auto mechanics, or they may simply be famous for their lifestyle or
InternetLinks to an external site.
antics. Social media platforms such as YouTube, Twitter, and Instagram provide the means for previously unknown individuals to cultivate a significant following.
Celebrification
is the process by which someone or something previously considered ordinary obtains stardom. Previously commonplace activities, such as practicing
vegetarianismLinks to an external site.
or wearing white t-shirts, can undergo celebrification when associated with a famous person or major event.
Celebrity culture
exists when stardom becomes a pervasive part of the social order,
commodified
as a commercial brand. Celebrities’ personal lives are recast as products for consumption, with a dedicated fan base demanding information and unlimited access to the celebrity’s thoughts and activities. A niche community such as a fan base can be monetized through effective marketing that links brand loyalty to the consumer’s identity. Fans may be more likely to purchase a product or attend an event if they feel that doing so strengthens their.
Gender and Mental Health - Counselling and Family Therapy Applications and In...PsychoTech Services
A proprietary approach developed by bringing together the best of learning theories from Psychology, design principles from the world of visualization, and pedagogical methods from over a decade of training experience, that enables you to: Learn better, faster!
Information and Communication Technology in EducationMJDuyan
(𝐓𝐋𝐄 𝟏𝟎𝟎) (𝐋𝐞𝐬𝐬𝐨𝐧 2)-𝐏𝐫𝐞𝐥𝐢𝐦𝐬
𝐄𝐱𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐢𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐈𝐂𝐓 𝐢𝐧 𝐞𝐝𝐮𝐜𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧:
Students will be able to explain the role and impact of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in education. They will understand how ICT tools, such as computers, the internet, and educational software, enhance learning and teaching processes. By exploring various ICT applications, students will recognize how these technologies facilitate access to information, improve communication, support collaboration, and enable personalized learning experiences.
𝐃𝐢𝐬𝐜𝐮𝐬𝐬 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐫𝐞𝐥𝐢𝐚𝐛𝐥𝐞 𝐬𝐨𝐮𝐫𝐜𝐞𝐬 𝐨𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐫𝐧𝐞𝐭:
-Students will be able to discuss what constitutes reliable sources on the internet. They will learn to identify key characteristics of trustworthy information, such as credibility, accuracy, and authority. By examining different types of online sources, students will develop skills to evaluate the reliability of websites and content, ensuring they can distinguish between reputable information and misinformation.
A Visual Guide to 1 Samuel | A Tale of Two HeartsSteve Thomason
These slides walk through the story of 1 Samuel. Samuel is the last judge of Israel. The people reject God and want a king. Saul is anointed as the first king, but he is not a good king. David, the shepherd boy is anointed and Saul is envious of him. David shows honor while Saul continues to self destruct.
How to Manage Reception Report in Odoo 17Celine George
A business may deal with both sales and purchases occasionally. They buy things from vendors and then sell them to their customers. Such dealings can be confusing at times. Because multiple clients may inquire about the same product at the same time, after purchasing those products, customers must be assigned to them. Odoo has a tool called Reception Report that can be used to complete this assignment. By enabling this, a reception report comes automatically after confirming a receipt, from which we can assign products to orders.
Temple of Asclepius in Thrace. Excavation resultsKrassimira Luka
The temple and the sanctuary around were dedicated to Asklepios Zmidrenus. This name has been known since 1875 when an inscription dedicated to him was discovered in Rome. The inscription is dated in 227 AD and was left by soldiers originating from the city of Philippopolis (modern Plovdiv).
🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥
إضغ بين إيديكم من أقوى الملازم التي صممتها
ملزمة تشريح الجهاز الهيكلي (نظري 3)
💀💀💀💀💀💀💀💀💀💀
تتميز هذهِ الملزمة بعِدة مُميزات :
1- مُترجمة ترجمة تُناسب جميع المستويات
2- تحتوي على 78 رسم توضيحي لكل كلمة موجودة بالملزمة (لكل كلمة !!!!)
#فهم_ماكو_درخ
3- دقة الكتابة والصور عالية جداً جداً جداً
4- هُنالك بعض المعلومات تم توضيحها بشكل تفصيلي جداً (تُعتبر لدى الطالب أو الطالبة بإنها معلومات مُبهمة ومع ذلك تم توضيح هذهِ المعلومات المُبهمة بشكل تفصيلي جداً
5- الملزمة تشرح نفسها ب نفسها بس تكلك تعال اقراني
6- تحتوي الملزمة في اول سلايد على خارطة تتضمن جميع تفرُعات معلومات الجهاز الهيكلي المذكورة في هذهِ الملزمة
واخيراً هذهِ الملزمة حلالٌ عليكم وإتمنى منكم إن تدعولي بالخير والصحة والعافية فقط
كل التوفيق زملائي وزميلاتي ، زميلكم محمد الذهبي 💊💊
🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥🔥
CapTechTalks Webinar Slides June 2024 Donovan Wright.pptxCapitolTechU
Slides from a Capitol Technology University webinar held June 20, 2024. The webinar featured Dr. Donovan Wright, presenting on the Department of Defense Digital Transformation.
42212 Washingtonpost.com New York Art Show in a Heap of Con.docx
1. 4/22/12 Washingtonpost.com: New York Art Show in a Heap of
Controversy
1/4www.washingtonpost.com/wp-
srv/national/daily/sept99/brooklyn24.htm
On The Web
The Brooklyn
Museum of Art
New York Art Show in a Heap of Controversy
By Paula Span
Washington Post Staff Writer
Friday, September 24, 1999; Page C1
NEW YORK, Sept. 23—He's particularly outraged, Mayor
Rudolph
Giuliani has said, by a collage of the Virgin Mary dotted with
elephant
dung. He isn't impressed by the pickled pig carcasses, either.
And he's
taken dead aim at the Brooklyn Museum of Art: It will lose $7
million
in city funds, he warns, unless it cancels a "sick" exhibit of
British
works scheduled to open next week.
But the museum has vowed that the show will proceed
regardless.
And all the usual parties--outraged defenders of religion,
2. infuriated
civil libertarians, art world types rolling their eyes--are taking
up their
now-accustomed positions. The Culture Wars have flared anew,
this
time in a city that likes to think it's above such things and a
state where
the jousting may draw in would-be senator Hillary Rodham
Clinton.
"Sensation: Young British Artists From the Saatchi Collection,"
which
has already drawn throngs in London and Berlin, always aimed
to be
provocative. Its 90 works include a rotting cow's head and a
shark
preserved in a tank of formaldehyde, both by internationally
known
take-that artist Damien Hirst, another artist's sculpture made
from his
own frozen blood, and a portrait of a convicted child murderer
fashioned from what look like tiny handprints. The Brooklyn
Museum's ad agency came up with a cheerful mock "health
warning"
that's run in several publications and is slated to appear on city
buses
and in a half-page New York Times ad: "The contents of this
exhibition may cause shock, vomiting, confusion, panic,
euphoria and
anxiety."
But shock and confusion arose earlier than expected, once a
Daily
News story brought the show to the attention of the combative
mayor.
The City of New York provides almost a third of the Brooklyn
3. Museum's $23 million annual operating budget, and Giuliani has
announced that its monthly check won't be in the mail on Oct. 1
as
long as "Sensation" remains on the calendar. Giuliani's probable
opponent in next year's Senate race had nothing to say on the
subject
today, but the mayor had plenty.
When a reporter asked Giuliani at his regular news briefing
Wednesday whether the exhibit was offensive, he let fly. "Well,
it
offends me," he said. "The idea, in the name of art, of having a
city-
4/22/12 Washingtonpost.com: New York Art Show in a Heap of
Controversy
2/4www.washingtonpost.com/wp-
srv/national/daily/sept99/brooklyn24.htm
subsidized building have so-called works of art in which people
are
throwing elephant dung at a picture of the Virgin Mary is sick.
If
someone wants to do that privately and pay for it privately,
that's what
the First Amendment is all about. . . . But to have the
government
subsidize something like that is outrageous."
He declared that municipal funding will evaporate--it was not
clear
whether the threat also included millions budgeted for capital
improvements to the 175-year-old museum, the city's second
4. largest--
"until the director comes to his senses and realizes that if you
are a
government-subsidized enterprise, then you can't do things that
desecrate the most personal and deeply held views of people in
society."
You can't? Norman Siegel, head of the New York Civil
Liberties
Union, telephoned Museum Director Arnold Lehman today "just
to
say, 'We're here if you need us.' " His troops have brought two
dozen
free-expression lawsuits against Giuliani's administration, and
he
sounded almost eager to head to court again.
People like Siegel and Joan Bertin, head of the National
Coalition
Against Censorship, spent hours on the phone today explaining
to
hordes of reporters their contention that while the government is
not
obliged to fund the arts, once it does--and the city underwrites
more
than 30 cultural institutions, including the Metropolitan
Museum of Art
and the Museum of Natural History--it cannot yank money
because of
the art's content.
"If we write the brief, we use the transcript of the press
conference to
hang him on First Amendment grounds," Siegel promised,
though he'd
had no response from the beleaguered museum.
5. The latest round in the draining, decade-old fight over the arts
and
government funding, which began with attempts to block NEA
grants
for works by artists Robert Mapplethorpe and Andres Serrano,
struck
some as suspiciously timed.
The mayor's statements were "so out of sync with what the First
Amendment requires of public officials," Bertin noted slyly, "I
can
only assume he must be running for the Senate." Perhaps, Siegel
mused, a fund-raising letter to supporters in the hinterlands,
portraying
Giuliani as a staunch slayer of godless artists, was already
being
drafted.
Whereas "Hillary Clinton was always there for the arts," said
SoHo art
dealer Ronald Feldman, who served for five years on the
National
Council on the Arts. "She's not afraid."
The Catholic League for Religious and Civil Rights, on the
other
hand, sent not-yet-a-resident Clinton a letter that pointedly
included
subway directions to the Brooklyn Museum. "Just being
helpful,"
quipped the group's William Donohue. The League has urged
4/22/12 Washingtonpost.com: New York Art Show in a Heap of
6. Controversy
3/4www.washingtonpost.com/wp-
srv/national/daily/sept99/brooklyn24.htm
Catholics--including teachers taking their charges on field trips-
-to
boycott the museum.
Whatever the outcome--City Council Speaker Peter Vallone says
the
mayor's refusal to disburse budgeted funds is "an illegal act"
and could
spark a lawsuit on those grounds as well--artfolk have reacted
primarily with mortification. New York simply hates to appear
more
provincial than Berlin or London, where the tabloids had a field
day
but the funding and the crowds remained unaffected.
"There's a lot of work that's as challenging as anything in the
Brooklyn Museum show that's exhibited all the time in New
York
public museums," dealer Jeffrey Deitch said. "There's a big
exhibit up
right now"--but he declined to specify the one he had in mind,
lest the
mayor take umbrage.
"This is what happens in Cobb County--this is Newt Gingrich
stuff,"
lamented Feldman, referring to a Georgia funding brawl. "It's
absurd
for the art capital of the world to have a mayor do this. It's
embarrassing."
7. Lost in the counter-punching, as usual, was much consideration
of the
actual art involved, which will be on display through Jan. 9. A
nervous Brooklyn Museum spokeswoman, Sally Williams,
pointed out
that the exhibit--culled from London ad magnate Charles
Saatchi's
renowned contemporary collection and partly underwritten by
Christie's, the international auction house--is "incredibly
diverse." Its
offerings range from Hirst's shockers to "an absolutely
endearing
sculpture of an angel" by Ron Mueck, a former Jim Henson
puppeteer. Children 16 and under must be accompanied by an
adult.
As for "Holy Virgin Mary," which the mayor denounced,
Williams
said that artist Chris Ofili had lived for years in Nigeria--both
he and
the Madonna he created are black--and was drawing on a culture
in
which excrement is often incorporated into religious artwork.
"We are
hopeful people will come see the exhibit and make up their own
minds," Williams said.
More of them may come than usual. Even before Giuliani waded
in,
promotions for the exhibit were a bit in-your-face (the ticket hot
line is
1-87-SHARKBITE). Now the mayor has helped ensure that the
show
lives up to its name.
"This is a brilliant campaign," was one art insider's appraisal.
9. can order presentation-ready copies for distribution
to your colleagues, clients or customers, please click here or use
the "Reprints" tool that appears next to any
article. Visit www.nytreprints.com for samples and additional
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October 12, 1997
ART
ART; Is It Art? Is It Good? And Who Says So?
By AMEI WALLACH
Correction Appended
THE DEBATE CONTINUES about where art is today and what
so many people still want it to be. For
years, the National Endowment for the Arts has been the target
of some members of Congress and
their constituents and has sometimes seemed on the brink of
extinction, although Congress voted on
Sept. 30 to preserve the agency for another year with $98
million, just slightly under the previous
year's allocation. Last Sunday on CBS, Morley Safer devoted a
segment of ''60 Minutes'' to attacking a
selection of contemporary art; the report was a follow-up to a
controversial one he presented in 1993
on the same subject. Again, he asked the rhetorical question,
Yes, but is it art?
When artists are as comfortable with video as marble, when
paintings bear no resemblance to anything
Gainsborough or even Jackson Pollock would have recognized,
when a work of art can be mistaken for
''a hole in the ground,'' as the critic Arthur Danto puts it, many
people are wary of where artists are
leading them.
10. What is art, what is good art and who decides are real questions.
The Times asked art-world
participants and observers for answers. AMEI WALLACH
THOMAS McEVILLEY
Professor of art history, Rice University; contributing editor,
Artforum magazine
The last time I was in Houston, I went to a place called Media
Center, where someone had set up posts
as in a back yard with laundry hung all over. I immediately
knew it was an artwork because of where it
was. If I had seen it hanging in someone's yard, I would not
have known whether it was art, though it
might have been. It is art if it is called art, written about in an
art magazine, exhibited in a museum or
bought by a private collector.
It seems pretty clear by now that more or less anything can be
designated as art. The question is, Has it
been called art by the so-called ''art system?'' In our century,
that's all that makes it art. As this century
draws to a close, it looks ever more Duchampian. But suppose
Duchamp didn't have Andre Breton as
http://www.nytimes.com/
http://www.nytimes.com/1997/10/12/arts/art-is-it-art-is-it-good-
and-who-says-so.html?pagewanted=all&pagewanted=print#
http://www.nytreprints.com/
http://www.nytimes.com/1997/10/12/arts/art-is-it-art-is-it-good-
and-who-says-so.html?pagewanted=all&pagewanted=print#
4/3/16, 8:07 PMART; Is It Art? Is It Good? And Who Says So?
11. - The New York Times
Page 2 of 6http://www.nytimes.com/1997/10/12/arts/art-is-it-
art-is-it-good-and-who-says-
so.html?pagewanted=all&pagewanted=print
his flack; most of his work could be dismissed as trash left
behind by some crank.
What's hard for people to accept is that issues of art are just as
difficult as issues of molecular biology;
you cannot expect to open up a page on molecular biology and
understand it. This is the hard news
about art that irritates the public. if people are going to be
irritated by that, they just have to be
irritated by that.
ANTONIO HOUMEN
Director, Sonnabend Gallery
We never had any rigid idea about what art could be, and that is
why in 1970-71 we began showing
movies by artists and videos by artists. Everybody started
talking about Video Art, which we thought
was silly; we didn't believe it was Video Art but art made by
interesting artists using video tapes and
films. Every time art takes a form people don't recognize, they
ask ''Is that art?''
RICHARD PRINCE
Artist
With my own work, it's art when it looks as if I know what I'm
doing and when doing it makes me feel
12. good. It's like a good revolution. I've always said art is a
revolution that makes people feel good. I don't
think art has a consensus. I don't think 10 people in a room
talking about art could agree about
whether something is good or bad art. I think it's good when I
can put myself into another artist's
shoes, and wish I could have done that, or could see myself
doing it. With someone like Jeff Koons, I
don't particularly understand how the work is made. A lot of
parts are jobbed out. I don't see the
artist's hand in it, so I don't relate to it.
ROBERT ROSENBLUM
Professor of art history, New York University; curator at the
Guggenheim Museum
There was a great to-do in the 1950's about Abstract
Expressionism. It just means people are upset
when they see something new. In 1959, a lot of people thought
Frank Stella's work was an absolute
outrage and a joke. By now the idea of defining art is so remote
I don't think anyone would dare to do
it. If the Duchamp urinal is art, then anything is. But there has
to be consensus about good art among
informed people -- artists, dealers, curators, collectors.
Somebody has to be the first to say something
is good, but if you put it up the flagpole and nobody salutes it,
then there's nothing there.
WILLIAM RUBIN
Director emeritus of painting and sculpture, Museum of Modern
Art
13. 4/3/16, 8:07 PMART; Is It Art? Is It Good? And Who Says So?
- The New York Times
Page 3 of 6http://www.nytimes.com/1997/10/12/arts/art-is-it-
art-is-it-good-and-who-says-
so.html?pagewanted=all&pagewanted=print
There is no single definition of art that's universally tenable.
Cultures without even a word for art
nevertheless produced great art, for example, the ancient
Egyptians. Since the Industrial Revolution,
Western societies have felt their social values in continuous
flux and their received definitions of art
under constant challenge.
There's a consensus as to what is art in most periods, but it's not
made by the man on the street. It is
formed by those deeply concerned with the substance of art.
This is not elitist, because anyone may
participate. Basically, the larger public makes a subjective
determination: I know art when I see it.
JENNY HOLZER
Artist
I think you can rely on the artist's representation; he or she
would have no reason to lie. A viewer with
a combination of sensitivity and knowledge will perceive that
something is art and is good. Time also
helps.
ARTHUR DANTO
Art critic of The Nation
14. You can't say something's art or not art anymore. That's all
finished. There used to be a time when you
could pick out something perceptually the way you can
recognize, say, tulips or giraffes. But the way
things have evolved, art can look like anything, so you can't tell
by looking. Criteria like the critic's
good eye no longer apply.
Art these days has very little to do with esthetic responses; it
has more to do with intellectual
responses. You have to project a hypothesis: Suppose it is a
work of art? Then certain questions come
into play -- what's it about, what does it mean, why was it made,
when was it made and with respect to
what social and artistic conversations does it make a
contribution? If you get good answers to those
questions, it's art. Otherwise it turned out just to be a hole in
the ground.
PHILIPPE DE MONTEBELLO
Director, Metropolitan Museum of Art
There are historical criteria evolved over time that have held up.
Maybe one Rembrandt is better than
another, but you can no longer say Rembrandt is not a good
painter. At his time, unlike now, there
were accepted criteria that artists' audiences -- much more
limited audiences -- understood. I think the
change began with Impressionism when you had a division
among people who saw the academic
painters as the accepted norm and the avant-guardists
represented the others.
15. 4/3/16, 8:07 PMART; Is It Art? Is It Good? And Who Says So?
- The New York Times
Page 4 of 6http://www.nytimes.com/1997/10/12/arts/art-is-it-
art-is-it-good-and-who-says-
so.html?pagewanted=all&pagewanted=print
There's no consensus about anything today; even the notion of
standards are in question. But I don't
think art matters less to our lives than it did in past; it probably
matters more. Look at the millions
who go to museums today. Art has landed in many more
households and in the awareness of many
more people than ever before. You could argue that because art
is so ubiquitous it is even harder to
make judgments.
PETER HOEKSTRA
Republican Congressman from Michigan and an opponent of the
N.E.A.
If people want to say, that's art, great. That's terrific. Art is
whatever people want to perceive it to be,
but that doesn't mean the Federal Government should fund it.
ALEXANDER MELAMID
Half of the artist team, Komar and Melamid
We see art as fun. As long as it gives us some kick, it goes.
Sometimes it's not accepted by the galleries
or museums as art, good art, but we believe it is.
BARBARA KRUGER
16. Artist
I think that art is the ability to show and tell what it means to be
alive. It can powerfully visualize,
textualize and/or musicalize your experience of the world, and
there are a million ways to do it. I have
trouble with categories; I don't even think high culture, low
culture. I just think it's one broad cultural
life, and all these different ways of showing and telling are in
that. I do know just the idea that because
something's in a gallery, instantly it's art, whereas something
somewhere else is not art, is silly and
narrow. I'm not interested in narrowing definitions.
KARL KATZ
Executive director of Muse Film and Television, which
produces films on art.
People look at art as if it were a checklist; the label is
sometimes more important than the work of art.
My sense is that looking at art is like having a conversation. If
it's not visual and it's not visceral and
it's not communicative, it's not a work of art.
ROBERT HUGHES
Critic and author of ''American Visions: The Epic History of Art
in America.''
4/3/16, 8:07 PMART; Is It Art? Is It Good? And Who Says So?
- The New York Times
17. Page 5 of 6http://www.nytimes.com/1997/10/12/arts/art-is-it-
art-is-it-good-and-who-says-
so.html?pagewanted=all&pagewanted=print
The N.E.A. thing is a convoluted mess now, but in its origins it
was about people thinking that immoral
and disgusting and offensive works were being funded as if they
were works of art, that is, as if they
were uplifting, worthy noble things. The Puritans thought of
religious art as a form of idolatry, a luxury
a distraction, morally questionable in its essence, compared to
the written and spoken word. The
countervailing argument in the 19th century had to do with the
moral benefits to be derived from art.
As far as I am concerned, something is a work of art if it is
made with the declared intention to be a
work of art and placed in a context where it is seen as a work of
art. That does not determine whether it
esthetically rich or stupidly banal.
MORLEY SAFER
Co-editor, ''60 Minutes''
I regard a blank canvas as a joke from beginning to middle to
end. When the Museum of Modern Art
had the big Robert Ryman retrospective, I said: ''Maybe you are
a jerk. Maybe you are the philistine
everyone says you are.'' So I wiped my mind as clean as a
Ryman canvas and I walked through the
show. Then I walked through the permanent collection. It was
like going from an absolute desert to a
perfect spring day.
LOUISE BOURGEOIS
18. Artist
Something is a work of art when it has filled its role as therapy
for the artist. I don't care about the
audience. I'm not working for the audience. The audience is
welcome to take what they can.
ROBERT STORR
Curator, department of painting and sculpture, Museum of
Modern Art
What's interesting is when art changes people's minds. The art
historian Leo Steinberg wrote about
Jasper Johns that the minute he allowed Johns to be good art, he
had to let go of something, of the
definition of what art was. Good art makes you give something
up. For years what the general public
had to give up was Impressionism and the idea that painting
should make you feel some human
warmth. An Agnes Martin or Frank Stella painting is not just
giving up images but about giving up
warmth.
With Bruce Nauman, emotion comes through video or somebody
breathing hard on an audio track; he
makes you take in emotion in a new way and let go of what
you're used to. We expected that people
would respond to our Bruce Nauman exhibition with hostility
and stay away in droves. The good news
is that they do understand video and sound works, and when
somebody does it well, they get it.
4/3/16, 8:07 PMART; Is It Art? Is It Good? And Who Says So?
19. - The New York Times
Page 6 of 6http://www.nytimes.com/1997/10/12/arts/art-is-it-
art-is-it-good-and-who-says-
so.html?pagewanted=all&pagewanted=print
Inside the art world a lot of these issues aren't dealt with
because people don't want to be embarrassed.
Lay people who react strongly may be better indicators, and the
fact that they say it's not art probably
means it has touched a nerve.
LINDA WEINTRAUB
Freelance curator and author of ''Art on the Edge and Over --
Searching for Art's Meaning in
Contemporary Society 1970's-1990's.''
When you think about art, you have to think about life. If art
doesn't sensitize us to something in the
world, clarify our perceptions, make us aware of the decisions
we have made, it's entertainment.
Photos: ANCIENT EGYPTIAN Hatshepsut, 1503-1482 B.C.
''Cultures without even a word for art
nevertheless produced great art,'' says William Rubin.
(Metropolitan Museum of Art); DUCHAMP
''Fountain,'' a urinal signed ''R. Mutt,'' from 1917. ''If the
Duchamp urinal is art, then anything is,'' says
Robert Rosenblum. (ESM/Art Resource, N.Y.; Copyright 1997,
A.R.S./A.D.A.G.P.); KOONS ''Pink
Panther,'' 1988, by Jeff Koons. ''A lot of parts are jobbed out,''
says Richard Prince. ''I don't see the
artist's hand in it, so I don't relate to it.'' (Jeff Koons Studio);
REMBRANDT ''Self-Portrait,'' painted
around 1669. ''You can no longer say Rembrandt is not a good
20. painter,'' says Philippe de Montebello.
(Metropolitan Museum of Art); BOURGEOIS''Untitled,'' a
wrapped cloth sculpture from 1996.
''Something is a work of art when it has filled its role as therapy
for the artist,'' says Louise Bourgeois.
(Robert Miller Gallery)
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Journal of Philosophy, Inc.
The Artworld
Author(s): Arthur Danto
Source: The Journal of Philosophy, Vol. 61, No. 19, American
Philosophical Association
Eastern Division Sixty-First Annual Meeting (Oct. 15, 1964),
pp. 571-584
21. Published by: Journal of Philosophy, Inc.
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SYMPOSIUM: THE WORK OF ART 571
THE ARTWORLD *
Hamlet:
22. Do you see nothing there ?
The Queen:
Nothing at all; yet all that is I see.
Shakespeare: Hamlet, Act III, Scene IV
AMLET and Socrates, though in praise and deprecation
respectively, spoke of art as a mirror held up to nature.
As with many disagreements in attitude, this one has a factual
basis. Socrates saw mirrors as but reflecting what we can
already
see; so art, insofar as mirrorlike, yields idle accurate
duplications
of the appearances of things, and is of no cognitive benefit
what-
ever. Hamlet, more acutely, recognized a remarkable feature of
reflecting surfaces, namely that they show us what we could
not
otherwise perceive-our own face and form-and so art, insofar
as it is mirrorlike, reveals us to ourselves, and is, even by
socratic
criteria, of some cognitive utility after all. As a philosopher,
how-
ever, I find Socrates' discussion defective on other, perhaps
less
profound grounds than these. If a mirror-image of o is indeed
23. an imitation of o, then, if art 'is imitation, mirror-images are
art.
But in fact mirroring objects no more is art than returning
weapons to a madman is justice; and reference to mirrorings
would be just the sly sort of counterinstance we would expect
Socrates to bring forward in rebuttal of the theory he instead
uses them to illustrate. If that theory requires us to class these
as art, it thereby shows its inadequacy: "is an imitation" will
not
do as a sufficient condition for "is art." Yet, perhaps because
artists were engaged in imitation, in Socrates' time and after,
the
insufficiency of the theory was not noticed until the invention
of
photography. Once rejected as a sufficient condition, mimesis
was
quickly discarded as even a necessary one; and since the
achieve-
ment of Kandinsky, mimetic features have been relegated to the
periphery of critical concern, so much so that some works
survive
in spite of possessing those virtues, excellence in which was
once
celebrated as the essence of art, narrowly escaping demotion to
mere illustrations.
It is, of course, indispensable in socratic discussion that all
24. participants be masters of the concept up for analysis, since the
aim is to match a real defining expression to a term in active
use, and the test for adequacy presumably consists in showing
* To be presented in a symposium on "The Work of Art" at the
sixty-
first annual meeting of the American Philosophical
Association, Eastern
Division, December 28, 1964.
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572 THE JOURNAL OF PHILOSOPHY
that the former analyzes and applies to all and only those
things
of which the latter is true. The popular disclaimer
notwithstand-
ing, then, Socrates' auditors purportedly knew what art was as
well
as what they liked; and a theory of art, regarded here as a real
definition of 'Art', is accordingly not to be of great use in help-
ing men to recognize instances of its application. Their antece-
25. dent ability to do this is precisely what the adequacy of the
theory is to be tested against, the problem being only to make
explicit what they already know. It is our use of the term that
the
theory allegedly means to capture, but we are supposed able, in
the words of a recent writer, "to separate those objects which
are
works of art from those which are not, because . . . we know
how correctly to use the word 'art' and to apply the phrase
'work
of art'." Theories, on this account, are somewhat like mirror-
images on Socrates' account, showing forth what we already
know,
wordy reflections of the actual linguistic practice we are
masters in.
But telling artworks from other things is not so simple a
matter, even for native speakers, and these days one might not
be
aware he was on artistic terrain without an artistic theory to tell
him so. And part of the reason for this lies in the fact that
terrain is constituted artistic in virtue of artistic theories, so
that
one use of theories, in addition to helping us discriminate art
from the rest, consists in making art possible. Glaucon and the
26. others could hardly have known what was art and what not:
otherwise they would never have been taken in by mirror-
images.
I
Suppose one thinks of the discovery of a whole new class of
artworks as something analogous to the discovery of a whole
new
class of facts anywhere, viz., as something for theoreticians to
explain. In science, as elsewhere, we often accommodate new
facts to old theories via auxiliary hypotheses, a pardonable
enough
conservatism when the theory in question is deemed too
valuable
to be jettisoned all at once. Now the Imitation Theory of Art
(IT) is, if one but thinks it through, an exceedingly powerful
theory, explaining a great many phenomena connected with the
causation and evaluation of artworks, bringing a surprising
unity
into a complex domain. Moreover, it is a simple matter to shore
it up against many purported counterinstances by such auxiliary
hypotheses as that the artist who deviates from mimeticity is
perverse, inept, or mad. Ineptitude, chicanery, or folly are, in
fact, testable predications. Suppose, then, tests reveal that
these
hypotheses fail to hold, that the theory, now beyond repair,
must
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SYMPOSIUM: THE WORK OF ART 573
be replaced. And a new theory is worked out, capturing what
it can of the old theory's competence, together with the
heretofore
recalcitrant facts. One might, thinking along these lines, repre-
sent certain episodes in the history of art as not dissimilar to
cer-
tain episodes in the history of science, where a conceptual
revolu-
tion is being effected and where refusal to countenance certain
facts, while in part due to prejudice, inertia, and self-interest,
is
due also to the fact that a well-established, or at least widely
credited theory is being threatened in such a way that all coher-
ence goes.
Some such episode transpired with the advent of post-impres-
sionist paintings. In terms of the prevailing artistic theory (IT),
it was impossible to accept these as art unless inept art:
otherwise
they could be discounted as hoaxes, self-advertisements, or the
28. visual counterparts of madmen's ravings. So to get them
accepted
as art, on a footing with the Transfiguration (not to speak of a
Landseer stag), required not so much a revolution in taste as a
theoretical revision of rather considerable proportions,
involving
not only the artistic enfranchisement of these objects, but an
emphasis upon newly significant features of accepted artworks,
so
that quite different accounts of their status as artworks would
now have to be given. As a result of the new theory's accept-
ance, not only were post-impressionist paintings taken up as
art,
but numbers of objects (masks, weapons, etc.) were transferred
from anthropological museums (and heterogeneous other
places)
to musees des beaux arts, though, as we would expect from the
fact that a criterion for the acceptance of a new theory is that
it account for whatever the older one did, nothing had to be
trans-
ferred out of the muse'e des beaux arts-even if there were
internal
rearrangements as between storage rooms and exhibition space.
Countless native speakers hung upon suburban mantelpieces in-
numerable replicas of paradigm cases for teaching the
expression
29. 'work of art' that would have sent their Edwardian forebears
into linguistic apoplexy.
To be sure, I distort by speaking of a theory: historically,
there were several, all, interestingly enough, more or less
defined
in terms of the IT. Art-historical complexities must yield
before
the exigencies of logical exposition, and I shall speak as
though
there were one replacing theory, partially compensating for his-
torical falsity by choosing one which was actually enunciated.
According to it, the artists in question were to be understood
not
as unsuccessfully imitating real forms but as successfully
creating
new ones, quite as real as the forms which the older art had
been
thought, in its best examples, to be creditably imitating. Art,
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574 THE JOURNAL OF PHILOSOPHY
after all, had long since been thought of as creative (Vasari
says
that God was the first artist), and the post-impressionists were
30. to be explained as genuinely creative, aiming, in Roger Fry's
words, "not at illusion but reality." This theory (RT) furnished
a whole new mode of looking at painting, old and new. Indeed,
one might almost interpret the crude drawing in Van Gogh and
Cezanne, the dislocation of form from contour in Rouault and
Dufy, the arbitrary use of color planes in Gauguin and the
Fauves,
as so many ways of drawing attention to the fact that these
were
non-imitations, specifically intended not to deceive. Logically,
this would be roughly like printing "Not Legal Tender" across a
brilliantly counterfeited dollar bill, the resulting object
(counter-
feit cum inscription) rendered incapable of deceiving anyone.
It is not an illusory dollar bill, but then, just because it is non-
illusory it does not automatically become a real dollar bill
either.
It rather occupies a freshly opened area between real objects
and
real facsimiles of real objects: it is a non-facsimile, if one
requires
31. a word, and a new contribution to the world. Thus, Van Gogh's
Potato Eaters, as a consequence of certain unmistakable distor-
tions, turns out to be a non-facsimile of real-life potato eaters;
and inasmuch as these are not facsimiles of potato eaters, Van
Gogh's picture, as a non-imitation, had as much right to be
called
a real object as did its putative subjects. By means of this
theory
(RT), artworks re-entered the thick of things from which soc-
ratic theory (IT) had sought to evict them: if no more real than
what carpenters wrought, they were at least no less real. The
Post-Impressionist won a victory in ontology.
It is in terms of RT that we must understand the artworks
around us today. Thus Roy Lichtenstein paints comic-strip
panels, though ten or twelve feet high. These are reasonably
faithful projections onto a gigantesque scale of the homely
frames
from the daily tabloid, but it is precisely the scale that counts.
A skilled engraver might incise The Virgin and the Chancellor
Rollin on a pinhead, and it would be recognizable as such to
the
keen of sight, but an engraving of a Barnett Newman on a
similar
scale would be a blob, disappearing in the reduction. A photo-
32. graph of a Lichtenstein is indiscernible from a photograph of a
counterpart panel from Steve Canyon; but the photograph fails
to capture the scale, and hence is as inaccurate a reproduction
as
a black-and-white engraving of Botticelli, scale being essential
here
as color there. Lichtensteins, then, are not imitations but new
entities, as giant whelks would be. Jasper Johns, by contrast,
paints objects with respect to which questions of scale are ir-
relevant. Yet his objects cannot be imitations, for they have the
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SYMPOSIUM: THE WORK OF ART 575
remarkable property that any intended copy of a member of this
class of objects is automatically a member of the class itself, so
that these objects are logically inimitable. Thus, a copy of a
numeral just is that numeral: a painting of 3 is a 3 made of
paint.
Johns, in addition, paints targets, flags, and maps. Finally, in
what I hope are not unwitting footnotes to Plato, two of our
pioneers-Robert Rauschenberg and Claes Oldenburg-have made
genuine beds.
Rauschenberg's bed hangs on a wall, and is streaked with some
desultory housepaint. Oldenburg's bed is a rhomboid, narrower
33. at
one end than the other, with what one might speak of as a built-
in
perspective: ideal for small bedrooms. As beds, these sell at
singularly inflated prices, but one could sleep in either of them:
Rauschenberg has expressed the fear that someone might just
climb into his bed and fall asleep. Imagine, now, a certain
Testadura-a plain speaker and noted philistine-who is not aware
that these are art, and who takes them to be reality simple and
pure. He attributes the paintstreaks on Rauschenberg's bed to
the slovenliness of the owner, and the bias in the Oldenburg
bed
to the ineptitude of the builder or the whimsy, perhaps, of who-
ever had it "custom-made." These would be mistakes, but mis-
takes of rather an odd kind, and not terribly different from that
made by the stunned birds who pecked the sham grapes of
Zeuxis.
They mistook art for reality, and so has Testadura. But it was
meant to be reality, according to RT. Can one have mistaken
reality for reality? How shall we describe Testadura 's error?
What, after all, prevents Oldenburg's creation from being a
mis-
shapen bed? This is equivalent to asking what makes it art, and
with this query we enter a domain of conceptual inquiry where
native speakers are poor guides: they are lost themselves.
II
To mistake an artwork for a real object is no great feat when
an artwork is the real object one mistakes it for. The problem is
how to as oid such errors, or to remove them once they are
made.
The artwork is a bed, and not a bed-illusion; so there is nothing
like the traumatic encounter against a flat surface that brought
it
home to the birds of Zeuxis that they had been duped. Except
34. for the guard cautioning Testadura not to sleep on the artworks,
he
might never have discovered that this was an artwork and not a
bed; and since, after all, one cannot discover that a bed is not a
bed, how is Testadura to realize that he has made an error 7 A
certain sort of explanation is required, for the error here is a
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576 THE JOURNAL OF PHILOSOPHY
curiously philosophical one, rather like, if we may assume as
cor-
rect some well-known views of P. F. Strawson, mistaking a
person
for a material body when the truth is that a person is a material
body in the sense that a whole class of predicates, sensibly ap-
plicable to material bodies, are sensibly, and by appeal to no
different criteria, applicable to persons. So you cannot discover
that a person is not a material body.
We begin by explaining, perhaps, that the paintstreaks are not
to be explained away, that they are part of the object, so the
object is not a mere bed with-as 'it happens-streaks of paint
spilled over it, but a complex object fabricated out of a bed and
35. some paintstreaks: a paint-bed. Similarly, a person is not a ma-
terial body with-as it happens-some thoughts superadded, but
is a complex entity made up of a body and some conscious
states:
a conscious-body. Persons, like artworks, must then be taken
as irreducible to parts of themselves, and are in that sense
primitive.
Or, more accurately, the paintstreaks are not part of the real
object-the bed-which happens to be part of the artwork, but
are, like the bed, part of the artwork as such. And this might be
generalized into a rough characterization of artworks that
happen
to contain real objects as parts of themselves: not every part of
an artwork A is part of a real object R when R is part of A and
can, moreover, be detached from A and seen merely as B. The
mistake thus far will have been to mistake A for part of itself,
namely B, even though it would not be incorrect to say that A
is B,
that the artwork is a bed. It is the 'is' which requires clarifica-
tion here.
There is an is that figures prominently in statements concern-
ing artworks which is not the is of either identity or
predication;
nor is it the is of existence, of identification, or some special is
made up to serve a philosophic end. Nevertheless, it is in
common
36. usage, and is readily mastered by children. It is the sense of is
in accordance with which a child, shown a circle and a triangle
and asked which is him and which his sister, will point to the
triangle saying "That is me"; or, in response to my question,
the
person next to me points to the man in purple and says "That
one is Lear"; or in the gallery I point, for my companion's
bene-
fit, to a spot in the painting before us and say "That white dab
is
Icarus." We do not mean, in these instances, that whatever is
pointed to stands for, or represents, what it is said to be, for the
word 'Icarus' stands for or represents Icarus: yet I would not
in the same sense of is point to the word and say " That is
Icarus. "
The sentence "That a is b" is perfectly compatible with "That a
is not b " when the first employs this sense of is and the second
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SYMPOSIUM: THE WORK OF ART 577
employs some other, though a and b are used nonambiguously
throughout. Often, indeed, the truth of the first requires the
truth of the second. The first, in fact, is incompatible with
"That
a is not b" only when the is is used nonambiguously
throughout.
For want of a word I shall designate this the is of artistic
identifi-
37. cation; in each case in which it is used, the a stands for some
specific physical property of, or physical part of, an object;
and,
finally, it is a necessary condition for something to be an
artwork
that some part or property of it be designable by the subject
of a sentence that employs this special is. It is an is,
incidentally,
which has near-relatives in marginal and mythical pronounce-
ments. (Thus, one is Quetzalcoatl; those are the Pillars of
Hercules.)
Let me illustrate. Two painters are asked to decorate the east
and west walls of a science library with frescoes to be
respectively
called Newton's First Law and Newton's Third Law. These
paint-
ings, when finally unveiled, look, scale apart, as follows:
A B
As objects I shall suppose the works to be indiscernible: a
black,
horizontal line on a white ground, equally large in each
dimension
and element. B explains his work as follows: a mass, pressing
downward, is met by a mass pressing upward: the lower mass
reacts equally and oppositely to the upper one. A explains his
work as follows: the line through the space is the path of an
isolated particle. The path goes from edge to edge, to give the
sense of its going beyond. If it ended or began within the
space,
the line would be curved: and it is parallel to the top and
bottom
edges, for if it were closer to one than to another, there would
have to be a force accounting for it, and this is inconsistent
38. with
its being the path of an isolated particle.
Much follows from these artistic identifications. To regard
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578 THE JOURNAL OF PHILOSOPHY
the middle line as an edge (mass meeting mass) imposes the
need
to identify the top and bottom half of the picture as rectangles,
and
as two distinct parts (not necessarily as two masses, for the line
could be the edge of one mass jutting up-or down-into empty
space). If it is an edge, we cannot thus take the entire area of
the
painting as a single space: it is rather composed of two forms,
or
one form and a non-form. We could take the entire area as a
single space only by taking the middle horizontal as a line
which
is not an edge. But this almost requires a three-dimensional
identification of the whole picture: the area can be a flat
surface
39. which the line is above (Jet-flight), or below (Submarine-path),
or
on (Line), or in (Fissure), or through (Newton's First Law)-
though in this last case the area is not a flat surface but a trans-
parent cross section of absolute space. We could make all these
prepositional qualifications clear by imagining perpendicular
cross
sections to the picture plane. Then, depending upon the ap-
plicable prepositional clause, the area is (artistically)
interrupted
or not by the horizontal element. If we take the line as through
space, the edges of the picture are not really the edges of the
space: the space goes beyond the picture if the line itself does;
and we are in the same space as the line is. As B, the edges of
the picture can be part of the picture in case the masses go
right
to the edges, so that the edges of the picture are their edges. In
that case, the vertices of the picture would be the vertices of
the
masses, except that the masses have four vertices more than the
picture itself does: here four vertices would be part of the art
work which were not part of the real object. Again, the faces
of the masses could be the face of the picture, and in looking at
40. the picture, we are looking at these faces: but space has no
face,
and on the reading of A the work has to be read as faceless, and
the face of the physical object would not be part of the artwork.
Notice here how one artistic identification engenders another
artis-
tic identification, and how, consistently with a given
identification,
we are required to give others and precluded from still others:
indeed, a given identification determines how many elements
the
work is to contain. These different identifications are
incompatible
with one another, or generally so, and each might be said to
make
a different artwork, even though each artwork contains the
identical
real object as part of itself-or at least parts of the identical real
object as parts of itself. There are, of course, senseless
identifica-
tions: no one could, I think, sensibly read the middle horizontal
as
Love's Labour's Lost or The Asceendency of St. Erasmus.
Fiinally,
notice how acceptance of one identification rather than another
is in effect to exchange one world for another. We could,
indeed,
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41. SYMPOSIUM: THE WORK OF ART 579
enter a quiet poetic world by identifying the upper area with a
clear and cloudless sky, reflected in the still surface of the
water
below, whiteness kept from whiteness only by the unreal
boundary
of the horizon.
And now Testadura, having hovered in the wings throughout
this discussion, protests that all he sees is paint: a white
painted
oblong with a black line painted across it. And how right he
really is: that is all he sees or that anybody can, we aesthetes
in-
cluded. So, if he asks us to show him what there is further to
see,
to demonstrate through pointing that this is an artwork (Sea and
Sky), we cannot comply, for he has overlooked nothing (and it
would be absurd to suppose he had, that there was something
tiny
we could point to and he, peering closely, say "So it is! A work
of art after all !"). We cannot help him until he has mastered
42. the is of artistic identification and so constitutes it a work of
art.
If he cannot achieve this, he will never look upon artworks: he
will
be like a child who sees sticks as sticks.
But what about pure abstractions, say something that looks just
like A but is entitled No. 7? The 10th Street abstractionist
blankly insists that there is nothing here but white paint and
black,
and none of our literary identifications need apply. What then
distinguishes him from Testadura, whose philistine utterances
are
indiscernible from his? And how can it be an artwork for him
and not for Testadura, when they agree that there is nothing
that
does not meet the eye? The answer, unpopular as it is likely to
be to purists of every variety, lies in the fact that this artist has
returned to the physicality of paint through an atmosphere com-
pounded of artistic theories and the history of recent and
remote
painting, elements of which he is trying to refine out of his
own
work; and as a consequence of this his work belongs in this
atmos-
phere and is part of this history. He has achieved abstraction
43. through rejection of artistic identifications, returning to the
real
world from which such identifications remove us (he thinks),
somewhat in the mode of Ch'ing Yuan, who wrote:
Before I had studied Zen for thirty years, I saw mountains as
mountains
and waters as waters. When I arrived at a more intimate
knowledge, I came
to the point where I saw that mountains are not mountains, and
waters are
not waters. But now that I have got the very substance I am at
rest. For
it is just that I see mountains once again as mountains, and
waters once
again as waters.
His identification of what he has made is logically dependent
upon
the theories and history he rejects. The difference between his
ut-
terance and Testadura's "This is black paint and white paint and
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44. 580 THE JOURNAL OF PHILOSOPHY
nothing more" lies in the fact that he is still using the is of
artistic identification, so that his use of "That black paint is
black
paint" is not a tautology. Testadura is not at that stage. To see
something as art requires something the eye cannot decry-an
atmosphere of artistic theory, a knowledge of the history of art:
an artworld.
III
Mr. Andy Warhol, the Pop artist, displays facsimiles of Brillo
cartons, piled high, in neat stacks, as in the stockroom of the
supermarket. They happen to be of wood, painted to look like
cardboard, and why not? To paraphrase the critic of the Times,
if one may make the facsimile of a human being out of bronze,
why not the facsimile of a Brillo carton out of plywood? The
cost of these boxes happens to be 2 x 103 that of their homely
counterparts in real life-a differential hardly ascribable to their
advantage in durability. In fact the Brillo people might, at
some
45. slight increase in cost, make their boxes out of plywood
without
these becoming artworks, and Warhol might make his out of
cardboard without their ceasing to be art. So we may forget
ques-
tions of intrinsic value, and ask why the Brillo people cannot
manufacture art and why Warhol cannot but make artworks.
Well, his are made by hand, to be sure. Which is like an insane
reversal of Picasso's strategy in pasting the label from a bottle
of
Suze onto a drawing, saying as it were that the academic artist,
concerned with exact imitation, must always fall short of the
real
thing: so why not just use the real thing? The Pop artist
laboriously reproduces machine-made objects by hand, e.g.,
paint-
ing the labels on coffee cans (one can hear the familiar com-
mendation "Entirely made by hand" falling painfully out of the
guide's vocabulary when confronted by these objects). But the
difference cannot consist in craft: a man who carved pebbles
out
of stones and carefully constructed a work called Gravel Pile
might invoke the labor theory of value to account for the price
he
demands; but the question is, What makes it art? And why need
Warhol make these things anyway? Why not just scrawl his
46. signature across one? Or crush one up and display it as Crushed
Britto Box ("A protest against mechanization . . .") or simply
display a Brillo carton as Uncrushed Britto Box ("A bold af-
firmation of the plastic authenticity of industrial . . .") ? Is this
man a kind of Midas, turning whatever he touches into the gold
of
pure art? And the whole world consisting of latent artworks
waiting, like the bread and wine of reality, to be transfigured,
through some dark mystery, into the indiscernible flesh and
blood
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SYMPOSIUM: THE WORK OF ART 581
of the sacrament? Never mind that the Brillo box may not be
good, much less great art. The impressive thing is that it is art
at all. But if it is, why are not the indiscernible Brillo boxes
that are in the stockroom? Or has the whole distinction between
art and reality broken down?
Suppose a man collects objects (ready-mades), including a
Brillo carton; we praise the exhibit for variety, ingenuity, what
you will. Next he exhibits nothing but Brillo cartons, and we
criticize it as dull, repetitive, self-plagiarizing-or (more pro-
47. foundly) claim that he is obsessed by regularity and repetition,
as in Marienbad. Or he piles them high, leaving a narrow path;
we tread our way through the smooth opaque stacks and find it
an
unsettling experience, and write it up as the closing in of con-
sumer products, confining us as prisoners: or we say he is a
modern pyramid builder. True, we don't say these things about
the stockboy. But then a stockroom is not an art gallery, and
we cannot readily separate the Brillo cartons from the gallery
they are in, any more than we can separate the Rauschenberg
bed
from the paint upon it. Outside the gallery, they are pasteboard
cartons. But then, scoured clean of paint, Rauschenberg's bed is
a bed, just what it was before it was transformed into art. But
then if we think this matter through, we discover that the artist
has failed, really and of necessity, to produce a mere real
object.
He has produced an artwork, his use of real Brillo cartons
being
but an expansion of the resources available to arists, a
contribution
to artists' materials, as oil paint was, or tuche.
What in the end makes the difference between a Brillo box and
a work of art consisting of a Brillo Box is a certain theory of
art.
It is the theory that takes it up into the world of art, and keeps
it from collapsing into the real object which it is (in a sense of
is other than that of artistic identification). Of course, without
the theory, one is unlikely to see it as art, and in order to see it
as part of the artworld, one must have mastered a good deal of
artistic theory as well as a considerable amount of the history
of
48. recent New York painting. It could not have been art fifty years
ago. But then there could not have been, everything being
equal,
flight insurance in the Middle Ages, or Etruscan typewriter
erasers.
The world has to be ready for certain things, the artworld no
less
than the real one. It is the role of artistic theories, these days as
always, to make the artworld, and art, possible. It would, I
should
think, never have occurred to the painters of Lascaux that they
were producing art on those walls. Not unless there were
neolithic
aestheticians.
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582 THE JOURNAL OF PHILOSOPHY
IV
The artworld stands to the real world in something like the
relationship in which the City of God stands to the Earthly
City.
Certain objects, like certain individuals, enjoy a double citizen-
ship, but there remains, the RT notwithstanding, a fundamental
contrast between artworks and real objects. Perhaps this was
already dimly sensed by the early framers of the IT who, in-
choately realizing the nonreality of art, were perhaps limited
49. only
in supposing that the sole way objects had of being other than
real is to be sham, so that artworks necessarily had to be
imitations
of real objects. This was too narrow. So Yeats saw in writing
"Once out of nature I shall never take/My bodily form from
any natural thing." It is but a matter of choice: and the Brillo
box of the artworld may be just the Brillo box of the real one,
separated and united by the is of artistic identification. But I
should like to say some final words about the theories that
make
artworks possible, and their relationship to one another. In so
doing, I shall beg some of the hardest philosophical questions I
know.
I shall now think of pairs of predicates related to each other
as "opposites," conceding straight off the vagueness of this
demode
term. Contradictory predicates are not opposites, since one of
each of them must apply to every object in the universe, and
neither of a pair of opposites need apply to some objects in the
universe. An object must first be of a certain kind before either
of a pair of opposites applies to it, and then at most and at least
one of the opposites must apply to it. So opposites are not con-
traries, for contraries may both be false of some objects in the
universe, but opposites cannot both be false; for of some
objects,
neither of a pair of opposites sensibly applies, unless the object
is
of the right sort. Then, if the object is of the required kind, the
opposites behave as contradictories. If P and non-P are op-
posites, an object o must be of a certain kind K before either of
these sensibly applies; but if o is a member of K, then o either
is
F or non-F, to the exclusion of the other. The class of pairs of
opposites that sensibly apply to the (6)Ko I shall designate as
50. the
class of K-relevant predicates. And a necessary condition for
an
object to be of a kind K is that at least one pair of K-relevant
op-
posites be sensibly applicable to it. But, in fact, if an object is
of kind K, at least and at most one of each K-relevant pair of
opposites applies to it.
I am now interested in the K-relevant predicates for the class
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SYMPOSIUM: THE WORK OF ART 583
K of artworks. And let p and non-F be an opposite pair of such
predicates. Now it might happen that, throughout an entire pe-
riod of time, every artwork is non-F. But since nothing thus far
is both an artwork and F, it might never occur to anyone that
non-
F is an artistically relevant predicate. The non-P-ness of
artworks
goes unmarked. By contrast, all works up to a given time might
be
G, it never occurring to anyone until that time that something
might both be an artwork and non-G; indeed, it might have
been
51. thought that G was a defining trait of artworks when in fact
something might first have to be an artwork before G is
sensibly
predicable of it-in which case non-G might also be predicable
of
artworks, and G itself then could not have been a defining trait
of this class.
Let G be 'is representational' and let F be 'is expressionist'. At
a given time, these and their opposites are perhaps the only art-
relevant predicates in critical use. Now letting '+' stand for a
given predicate P and '-' for its opposite non-P, we may
construct
a style matrix more or less as follows:
F G
+ +
+_
+
The rows determine available styles, given the active critical
vocabulary: representational expressionistic (e.g., Fauvism);
repre-
sentational nonexpressionistic (Ingres); nonrepresentational ex-
pressionistic (Abstract Expressionism); nonrepresentational
non-
expressionist (hard-edge abstraction). Plainly, as we add art-
relevant predicates, we increase the number of available styles
52. at
the rate of 21f. It is, of course, not easy to see in advance
which
predicates are going to be added or replaced by their opposites,
but
suppose an artist determines that H shall henceforth be
artistically
relevant for his paintings. Then, in fact, both H and non-H be-
come artistically relevant for alt painting, and if his is the first
and only painting that is H, every other painting in existence
be-
comes non-H, and the entire community of paintings is
enriched,
together with a doubling of the available style opportunities. It
is this retroactive enrichment of the entities in the artworld that
makes it possible to discuss Raphael and De Kooning together,
or
Lichtenstein and Michelangelo. The greater the variety of
artisti-
cally relevant predicates, the more complex the individual
members
of the artworld become; and the more one knows of the entire
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53. 584 THE JOURNAL OF PHILOSOPHY
population of the artworld, the richer one's experience with any
of its members.
In this regard, notice that, if there are m artistically relevant
predicates, there is always a bottom row with m minuses. This
row is apt to be occupied by purists. Having scoured their can-
vasses clear of what they regard as inessential, they credit
them-
selves with having distilled out the essence of art. But this is
just
their fallacy: exactly as many artistically relevant predicates
stand
true of their square monochromes as stand true of any member
of
the Artworld, and they can exist as artworks only insofar as
"im-
pure" paintings exist. Strictly speaking, a black square by Rein-
hardt is artistically as rich as Titian's Sacred and Profane Love.
This explains how less is more.
54. Fashion, as it happens, favors certain rows of the style matrix:
museums, connoisseurs, and others are makeweights in the Art-
world. To insist, or seek to, that all artists become representa-
tional, perhaps to gain entry into a specially prestigious
exhibition,
cuts the available style matrix in half: there are then 2'f/2 ways
of
satisfying the requirement, and museums then can exhibit all
these
"approaches" to the topic they have set. But this is a matter of
almost purely sociological interest: one row in the matrix is as
legitimate as another. An artistic breakthrough consists, I sup-
pose, in adding the possibility of a column to the matrix.
Artists
then, with greater or less alacrity, occupy the positions thus
opened
up: this is a remarkable feature of contemporary art, and for
those
unfamiliar with the matrix, it is hard, and perhaps impossible,
to
recognize certain positions as occupied by artworks. Nor would
these things be artworks without the theories and the histories
of the Artworld.
Brillo boxes enter the artworld with that same tonic in-
55. congruity the commedia dell'arte characters bring into Ariadne
auf Naxos. Whatever is the artistically relevant predicate in
vir-
tue of which they gain their entry, the rest of the Artworld
becomes
that much the richer in having the opposite predicate available
and applicable to its members. And, to return to the views of
Hamlet with which we began this discussion, Brillo boxes may
re-
veal us to ourselves as well as anything might: as a mirror held
up to nature, they might serve to catch the conscience of our
kings.
ARTHUR DANTO
COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY
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Contentsimage 1image 2image 3image 4image 5image 6image
7image 8image 9image 10image 11image 12image 13image
14Issue Table of ContentsThe Journal of Philosophy, Vol. 61,
No. 19, Oct. 15, 1964Front MatterCommemorative Symposium
on C. I. LewisCoherence, Certainty, and Epistemic Priority [pp.
545 - 557]Epistemic Priority and Coherence: Comments [pp.
557 - 559]C. I. Lewis's Theory of Value and Ethics [pp. 559 -
567]Three Comments on Lewis's Views on the Right and the
Good: Comments [pp. 567 - 570]Symposium: The Work of
ArtThe Artworld [pp. 571 - 584]Theories of Art and the
Artworld: Comments [pp. 585 - 587]Notes and News [pp. 587 -
590]Program: American Philosophical Association Eastern
56. Division Sixty-First Annual Meeting Statler Hilton Hotel,
Boston, Massachusetts December 27-29, 1964 [pp. 591 -
594]Back Matter
Journal of Philosophy, Inc.
The Artworld
Author(s): Arthur Danto
Source: The Journal of Philosophy, Vol. 61, No. 19, American
Philosophical Association
Eastern Division Sixty-First Annual Meeting (Oct. 15, 1964),
pp. 571-584
Published by: Journal of Philosophy, Inc.
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2022937
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SYMPOSIUM: THE WORK OF ART 571
THE ARTWORLD *
Hamlet:
Do you see nothing there ?
The Queen:
Nothing at all; yet all that is I see.
Shakespeare: Hamlet, Act III, Scene IV
AMLET and Socrates, though in praise and deprecation
respectively, spoke of art as a mirror held up to nature.
As with many disagreements in attitude, this one has a factual
basis. Socrates saw mirrors as but reflecting what we can
58. already
see; so art, insofar as mirrorlike, yields idle accurate
duplications
of the appearances of things, and is of no cognitive benefit
what-
ever. Hamlet, more acutely, recognized a remarkable feature of
reflecting surfaces, namely that they show us what we could not
otherwise perceive-our own face and form-and so art, insofar
as it is mirrorlike, reveals us to ourselves, and is, even by
socratic
criteria, of some cognitive utility after all. As a philosopher,
how-
ever, I find Socrates' discussion defective on other, perhaps less
profound grounds than these. If a mirror-image of o is indeed
an imitation of o, then, if art 'is imitation, mirror-images are art.
But in fact mirroring objects no more is art than returning
weapons to a madman is justice; and reference to mirrorings
would be just the sly sort of counterinstance we would expect
Socrates to bring forward in rebuttal of the theory he instead
uses them to illustrate. If that theory requires us to class these
as art, it thereby shows its inadequacy: "is an imitation" will not
do as a sufficient condition for "is art." Yet, perhaps because
artists were engaged in imitation, in Socrates' time and after,
the
insufficiency of the theory was not noticed until the invention
of
photography. Once rejected as a sufficient condition, mimesis
was
quickly discarded as even a necessary one; and since the
achieve-
ment of Kandinsky, mimetic features have been relegated to the
periphery of critical concern, so much so that some works
survive
in spite of possessing those virtues, excellence in which was
once
celebrated as the essence of art, narrowly escaping demotion to
59. mere illustrations.
It is, of course, indispensable in socratic discussion that all
participants be masters of the concept up for analysis, since the
aim is to match a real defining expression to a term in active
use, and the test for adequacy presumably consists in showing
* To be presented in a symposium on "The Work of Art" at the
sixty-
first annual meeting of the American Philosophical Association,
Eastern
Division, December 28, 1964.
572 THE JOURNAL OF PHILOSOPHY
that the former analyzes and applies to all and only those things
of which the latter is true. The popular disclaimer notwithstand-
ing, then, Socrates' auditors purportedly knew what art was as
well
as what they liked; and a theory of art, regarded here as a real
definition of 'Art', is accordingly not to be of great use in help-
ing men to recognize instances of its application. Their antece-
dent ability to do this is precisely what the adequacy of the
theory is to be tested against, the problem being only to make
explicit what they already know. It is our use of the term that
the
theory allegedly means to capture, but we are supposed able, in
the words of a recent writer, "to separate those objects which
are
works of art from those which are not, because . . . we know
how correctly to use the word 'art' and to apply the phrase 'work
of art'." Theories, on this account, are somewhat like mirror-
images on Socrates' account, showing forth what we already
know,
60. wordy reflections of the actual linguistic practice we are
masters in.
But telling artworks from other things is not so simple a
matter, even for native speakers, and these days one might not
be
aware he was on artistic terrain without an artistic theory to tell
him so. And part of the reason for this lies in the fact that
terrain is constituted artistic in virtue of artistic theories, so
that
one use of theories, in addition to helping us discriminate art
from the rest, consists in making art possible. Glaucon and the
others could hardly have known what was art and what not:
otherwise they would never have been taken in by mirror-
images.
I
Suppose one thinks of the discovery of a whole new class of
artworks as something analogous to the discovery of a whole
new
class of facts anywhere, viz., as something for theoreticians to
explain. In science, as elsewhere, we often accommodate new
facts to old theories via auxiliary hypotheses, a pardonable
enough
conservatism when the theory in question is deemed too
valuable
to be jettisoned all at once. Now the Imitation Theory of Art
(IT) is, if one but thinks it through, an exceedingly powerful
theory, explaining a great many phenomena connected with the
causation and evaluation of artworks, bringing a surprising
unity
into a complex domain. Moreover, it is a simple matter to shore
it up against many purported counterinstances by such auxiliary
hypotheses as that the artist who deviates from mimeticity is
perverse, inept, or mad. Ineptitude, chicanery, or folly are, in
61. fact, testable predications. Suppose, then, tests reveal that these
hypotheses fail to hold, that the theory, now beyond repair,
must
SYMPOSIUM: THE WORK OF ART 573
be replaced. And a new theory is worked out, capturing what
it can of the old theory's competence, together with the
heretofore
recalcitrant facts. One might, thinking along these lines, repre-
sent certain episodes in the history of art as not dissimilar to
cer-
tain episodes in the history of science, where a conceptual
revolu-
tion is being effected and where refusal to countenance certain
facts, while in part due to prejudice, inertia, and self-interest, is
due also to the fact that a well-established, or at least widely
credited theory is being threatened in such a way that all coher-
ence goes.
Some such episode transpired with the advent of post-impres-
sionist paintings. In terms of the prevailing artistic theory (IT),
it was impossible to accept these as art unless inept art:
otherwise
they could be discounted as hoaxes, self-advertisements, or the
visual counterparts of madmen's ravings. So to get them
accepted
as art, on a footing with the Transfiguration (not to speak of a
Landseer stag), required not so much a revolution in taste as a
theoretical revision of rather considerable proportions,
involving
not only the artistic enfranchisement of these objects, but an
emphasis upon newly significant features of accepted artworks,
so
62. that quite different accounts of their status as artworks would
now have to be given. As a result of the new theory's accept-
ance, not only were post-impressionist paintings taken up as art,
but numbers of objects (masks, weapons, etc.) were transferred
from anthropological museums (and heterogeneous other places)
to musees des beaux arts, though, as we would expect from the
fact that a criterion for the acceptance of a new theory is that
it account for whatever the older one did, nothing had to be
trans-
ferred out of the muse'e des beaux arts-even if there were
internal
rearrangements as between storage rooms and exhibition space.
Countless native speakers hung upon suburban mantelpieces in-
numerable replicas of paradigm cases for teaching the
expression
'work of art' that would have sent their Edwardian forebears
into linguistic apoplexy.
To be sure, I distort by speaking of a theory: historically,
there were several, all, interestingly enough, more or less
defined
in terms of the IT. Art-historical complexities must yield before
the exigencies of logical exposition, and I shall speak as though
there were one replacing theory, partially compensating for his-
torical falsity by choosing one which was actually enunciated.
According to it, the artists in question were to be understood
not
as unsuccessfully imitating real forms but as successfully
creating
new ones, quite as real as the forms which the older art had
been
thought, in its best examples, to be creditably imitating. Art,
574 THE JOURNAL OF PHILOSOPHY
63. after all, had long since been thought of as creative (Vasari says
that God was the first artist), and the post-impressionists were
to be explained as genuinely creative, aiming, in Roger Fry's
words, "not at illusion but reality." This theory (RT) furnished
a whole new mode of looking at painting, old and new. Indeed,
one might almost interpret the crude drawing in Van Gogh and
Cezanne, the dislocation of form from contour in Rouault and
Dufy, the arbitrary use of color planes in Gauguin and the
Fauves,
as so many ways of drawing attention to the fact that these were
non-imitations, specifically intended not to deceive. Logically,
this would be roughly like printing "Not Legal Tender" across a
brilliantly counterfeited dollar bill, the resulting object
(counter-
feit cum inscription) rendered incapable of deceiving anyone.
It is not an illusory dollar bill, but then, just because it is non-
illusory it does not automatically become a real dollar bill
either.
It rather occupies a freshly opened area between real objects
and
real facsimiles of real objects: it is a non-facsimile, if one
requires
a word, and a new contribution to the world. Thus, Van Gogh's
Potato Eaters, as a consequence of certain unmistakable distor-
tions, turns out to be a non-facsimile of real-life potato eaters;
and inasmuch as these are not facsimiles of potato eaters, Van
Gogh's picture, as a non-imitation, had as much right to be
called
a real object as did its putative subjects. By means of this
theory
(RT), artworks re-entered the thick of things from which soc-
ratic theory (IT) had sought to evict them: if no more real than
what carpenters wrought, they were at least no less real. The
Post-Impressionist won a victory in ontology.
64. It is in terms of RT that we must understand the artworks
around us today. Thus Roy Lichtenstein paints comic-strip
panels, though ten or twelve feet high. These are reasonably
faithful projections onto a gigantesque scale of the homely
frames
from the daily tabloid, but it is precisely the scale that counts.
A skilled engraver might incise The Virgin and the Chancellor
Rollin on a pinhead, and it would be recognizable as such to the
keen of sight, but an engraving of a Barnett Newman on a
similar
scale would be a blob, disappearing in the reduction. A photo-
graph of a Lichtenstein is indiscernible from a photograph of a
counterpart panel from Steve Canyon; but the photograph fails
to capture the scale, and hence is as inaccurate a reproduction
as
a black-and-white engraving of Botticelli, scale being essential
here
as color there. Lichtensteins, then, are not imitations but new
entities, as giant whelks would be. Jasper Johns, by contrast,
paints objects with respect to which questions of scale are ir-
relevant. Yet his objects cannot be imitations, for they have the
SYMPOSIUM: THE WORK OF ART 575
remarkable property that any intended copy of a member of this
class of objects is automatically a member of the class itself, so
that these objects are logically inimitable. Thus, a copy of a
numeral just is that numeral: a painting of 3 is a 3 made of
paint.
Johns, in addition, paints targets, flags, and maps. Finally, in
what I hope are not unwitting footnotes to Plato, two of our
pioneers-Robert Rauschenberg and Claes Oldenburg-have made
genuine beds.
65. Rauschenberg's bed hangs on a wall, and is streaked with some
desultory housepaint. Oldenburg's bed is a rhomboid, narrower
at
one end than the other, with what one might speak of as a built-
in
perspective: ideal for small bedrooms. As beds, these sell at
singularly inflated prices, but one could sleep in either of them:
Rauschenberg has expressed the fear that someone might just
climb into his bed and fall asleep. Imagine, now, a certain
Testadura-a plain speaker and noted philistine-who is not aware
that these are art, and who takes them to be reality simple and
pure. He attributes the paintstreaks on Rauschenberg's bed to
the slovenliness of the owner, and the bias in the Oldenburg bed
to the ineptitude of the builder or the whimsy, perhaps, of who-
ever had it "custom-made." These would be mistakes, but mis-
takes of rather an odd kind, and not terribly different from that
made by the stunned birds who pecked the sham grapes of
Zeuxis.
They mistook art for reality, and so has Testadura. But it was
meant to be reality, according to RT. Can one have mistaken
reality for reality? How shall we describe Testadura 's error?
What, after all, prevents Oldenburg's creation from being a mis-
shapen bed? This is equivalent to asking what makes it art, and
with this query we enter a domain of conceptual inquiry where
native speakers are poor guides: they are lost themselves.
II
To mistake an artwork for a real object is no great feat when
an artwork is the real object one mistakes it for. The problem is
how to as oid such errors, or to remove them once they are
made.
The artwork is a bed, and not a bed-illusion; so there is nothing
66. like the traumatic encounter against a flat surface that brought it
home to the birds of Zeuxis that they had been duped. Except
for the guard cautioning Testadura not to sleep on the artworks,
he
might never have discovered that this was an artwork and not a
bed; and since, after all, one cannot discover that a bed is not a
bed, how is Testadura to realize that he has made an error 7 A
certain sort of explanation is required, for the error here is a
576 THE JOURNAL OF PHILOSOPHY
curiously philosophical one, rather like, if we may assume as
cor-
rect some well-known views of P. F. Strawson, mistaking a
person
for a material body when the truth is that a person is a material
body in the sense that a whole class of predicates, sensibly ap-
plicable to material bodies, are sensibly, and by appeal to no
different criteria, applicable to persons. So you cannot discover
that a person is not a material body.
We begin by explaining, perhaps, that the paintstreaks are not
to be explained away, that they are part of the object, so the
object is not a mere bed with-as 'it happens-streaks of paint
spilled over it, but a complex object fabricated out of a bed and
some paintstreaks: a paint-bed. Similarly, a person is not a ma-
terial body with-as it happens-some thoughts superadded, but
is a complex entity made up of a body and some conscious
states:
67. a conscious-body. Persons, like artworks, must then be taken
as irreducible to parts of themselves, and are in that sense
primitive.
Or, more accurately, the paintstreaks are not part of the real
object-the bed-which happens to be part of the artwork, but
are, like the bed, part of the artwork as such. And this might be
generalized into a rough characterization of artworks that
happen
to contain real objects as parts of themselves: not every part of
an artwork A is part of a real object R when R is part of A and
can, moreover, be detached from A and seen merely as B. The
mistake thus far will have been to mistake A for part of itself,
namely B, even though it would not be incorrect to say that A is
B,
that the artwork is a bed. It is the 'is' which requires clarifica-
tion here.
There is an is that figures prominently in statements concern-
ing artworks which is not the is of either identity or predication;
nor is it the is of existence, of identification, or some special is
made up to serve a philosophic end. Nevertheless, it is in
common
usage, and is readily mastered by children. It is the sense of is
in accordance with which a child, shown a circle and a triangle
and asked which is him and which his sister, will point to the
triangle saying "That is me"; or, in response to my question, the
person next to me points to the man in purple and says "That
one is Lear"; or in the gallery I point, for my companion's bene-
fit, to a spot in the painting before us and say "That white dab is
Icarus." We do not mean, in these instances, that whatever is
pointed to stands for, or represents, what it is said to be, for the
word 'Icarus' stands for or represents Icarus: yet I would not
in the same sense of is point to the word and say " That is
Icarus. "
The sentence "That a is b" is perfectly compatible with "That a
is not b " when the first employs this sense of is and the second
68. SYMPOSIUM: THE WORK OF ART 577
employs some other, though a and b are used nonambiguously
throughout. Often, indeed, the truth of the first requires the
truth of the second. The first, in fact, is incompatible with "That
a is not b" only when the is is used nonambiguously throughout.
For want of a word I shall designate this the is of artistic
identifi-
cation; in each case in which it is used, the a stands for some
specific physical property of, or physical part of, an object; and,
finally, it is a necessary condition for something to be an
artwork
that some part or property of it be designable by the subject
of a sentence that employs this special is. It is an is,
incidentally,
which has near-relatives in marginal and mythical pronounce-
ments. (Thus, one is Quetzalcoatl; those are the Pillars of
Hercules.)
Let me illustrate. Two painters are asked to decorate the east
and west walls of a science library with frescoes to be
respectively
called Newton's First Law and Newton's Third Law. These
paint-
ings, when finally unveiled, look, scale apart, as follows:
A B
As objects I shall suppose the works to be indiscernible: a
black,
horizontal line on a white ground, equally large in each
dimension
and element. B explains his work as follows: a mass, pressing
69. downward, is met by a mass pressing upward: the lower mass
reacts equally and oppositely to the upper one. A explains his
work as follows: the line through the space is the path of an
isolated particle. The path goes from edge to edge, to give the
sense of its going beyond. If it ended or began within the space,
the line would be curved: and it is parallel to the top and bottom
edges, for if it were closer to one than to another, there would
have to be a force accounting for it, and this is inconsistent with
its being the path of an isolated particle.
Much follows from these artistic identifications. To regard
578 THE JOURNAL OF PHILOSOPHY
the middle line as an edge (mass meeting mass) imposes the
need
to identify the top and bottom half of the picture as rectangles,
and
as two distinct parts (not necessarily as two masses, for the line
could be the edge of one mass jutting up-or down-into empty
space). If it is an edge, we cannot thus take the entire area of
the
painting as a single space: it is rather composed of two forms,
or
one form and a non-form. We could take the entire area as a
single space only by taking the middle horizontal as a line
which
is not an edge. But this almost requires a three-dimensional
identification of the whole picture: the area can be a flat surface
which the line is above (Jet-flight), or below (Submarine-path),
or
on (Line), or in (Fissure), or through (Newton's First Law)-
though in this last case the area is not a flat surface but a trans-
parent cross section of absolute space. We could make all these
70. prepositional qualifications clear by imagining perpendicular
cross
sections to the picture plane. Then, depending upon the ap-
plicable prepositional clause, the area is (artistically)
interrupted
or not by the horizontal element. If we take the line as through
space, the edges of the picture are not really the edges of the
space: the space goes beyond the picture if the line itself does;
and we are in the same space as the line is. As B, the edges of
the picture can be part of the picture in case the masses go right
to the edges, so that the edges of the picture are their edges. In
that case, the vertices of the picture would be the vertices of the
masses, except that the masses have four vertices more than the
picture itself does: here four vertices would be part of the art
work which were not part of the real object. Again, the faces
of the masses could be the face of the picture, and in looking at
the picture, we are looking at these faces: but space has no face,
and on the reading of A the work has to be read as faceless, and
the face of the physical object would not be part of the artwork.
Notice here how one artistic identification engenders another
artis-
tic identification, and how, consistently with a given
identification,
we are required to give others and precluded from still others:
indeed, a given identification determines how many elements
the
work is to contain. These different identifications are
incompatible
with one another, or generally so, and each might be said to
make
a different artwork, even though each artwork contains the
identical
real object as part of itself-or at least parts of the identical real
object as parts of itself. There are, of course, senseless
identifica-
tions: no one could, I think, sensibly read the middle horizontal
71. as
Love's Labour's Lost or The Asceendency of St. Erasmus.
Fiinally,
notice how acceptance of one identification rather than another
is in effect to exchange one world for another. We could,
indeed,
SYMPOSIUM: THE WORK OF ART 579
enter a quiet poetic world by identifying the upper area with a
clear and cloudless sky, reflected in the still surface of the
water
below, whiteness kept from whiteness only by the unreal
boundary
of the horizon.
And now Testadura, having hovered in the wings throughout
this discussion, protests that all he sees is paint: a white painted
oblong with a black line painted across it. And how right he
really is: that is all he sees or that anybody can, we aesthetes in-
cluded. So, if he asks us to show him what there is further to
see,
to demonstrate through pointing that this is an artwork (Sea and
Sky), we cannot comply, for he has overlooked nothing (and it
would be absurd to suppose he had, that there was something
tiny
we could point to and he, peering closely, say "So it is! A work
of art after all !"). We cannot help him until he has mastered
the is of artistic identification and so constitutes it a work of
art.
If he cannot achieve this, he will never look upon artworks: he
will
be like a child who sees sticks as sticks.
72. But what about pure abstractions, say something that looks just
like A but is entitled No. 7? The 10th Street abstractionist
blankly insists that there is nothing here but white paint and
black,
and none of our literary identifications need apply. What then
distinguishes him from Testadura, whose philistine utterances
are
indiscernible from his? And how can it be an artwork for him
and not for Testadura, when they agree that there is nothing that
does not meet the eye? The answer, unpopular as it is likely to
be to purists of every variety, lies in the fact that this artist has
returned to the physicality of paint through an atmosphere com-
pounded of artistic theories and the history of recent and remote
painting, elements of which he is trying to refine out of his own
work; and as a consequence of this his work belongs in this
atmos-
phere and is part of this history. He has achieved abstraction
through rejection of artistic identifications, returning to the real
world from which such identifications remove us (he thinks),
somewhat in the mode of Ch'ing Yuan, who wrote:
Before I had studied Zen for thirty years, I saw mountains as
mountains
and waters as waters. When I arrived at a more intimate
knowledge, I came
to the point where I saw that mountains are not mountains, and
waters are
not waters. But now that I have got the very substance I am at
rest. For
it is just that I see mountains once again as mountains, and
waters once
again as waters.
His identification of what he has made is logically dependent
upon
the theories and history he rejects. The difference between his
73. ut-
terance and Testadura's "This is black paint and white paint and
580 THE JOURNAL OF PHILOSOPHY
nothing more" lies in the fact that he is still using the is of
artistic identification, so that his use of "That black paint is
black
paint" is not a tautology. Testadura is not at that stage. To see
something as art requires something the eye cannot decry-an
atmosphere of artistic theory, a knowledge of the history of art:
an artworld.
III
Mr. Andy Warhol, the Pop artist, displays facsimiles of Brillo
cartons, piled high, in neat stacks, as in the stockroom of the
supermarket. They happen to be of wood, painted to look like
cardboard, and why not? To paraphrase the critic of the Times,
if one may make the facsimile of a human being out of bronze,
why not the facsimile of a Brillo carton out of plywood? The
cost of these boxes happens to be 2 x 103 that of their homely
counterparts in real life-a differential hardly ascribable to their
advantage in durability. In fact the Brillo people might, at some
slight increase in cost, make their boxes out of plywood without
these becoming artworks, and Warhol might make his out of
cardboard without their ceasing to be art. So we may forget
ques-
tions of intrinsic value, and ask why the Brillo people cannot
manufacture art and why Warhol cannot but make artworks.
Well, his are made by hand, to be sure. Which is like an insane
reversal of Picasso's strategy in pasting the label from a bottle
of
Suze onto a drawing, saying as it were that the academic artist,
74. concerned with exact imitation, must always fall short of the
real
thing: so why not just use the real thing? The Pop artist
laboriously reproduces machine-made objects by hand, e.g.,
paint-
ing the labels on coffee cans (one can hear the familiar com-
mendation "Entirely made by hand" falling painfully out of the
guide's vocabulary when confronted by these objects). But the
difference cannot consist in craft: a man who carved pebbles out
of stones and carefully constructed a work called Gravel Pile
might invoke the labor theory of value to account for the price
he
demands; but the question is, What makes it art? And why need
Warhol make these things anyway? Why not just scrawl his
signature across one? Or crush one up and display it as Crushed
Britto Box ("A protest against mechanization . . .") or simply
display a Brillo carton as Uncrushed Britto Box ("A bold af-
firmation of the plastic authenticity of industrial . . .") ? Is this
man a kind of Midas, turning whatever he touches into the gold
of
pure art? And the whole world consisting of latent artworks
waiting, like the bread and wine of reality, to be transfigured,
through some dark mystery, into the indiscernible flesh and
blood
SYMPOSIUM: THE WORK OF ART 581
of the sacrament? Never mind that the Brillo box may not be
good, much less great art. The impressive thing is that it is art
at all. But if it is, why are not the indiscernible Brillo boxes
that are in the stockroom? Or has the whole distinction between
art and reality broken down?
Suppose a man collects objects (ready-mades), including a
75. Brillo carton; we praise the exhibit for variety, ingenuity, what
you will. Next he exhibits nothing but Brillo cartons, and we
criticize it as dull, repetitive, self-plagiarizing-or (more pro-
foundly) claim that he is obsessed by regularity and repetition,
as in Marienbad. Or he piles them high, leaving a narrow path;
we tread our way through the smooth opaque stacks and find it
an
unsettling experience, and write it up as the closing in of con-
sumer products, confining us as prisoners: or we say he is a
modern pyramid builder. True, we don't say these things about
the stockboy. But then a stockroom is not an art gallery, and
we cannot readily separate the Brillo cartons from the gallery
they are in, any more than we can separate the Rauschenberg
bed
from the paint upon it. Outside the gallery, they are pasteboard
cartons. But then, scoured clean of paint, Rauschenberg's bed is
a bed, just what it was before it was transformed into art. But
then if we think this matter through, we discover that the artist
has failed, really and of necessity, to produce a mere real
object.
He has produced an artwork, his use of real Brillo cartons being
but an expansion of the resources available to arists, a
contribution
to artists' materials, as oil paint was, or tuche.
What in the end makes the difference between a Brillo box and
a work of art consisting of a Brillo Box is a certain theory of
art.
It is the theory that takes it up into the world of art, and keeps
it from collapsing into the real object which it is (in a sense of
is other than that of artistic identification). Of course, without
the theory, one is unlikely to see it as art, and in order to see it
as part of the artworld, one must have mastered a good deal of
artistic theory as well as a considerable amount of the history of
recent New York painting. It could not have been art fifty years
ago. But then there could not have been, everything being equal,
76. flight insurance in the Middle Ages, or Etruscan typewriter
erasers.
The world has to be ready for certain things, the artworld no
less
than the real one. It is the role of artistic theories, these days as
always, to make the artworld, and art, possible. It would, I
should
think, never have occurred to the painters of Lascaux that they
were producing art on those walls. Not unless there were
neolithic
aestheticians.
582 THE JOURNAL OF PHILOSOPHY
IV
The artworld stands to the real world in something like the
relationship in which the City of God stands to the Earthly City.
Certain objects, like certain individuals, enjoy a double citizen-
ship, but there remains, the RT notwithstanding, a fundamental
contrast between artworks and real objects. Perhaps this was
already dimly sensed by the early framers of the IT who, in-
choately realizing the nonreality of art, were perhaps limited
only
in supposing that the sole way objects had of being other than
real is to be sham, so that artworks necessarily had to be
imitations
of real objects. This was too narrow. So Yeats saw in writing
"Once out of nature I shall never take/My bodily form from
any natural thing." It is but a matter of choice: and the Brillo
box of the artworld may be just the Brillo box of the real one,
separated and united by the is of artistic identification. But I
should like to say some final words about the theories that make
artworks possible, and their relationship to one another. In so
77. doing, I shall beg some of the hardest philosophical questions I
know.
I shall now think of pairs of predicates related to each other
as "opposites," conceding straight off the vagueness of this
demode
term. Contradictory predicates are not opposites, since one of
each of them must apply to every object in the universe, and
neither of a pair of opposites need apply to some objects in the
universe. An object must first be of a certain kind before either
of a pair of opposites applies to it, and then at most and at least
one of the opposites must apply to it. So opposites are not con-
traries, for contraries may both be false of some objects in the
universe, but opposites cannot both be false; for of some
objects,
neither of a pair of opposites sensibly applies, unless the object
is
of the right sort. Then, if the object is of the required kind, the
opposites behave as contradictories. If P and non-P are op-
posites, an object o must be of a certain kind K before either of
these sensibly applies; but if o is a member of K, then o either
is
F or non-F, to the exclusion of the other. The class of pairs of
opposites that sensibly apply to the (6)Ko I shall designate as
the
class of K-relevant predicates. And a necessary condition for an
object to be of a kind K is that at least one pair of K-relevant
op-
posites be sensibly applicable to it. But, in fact, if an object is
of kind K, at least and at most one of each K-relevant pair of
opposites applies to it.
I am now interested in the K-relevant predicates for the class
78. SYMPOSIUM: THE WORK OF ART 583
K of artworks. And let p and non-F be an opposite pair of such
predicates. Now it might happen that, throughout an entire pe-
riod of time, every artwork is non-F. But since nothing thus far
is both an artwork and F, it might never occur to anyone that
non-
F is an artistically relevant predicate. The non-P-ness of
artworks
goes unmarked. By contrast, all works up to a given time might
be
G, it never occurring to anyone until that time that something
might both be an artwork and non-G; indeed, it might have been
thought that G was a defining trait of artworks when in fact
something might first have to be an artwork before G is sensibly
predicable of it-in which case non-G might also be predicable of
artworks, and G itself then could not have been a defining trait
of this class.
Let G be 'is representational' and let F be 'is expressionist'. At
a given time, these and their opposites are perhaps the only art-
relevant predicates in critical use. Now letting '+' stand for a
given predicate P and '-' for its opposite non-P, we may
construct
a style matrix more or less as follows:
F G
+ +
+_
+
The rows determine available styles, given the active critical
vocabulary: representational expressionistic (e.g., Fauvism);
repre-
sentational nonexpressionistic (Ingres); nonrepresentational ex-