This document provides an overview of key epidemiology concepts for public health and community health assessment. It defines epidemiology as the study of health and disease distribution in populations and describes its goals as identifying causal relationships to control illness. Descriptive epidemiology looks at patterns of health events, while analytical epidemiology investigates determinants. Rates, proportions, and risks are epidemiological measures used to characterize disease frequency and compare populations. Incidence measures new cases over time, while prevalence measures existing cases at a point in time. Understanding epidemiology allows community health nurses to identify health problems, risks, interventions, and inform policies.
Epidemiology is defined as the study of the distribution and determinants of health-related states or events in populations and the application of this study to control health problems. It has three main components: disease frequency, disease distribution, and disease determinants. Epidemiologists ask questions and make comparisons between groups to identify risk factors, understand disease processes, assist in public health practice and clinical decision making. The natural history of a disease describes its progression over time from exposure and subclinical stages to clinical symptoms and outcomes with or without treatment.
Descriptive epidemiology studies observe the distribution of diseases in populations to identify characteristics associated with diseases. This presentation discusses descriptive epidemiology, including its uses and procedures. Descriptive studies first define the population and disease, then describe disease distribution by time, place and person. This involves measuring disease prevalence and incidence and comparing rates between groups. Observing these characteristics can provide clues to disease causes and help form hypotheses about risk factors. Descriptive epidemiology provides data on disease burdens to aid health planning, research and evaluation of interventions.
This document provides an introduction to epidemiology, including its historical development, key concepts, uses, and importance. It explores epidemiology as the study of disease distribution and determinants in populations for the purpose of disease control. The epidemiological triad of agent-host-environment is discussed as a model for explaining infectious disease transmission. The goals of epidemiology are identified as identifying disease causes and developing prevention and treatment strategies. Its importance in healthcare includes disease surveillance, screening programs, and informing public health policy and planning.
Epidemiology methods, approaches and tools of measurement Swapnilsalve1998
Epidemiology is the study of disease patterns in populations. It involves describing disease occurrence, identifying risk factors, and applying findings to disease control. Descriptive epidemiology involves defining the population and disease, then describing disease characteristics by time, place, and person. Analytical epidemiology involves observational studies like case-control and cohort studies to identify risk factors and test hypotheses. Experimental epidemiology uses randomized controlled trials to test interventions and evaluate disease prevention measures. The goal of epidemiology is to control health problems in populations.
This document discusses different epidemiological study designs used to study the distribution and determinants of health-related events in populations. It describes descriptive epidemiology which observes disease distribution and identifies associated characteristics. Descriptive studies define the population, disease, measure disease occurrence and describe patterns. Analytical epidemiology comprises observational case-control and cohort studies, which can determine associations between disease and suspected factors. Case-control studies compare exposure in cases vs controls, while cohort studies follow groups over time from exposure to disease. Their strengths and limitations are provided.
This document provides an overview of epidemiology, including its basic concepts, principles, scope, and measurement tools. Some key points:
- Epidemiology is the study of disease distribution and determinants in populations, and is used to prevent and control health problems. It describes disease patterns and identifies risk factors.
- Epidemiological principles are applied in various areas like clinical research, disease prevention, and health services evaluation. Measurement tools include rates, ratios, and proportions to quantify disease frequency and burden.
- The scope of epidemiology includes measuring mortality, morbidity, disability, births, risk factors, and assessing health needs in populations. Different study designs are used to investigate disease etiology and evaluate interventions.
Epidemiology is the study of disease distribution and determinants in populations. Descriptive epidemiology involves describing disease patterns, while analytical epidemiology tests hypotheses about disease determinants. A case-control study compares exposures in individuals with (cases) and without (controls) a disease to identify potential risk factors. It proceeds backwards from effect to cause by first identifying cases and then finding controls to measure past exposures, which are then analyzed using measures like odds ratios.
The investigation team should refine their original hypothesis based on the new evidence identifying Legionella bacteria breeding in the hotel's cooling tower and air conditioning system. Refining the hypothesis incorporates new information to improve or expand upon the original hypothesis.
Epidemiology is defined as the study of the distribution and determinants of health-related states or events in populations and the application of this study to control health problems. It has three main components: disease frequency, disease distribution, and disease determinants. Epidemiologists ask questions and make comparisons between groups to identify risk factors, understand disease processes, assist in public health practice and clinical decision making. The natural history of a disease describes its progression over time from exposure and subclinical stages to clinical symptoms and outcomes with or without treatment.
Descriptive epidemiology studies observe the distribution of diseases in populations to identify characteristics associated with diseases. This presentation discusses descriptive epidemiology, including its uses and procedures. Descriptive studies first define the population and disease, then describe disease distribution by time, place and person. This involves measuring disease prevalence and incidence and comparing rates between groups. Observing these characteristics can provide clues to disease causes and help form hypotheses about risk factors. Descriptive epidemiology provides data on disease burdens to aid health planning, research and evaluation of interventions.
This document provides an introduction to epidemiology, including its historical development, key concepts, uses, and importance. It explores epidemiology as the study of disease distribution and determinants in populations for the purpose of disease control. The epidemiological triad of agent-host-environment is discussed as a model for explaining infectious disease transmission. The goals of epidemiology are identified as identifying disease causes and developing prevention and treatment strategies. Its importance in healthcare includes disease surveillance, screening programs, and informing public health policy and planning.
Epidemiology methods, approaches and tools of measurement Swapnilsalve1998
Epidemiology is the study of disease patterns in populations. It involves describing disease occurrence, identifying risk factors, and applying findings to disease control. Descriptive epidemiology involves defining the population and disease, then describing disease characteristics by time, place, and person. Analytical epidemiology involves observational studies like case-control and cohort studies to identify risk factors and test hypotheses. Experimental epidemiology uses randomized controlled trials to test interventions and evaluate disease prevention measures. The goal of epidemiology is to control health problems in populations.
This document discusses different epidemiological study designs used to study the distribution and determinants of health-related events in populations. It describes descriptive epidemiology which observes disease distribution and identifies associated characteristics. Descriptive studies define the population, disease, measure disease occurrence and describe patterns. Analytical epidemiology comprises observational case-control and cohort studies, which can determine associations between disease and suspected factors. Case-control studies compare exposure in cases vs controls, while cohort studies follow groups over time from exposure to disease. Their strengths and limitations are provided.
This document provides an overview of epidemiology, including its basic concepts, principles, scope, and measurement tools. Some key points:
- Epidemiology is the study of disease distribution and determinants in populations, and is used to prevent and control health problems. It describes disease patterns and identifies risk factors.
- Epidemiological principles are applied in various areas like clinical research, disease prevention, and health services evaluation. Measurement tools include rates, ratios, and proportions to quantify disease frequency and burden.
- The scope of epidemiology includes measuring mortality, morbidity, disability, births, risk factors, and assessing health needs in populations. Different study designs are used to investigate disease etiology and evaluate interventions.
Epidemiology is the study of disease distribution and determinants in populations. Descriptive epidemiology involves describing disease patterns, while analytical epidemiology tests hypotheses about disease determinants. A case-control study compares exposures in individuals with (cases) and without (controls) a disease to identify potential risk factors. It proceeds backwards from effect to cause by first identifying cases and then finding controls to measure past exposures, which are then analyzed using measures like odds ratios.
The investigation team should refine their original hypothesis based on the new evidence identifying Legionella bacteria breeding in the hotel's cooling tower and air conditioning system. Refining the hypothesis incorporates new information to improve or expand upon the original hypothesis.
This document provides an introduction to epidemiology. It defines epidemiology as the study of how diseases are distributed in populations and the factors that influence this. The objectives are to describe basic epidemiology terminology, identify data sources and collection methods, and describe how epidemiology is used to solve public health problems. It discusses descriptive epidemiology studies that determine who is affected, when and where, and analytic studies that determine why populations are affected.
This document provides an introduction to epidemiology. It defines epidemiology as the study of how diseases are distributed in populations and the factors that influence this. The objectives are to describe basic epidemiology terminology, identify data sources and collection methods, and describe how epidemiology is used to solve public health problems. It discusses descriptive epidemiology studies that investigate disease outbreaks in terms of time, place and person affected.
Epidemiology is the study of disease patterns in populations and the factors that influence these patterns. The document discusses several key aspects of epidemiology including:
1. Epidemiology studies both healthy and sick people to determine what distinguishes those who get a disease from those who don't.
2. Descriptive epidemiology describes disease patterns in terms of person, place, and time, while analytic epidemiology investigates relationships between exposures and disease occurrence.
3. Epidemiologists play important roles such as determining disease causes and distributions, aiding in public health planning, and recommending prevention and control measures.
biostatistics and then Epidemiology.pptxEmma910932
This document provides an overview of epidemiology concepts. It defines epidemiology as the study of health-related states or events in populations and the application of this study to disease control. It describes how epidemiology identifies groups at higher risk of disease by examining the 5 W's (what, who, where, when, why). The objectives of studying epidemiology are also outlined. Descriptive and analytical epidemiology are discussed as the two main types. Key terms like incidence, surveillance, the epidemiologic triangle of host-agent-environment are also defined. Formulas for calculating disease rates are presented.
This document provides an overview of epidemiology. It defines epidemiology as the study of disease distribution, patterns, and determinants in populations along with the application of this study to disease control and prevention. It discusses key epidemiological topics like descriptive epidemiology, analytical epidemiology, measures of disease frequency including incidence and prevalence, epidemiological study designs like case-control and cohort studies, and the role of epidemiology in public health. The goal of epidemiology is to eliminate or reduce health problems in communities by identifying risk factors and promoting population health.
This document provides an overview of epidemiology. It defines epidemiology as the study of disease distribution, patterns, and determinants in populations along with the application of this study to disease control and prevention. It discusses key epidemiological topics like descriptive epidemiology, analytical epidemiology, measures of disease frequency, and types of epidemiological study designs including case-control and cohort studies. The aims and scope of epidemiology are to describe disease burden in populations, identify risk factors, provide data to inform disease prevention and control, and evaluate health interventions.
Descriptive epidemiological studies are used to:
1. Document the distribution and determinants of health-related events in populations without attempting to infer causality.
2. Describe patterns of disease by person, place, and time to identify potential risk factors and generate hypotheses.
3. Provide baseline data on diseases, health conditions, and their risk factors that can be used to plan interventions and evaluate control programs.
This document provides an introduction to epidemiology. It begins with definitions of epidemiology as the study of patterns, causes, and effects of health and disease conditions in populations. It then discusses the history of epidemiology from Hippocrates' observations to modern uses. The types of epidemiological studies covered are descriptive studies like cross-sectional and analytical studies like cohort and case-control studies. The aims and uses of epidemiology are also summarized, including describing disease problems, assessing population health, informing individual decisions, understanding disease natural history, identifying causes and risks, and planning/evaluating interventions.
The document provides an overview of epidemiology including:
- The definition and origins of epidemiology as the study of disease distribution and determinants in populations.
- Key concepts in epidemiology including rates, ratios, proportions, mortality, morbidity, incidence, prevalence and descriptive vs analytical study methods.
- Descriptive studies examine disease frequency and distribution by person, place and time to identify potential risk factors. Analytical studies further test hypothesized associations between suspected causes and effects.
- Examples of rates and ratios used to measure disease occurrence include crude death rates, case fatality rates, and proportional mortality rates. Incidence and prevalence are used to measure disease frequency and burden.
This document provides an overview of epidemiology including its definition, history, aims, tools of measurement, and study designs. Some key points:
- Epidemiology is the study of disease distribution and determinants in populations and its application to disease control and prevention. It aims to describe disease problems, identify risk factors, and provide data to plan and evaluate health services.
- Important historical figures include Hippocrates, Galen, Sydenham, and John Snow, considered the "Father of Epidemiology" for his cholera studies. Measurement tools include rates, ratios, and proportions to compare disease frequency.
- Major epidemiological study designs are observational (descriptive, analytical) and experimental (
define epidemiology
describe basic terminology and concepts of epidemiology
identify types of data sources
identify basic methods of data collection and interpretation
•
describe a public health problem in terms of time, place, and person
identify the key components of a descriptive epidemiology outbreak investigation
Definition, types, tools and uses of.pptxFeniksRetails
Epidemiology is defined as the study of the distribution and determinants of health-related states or events in populations and the application of this study to control health problems. There are two main types of epidemiological study: observational (descriptive and analytical) and experimental/interventional. Descriptive studies describe disease distribution by person, place, and time while analytical studies, including case-control and cohort designs, are used to identify risk factors. The main tools of epidemiology include rates, ratios, and proportions. Epidemiology is used to study disease trends over time, identify high-risk groups, inform healthcare planning and evaluation, and search for disease causes and risk factors.
Epidemiology is the study of the distribution and determinants of health-related states or events in specified populations, and the application of this study to the control of health problems. It investigates how disease spreads and is caused. The key factors that influence disease transmission include characteristics of the infectious agent, environmental factors that support the agent, and characteristics of the host that influence susceptibility.
CHAPTER 1 ITRODUCTION TO EPIDEMIOLOGICAL METHODS.pptxjohnsniky
Technique:
The needle is held with the needle holder and it should enter the tissues at right angles and be no less than 2-3mm from the incision.
The needle is then carried through the tissue where it follows the needle’s curvature.
Sutures of any type that are placed in the interdental papilae should enter and exit the tissue at a point located below the imaginary line that forms the base of the triangle of the interdental papilla.
Epidemiology is defined as the study of the distribution and determinants of health-related states or events in specified populations. It aims to describe disease frequency, distribution, and causative factors in order to provide data to plan, implement, and evaluate disease prevention and control programs. The epidemiological approach involves asking questions about health events and outcomes in populations, and making comparisons between groups with different exposures to identify risk factors and draw inferences about disease causation.
“The study of the distribution and determinants of health-related states or events in specified population and the application of the study to control of health problems.”
This document discusses theories of disease causation and screening in epidemiology. It describes several models of causation including the germ theory, epidemiological triad theory, and multifactorial causation theory. Determinants of disease are classified as agent, host, and environmental factors. The aims and types of screening programs are outlined, including mass, selective, multi-phase, and case-finding screening. Evaluation of screening programs involves experimental and non-experimental methods and comparing mortality rates between intervention and control groups.
This document discusses epidemiology and its relationship to community health nursing. It defines epidemiology as the study of diseases and health-related events that occur among populations. The epidemiological triangle model examines the interaction between an agent, host, and environment that can lead to health problems. Community health nursing aims to prevent diseases, promote health, and provide comprehensive services to communities. Epidemiology and community health nursing are closely related as they both focus on preventing illness, maintaining wellness, and applying systematic processes to identify health issues and implement solutions in populations. Their approaches can be coordinated to improve nursing care and prioritize preventive measures.
This document provides an introduction to epidemiology. It defines epidemiology as the study of how diseases are distributed in populations and the factors that influence this. The objectives are to describe basic epidemiology terminology, identify data sources and collection methods, and describe how epidemiology is used to solve public health problems. It discusses descriptive epidemiology studies that determine who is affected, when and where, and analytic studies that determine why populations are affected.
This document provides an introduction to epidemiology. It defines epidemiology as the study of how diseases are distributed in populations and the factors that influence this. The objectives are to describe basic epidemiology terminology, identify data sources and collection methods, and describe how epidemiology is used to solve public health problems. It discusses descriptive epidemiology studies that investigate disease outbreaks in terms of time, place and person affected.
Epidemiology is the study of disease patterns in populations and the factors that influence these patterns. The document discusses several key aspects of epidemiology including:
1. Epidemiology studies both healthy and sick people to determine what distinguishes those who get a disease from those who don't.
2. Descriptive epidemiology describes disease patterns in terms of person, place, and time, while analytic epidemiology investigates relationships between exposures and disease occurrence.
3. Epidemiologists play important roles such as determining disease causes and distributions, aiding in public health planning, and recommending prevention and control measures.
biostatistics and then Epidemiology.pptxEmma910932
This document provides an overview of epidemiology concepts. It defines epidemiology as the study of health-related states or events in populations and the application of this study to disease control. It describes how epidemiology identifies groups at higher risk of disease by examining the 5 W's (what, who, where, when, why). The objectives of studying epidemiology are also outlined. Descriptive and analytical epidemiology are discussed as the two main types. Key terms like incidence, surveillance, the epidemiologic triangle of host-agent-environment are also defined. Formulas for calculating disease rates are presented.
This document provides an overview of epidemiology. It defines epidemiology as the study of disease distribution, patterns, and determinants in populations along with the application of this study to disease control and prevention. It discusses key epidemiological topics like descriptive epidemiology, analytical epidemiology, measures of disease frequency including incidence and prevalence, epidemiological study designs like case-control and cohort studies, and the role of epidemiology in public health. The goal of epidemiology is to eliminate or reduce health problems in communities by identifying risk factors and promoting population health.
This document provides an overview of epidemiology. It defines epidemiology as the study of disease distribution, patterns, and determinants in populations along with the application of this study to disease control and prevention. It discusses key epidemiological topics like descriptive epidemiology, analytical epidemiology, measures of disease frequency, and types of epidemiological study designs including case-control and cohort studies. The aims and scope of epidemiology are to describe disease burden in populations, identify risk factors, provide data to inform disease prevention and control, and evaluate health interventions.
Descriptive epidemiological studies are used to:
1. Document the distribution and determinants of health-related events in populations without attempting to infer causality.
2. Describe patterns of disease by person, place, and time to identify potential risk factors and generate hypotheses.
3. Provide baseline data on diseases, health conditions, and their risk factors that can be used to plan interventions and evaluate control programs.
This document provides an introduction to epidemiology. It begins with definitions of epidemiology as the study of patterns, causes, and effects of health and disease conditions in populations. It then discusses the history of epidemiology from Hippocrates' observations to modern uses. The types of epidemiological studies covered are descriptive studies like cross-sectional and analytical studies like cohort and case-control studies. The aims and uses of epidemiology are also summarized, including describing disease problems, assessing population health, informing individual decisions, understanding disease natural history, identifying causes and risks, and planning/evaluating interventions.
The document provides an overview of epidemiology including:
- The definition and origins of epidemiology as the study of disease distribution and determinants in populations.
- Key concepts in epidemiology including rates, ratios, proportions, mortality, morbidity, incidence, prevalence and descriptive vs analytical study methods.
- Descriptive studies examine disease frequency and distribution by person, place and time to identify potential risk factors. Analytical studies further test hypothesized associations between suspected causes and effects.
- Examples of rates and ratios used to measure disease occurrence include crude death rates, case fatality rates, and proportional mortality rates. Incidence and prevalence are used to measure disease frequency and burden.
This document provides an overview of epidemiology including its definition, history, aims, tools of measurement, and study designs. Some key points:
- Epidemiology is the study of disease distribution and determinants in populations and its application to disease control and prevention. It aims to describe disease problems, identify risk factors, and provide data to plan and evaluate health services.
- Important historical figures include Hippocrates, Galen, Sydenham, and John Snow, considered the "Father of Epidemiology" for his cholera studies. Measurement tools include rates, ratios, and proportions to compare disease frequency.
- Major epidemiological study designs are observational (descriptive, analytical) and experimental (
define epidemiology
describe basic terminology and concepts of epidemiology
identify types of data sources
identify basic methods of data collection and interpretation
•
describe a public health problem in terms of time, place, and person
identify the key components of a descriptive epidemiology outbreak investigation
Definition, types, tools and uses of.pptxFeniksRetails
Epidemiology is defined as the study of the distribution and determinants of health-related states or events in populations and the application of this study to control health problems. There are two main types of epidemiological study: observational (descriptive and analytical) and experimental/interventional. Descriptive studies describe disease distribution by person, place, and time while analytical studies, including case-control and cohort designs, are used to identify risk factors. The main tools of epidemiology include rates, ratios, and proportions. Epidemiology is used to study disease trends over time, identify high-risk groups, inform healthcare planning and evaluation, and search for disease causes and risk factors.
Epidemiology is the study of the distribution and determinants of health-related states or events in specified populations, and the application of this study to the control of health problems. It investigates how disease spreads and is caused. The key factors that influence disease transmission include characteristics of the infectious agent, environmental factors that support the agent, and characteristics of the host that influence susceptibility.
CHAPTER 1 ITRODUCTION TO EPIDEMIOLOGICAL METHODS.pptxjohnsniky
Technique:
The needle is held with the needle holder and it should enter the tissues at right angles and be no less than 2-3mm from the incision.
The needle is then carried through the tissue where it follows the needle’s curvature.
Sutures of any type that are placed in the interdental papilae should enter and exit the tissue at a point located below the imaginary line that forms the base of the triangle of the interdental papilla.
Epidemiology is defined as the study of the distribution and determinants of health-related states or events in specified populations. It aims to describe disease frequency, distribution, and causative factors in order to provide data to plan, implement, and evaluate disease prevention and control programs. The epidemiological approach involves asking questions about health events and outcomes in populations, and making comparisons between groups with different exposures to identify risk factors and draw inferences about disease causation.
“The study of the distribution and determinants of health-related states or events in specified population and the application of the study to control of health problems.”
This document discusses theories of disease causation and screening in epidemiology. It describes several models of causation including the germ theory, epidemiological triad theory, and multifactorial causation theory. Determinants of disease are classified as agent, host, and environmental factors. The aims and types of screening programs are outlined, including mass, selective, multi-phase, and case-finding screening. Evaluation of screening programs involves experimental and non-experimental methods and comparing mortality rates between intervention and control groups.
This document discusses epidemiology and its relationship to community health nursing. It defines epidemiology as the study of diseases and health-related events that occur among populations. The epidemiological triangle model examines the interaction between an agent, host, and environment that can lead to health problems. Community health nursing aims to prevent diseases, promote health, and provide comprehensive services to communities. Epidemiology and community health nursing are closely related as they both focus on preventing illness, maintaining wellness, and applying systematic processes to identify health issues and implement solutions in populations. Their approaches can be coordinated to improve nursing care and prioritize preventive measures.
Executive Directors Chat Leveraging AI for Diversity, Equity, and InclusionTechSoup
Let’s explore the intersection of technology and equity in the final session of our DEI series. Discover how AI tools, like ChatGPT, can be used to support and enhance your nonprofit's DEI initiatives. Participants will gain insights into practical AI applications and get tips for leveraging technology to advance their DEI goals.
How to Add Chatter in the odoo 17 ERP ModuleCeline George
In Odoo, the chatter is like a chat tool that helps you work together on records. You can leave notes and track things, making it easier to talk with your team and partners. Inside chatter, all communication history, activity, and changes will be displayed.
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty, In...Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty,
International FDP on Fundamentals of Research in Social Sciences
at Integral University, Lucknow, 06.06.2024
By Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, and GDPR: Best Practices for Implementation and...PECB
Denis is a dynamic and results-driven Chief Information Officer (CIO) with a distinguished career spanning information systems analysis and technical project management. With a proven track record of spearheading the design and delivery of cutting-edge Information Management solutions, he has consistently elevated business operations, streamlined reporting functions, and maximized process efficiency.
Certified as an ISO/IEC 27001: Information Security Management Systems (ISMS) Lead Implementer, Data Protection Officer, and Cyber Risks Analyst, Denis brings a heightened focus on data security, privacy, and cyber resilience to every endeavor.
His expertise extends across a diverse spectrum of reporting, database, and web development applications, underpinned by an exceptional grasp of data storage and virtualization technologies. His proficiency in application testing, database administration, and data cleansing ensures seamless execution of complex projects.
What sets Denis apart is his comprehensive understanding of Business and Systems Analysis technologies, honed through involvement in all phases of the Software Development Lifecycle (SDLC). From meticulous requirements gathering to precise analysis, innovative design, rigorous development, thorough testing, and successful implementation, he has consistently delivered exceptional results.
Throughout his career, he has taken on multifaceted roles, from leading technical project management teams to owning solutions that drive operational excellence. His conscientious and proactive approach is unwavering, whether he is working independently or collaboratively within a team. His ability to connect with colleagues on a personal level underscores his commitment to fostering a harmonious and productive workplace environment.
Date: May 29, 2024
Tags: Information Security, ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, Artificial Intelligence, GDPR
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This slide is special for master students (MIBS & MIFB) in UUM. Also useful for readers who are interested in the topic of contemporary Islamic banking.
LAND USE LAND COVER AND NDVI OF MIRZAPUR DISTRICT, UPRAHUL
This Dissertation explores the particular circumstances of Mirzapur, a region located in the
core of India. Mirzapur, with its varied terrains and abundant biodiversity, offers an optimal
environment for investigating the changes in vegetation cover dynamics. Our study utilizes
advanced technologies such as GIS (Geographic Information Systems) and Remote sensing to
analyze the transformations that have taken place over the course of a decade.
The complex relationship between human activities and the environment has been the focus
of extensive research and worry. As the global community grapples with swift urbanization,
population expansion, and economic progress, the effects on natural ecosystems are becoming
more evident. A crucial element of this impact is the alteration of vegetation cover, which plays a
significant role in maintaining the ecological equilibrium of our planet.Land serves as the foundation for all human activities and provides the necessary materials for
these activities. As the most crucial natural resource, its utilization by humans results in different
'Land uses,' which are determined by both human activities and the physical characteristics of the
land.
The utilization of land is impacted by human needs and environmental factors. In countries
like India, rapid population growth and the emphasis on extensive resource exploitation can lead
to significant land degradation, adversely affecting the region's land cover.
Therefore, human intervention has significantly influenced land use patterns over many
centuries, evolving its structure over time and space. In the present era, these changes have
accelerated due to factors such as agriculture and urbanization. Information regarding land use and
cover is essential for various planning and management tasks related to the Earth's surface,
providing crucial environmental data for scientific, resource management, policy purposes, and
diverse human activities.
Accurate understanding of land use and cover is imperative for the development planning
of any area. Consequently, a wide range of professionals, including earth system scientists, land
and water managers, and urban planners, are interested in obtaining data on land use and cover
changes, conversion trends, and other related patterns. The spatial dimensions of land use and
cover support policymakers and scientists in making well-informed decisions, as alterations in
these patterns indicate shifts in economic and social conditions. Monitoring such changes with the
help of Advanced technologies like Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems is
crucial for coordinated efforts across different administrative levels. Advanced technologies like
Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems
9
Changes in vegetation cover refer to variations in the distribution, composition, and overall
structure of plant communities across different temporal and spatial scales. These changes can
occur natural.
How to Build a Module in Odoo 17 Using the Scaffold MethodCeline George
Odoo provides an option for creating a module by using a single line command. By using this command the user can make a whole structure of a module. It is very easy for a beginner to make a module. There is no need to make each file manually. This slide will show how to create a module using the scaffold method.
it describes the bony anatomy including the femoral head , acetabulum, labrum . also discusses the capsule , ligaments . muscle that act on the hip joint and the range of motion are outlined. factors affecting hip joint stability and weight transmission through the joint are summarized.
2. Objectives
1. Define epidemiology (Epi)
2. Describe how epidemiology has developed over
time
3. Describe the essential elements of Epi and an
epidemiological approach
4. Explain the basic Epidemiological concepts
5. Differentiate between descriptive and analytical
epidemiology
6. Explain how nurses use epidemiology in
community health practice
7. Identify terms that are used to measure and
characterize disease frequency in human
populations
2
3. How is Public/Community Health Different
From Medicine?
• Public health is
population-
based
• Medicine is
based on the
individual
3
4. 4
Epidemiology
• The study of the distribution of health and
illness and the factors that determine
(determinants) the population’s health status
5. Purpose of Epidemiology
• To search for causal relationships in health and
illness
• To control illness by understanding causality
Goal: Preventing disease and maintaining health
5
7. Goals
7
Medical Care
Individual Health
Public Health
Population Health
Best outcome for
individual
Healthy community
Balance of individual
autonomy vs. limitations
on individual
Balance in allocation of
resources
Focus on prevention
8. Analytic Epidemiology
• Investigates origins and causal factors
• Looks at etiology
• Looks at factors, exposures, characteristics and
behaviors
• Why are some affected more than others
Example – Smoking……………
9. Analytic Epidemiology
• Search for determinants of disease or injury
• Research on cause-effect relationships that tests
specific hypotheses:
▫ Case-control studies
▫ Cohort studies
▫ Randomized clinical trials
9
10. Descriptive Epidemiology
• Looks at health outcomes in terms of who, what
where, when and why.
• Discusses diseases in terms of person, place and
time.
Example – H1N1 ………………
11. Descriptive Epidemiology
• Studies the distribution of disease and other
health-related states and events in terms of:
▫ personal characteristics, (person)
▫ geographical distribution (place), and
▫ temporal patterns (time).
11
12. Patterns Relative to Person
• Age
• Education
• Race
• Gender
• Occupation
• Income
• Ethnicity
• Behavior
Person: Who has the lowest /
highest disease rates in the
population?
12
13. Descriptive Epidemiology: Patterns of
Health Events
Patterns Relative to Place
• Where (place) is the health outcome occurring
most frequently?
13
14. Patterns Relative to Place
• Define in terms of traditional political
boundaries
▫ States
▫ Counties
▫ Municipalities
• Census track data/zip codes
14
15. Descriptive Epidemiology
• geographic unit
▫ state
▫ county
▫ census tract
15
population density
migration
Place: Where are the lowest / highest
disease rates for a population?
18. Descriptive Epidemiology
• short-term trends
• long-term or
secular trends
18
cyclic trends
age, period, and
birth cohort
effects
Time: Are the disease rates changing
over time for a population?
19. Patterns Relative to Time
• Is the frequency of the health outcome changing
over time?
19
20. Patterns Relative to Time
• Annual trends
• Seasonal occurrence
• Daily or hourly changes
20
22. Descriptive Epidemiology (DE)
• Used to understand the pattern and frequency of
health events in a population, e. g., childhood
asthma
22
How often are kids
hospitalized for asthma
compared to other
conditions?
Which groups are at high
risk for being hospitalized
for asthma?
Are childhood
asthma
hospitalization
increasing or
decreasing?
Identify emerging problems and track known public health issues (CH
Nurse)
23. Descriptive Epidemiology
• Prioritize public health problems
• Target resources and interventions
• Provides information for policy and
program development
• Evaluate programs and practices
• Advocate for additional resources
▫ Human Resources
▫ Financial and physical resources
23
24. Epidemiology: Two broad concepts
• Control of health problems through an
understanding of their contributing factors
• Application of epidemiologic techniques to
health-related conditions other than acute
communicable disease
24
25. Epidemiology: Causality and Control
• Health Outcomes are characterized in terms of:
▫ What is the outcome?
▫ Who is affected?
▫ Where are they?
▫ When do events occur?
▫ Why?
25
28. Epidemiologic Triangle (Box 9-1; p. 168)
• Agent- animate or inanimate factor that must be
lacking or present for a disease or condition to
develop
• Examples:
▫ Infectious agents: virus, bacteria
▫ Chemical agents: pesticides
▫ Physical agents: radiation, heat, machinery
28
29. Epidemiologic Triangle
• Host – human or animal species capable of
being infected and affected by an agent
• Examples:
▫ Genetic susceptibility
▫ Age, sex
▫ Acquired characteristics (immunological status)
▫ Life style factors
29
30. Epidemiologic Triangle
• Environment - all that is internal or external to
a given host or agent and that is influenced and
influences the host and/or agent
• Examples:
▫ Climate
▫ Plant and animal life
▫ Socio economic status
▫ Populations – distribution and density
30
31. Determinants of health events
• The determinants of health events refers to those
factors, exposures, characteristics, behaviors,
and contexts that determine or influence the
patterns.
▫ How does it occur?
▫ Why are some affected more than others?
Individual
Relational or social
Communal or environmental
31
32. Determinants
• Focus is on investigation of causes and
associations (analytic epidemiology)
• Understanding the etiology or natural history of
the disease
32
33. Distribution
• Refers to patterns of health events in
populations.
• Health-related events in human populations :
▫ Diseases
▫ Conditions
▫ Injuries
33
34. CH Nurse and Epidemiology
• Epidemiologist—a
health detective who
links observed
problems with
potential causes, to
arrive at a diagnosis
and design and
implement a
mitigating response.
34
35. How CHN Use Epidemiology
• Identifying causative factors
• Identifying risk factors
• Diagnosing the health status of population
groups
• Describing S & S and the course of a disease
• Evaluating the effectiveness of existing and
proposed interventions and modes of health care
delivery
• Providing a basis for health policy
35
37. Causality
• One event is the result of another event
• Theories of causation (single cause)
▫ Religious Era - disease caused by punishment
▫ Environmental Era – disease caused by harmful
substances in the environment
▫ Bacteriologic Era – disease caused by specific
organisms
▫ Current Era – multiple causation
37
38. Causality: Example
• Important to know the potential for various
sources of exposure
• Evidence-based
▫ Lead:
Paint
Water pipes
Contaminated Soil
38
39. Criteria for Determining Causality
• Consistency of association
• Strength of association
• Specificity
• Temporal relationship between
events
• Coherence with other known facts
39
40. Determining Causality: Criteria
1. Consistency of association
▫ Association between the factor in
question and the problem must be
consistent
• Example:
▫ People can not develop measles
without being exposed to the virus
40
41. Determining Causality: Criteria
2. Strength of association
▫ The greater the correlation between
the occurrence of the factor and the
health condition, the greater the
association (cause and effect)
• Example:
▫ Measles: some develop it some don’t
41
42. Determining Causality: Criteria
• Strength of the association may reflect:
▫ Dose-response gradient - the greater the
exposure to the presumed cause, the greater the
likelihood of developing the problem (Gordis,
2000)
42
43. Criteria for Determining Causality
3. Specificity – present when the factor
in question results in one specific
condition
• Example: exposure to the measles
virus result only in measles not in
mumps of chickenpox
43
44. Criteria for Determining Causality
4. Temporal relationship between
events:
▫ Refers to the time relationship between
the factor and the resulting condition
• Example: one must be exposed to
measles virus before, not after, one
gets the measles
44
45. Criteria for Determining Causality
5. Coherence with other known facts:
▫ The idea that one condition causes another must
be logical and congruent with other known facts.
• Example: alcohol consumption and car accidents
▫ Increases the time required for voluntary muscles
to react to stimuli
▫ Slow response to changing driving conditions
▫ Causative factor in many accidents
45
46. Epidemiological Key Terms (WHO)
▫ Epidemic: An outbreak of a
contagious disease or condition that
spreads rapidly and widely.
46
47. Epidemiological Key Terms
• Endemic: of or relating to a disease (or
anything resembling a disease) constantly
present to greater or lesser extent in a particular
locality;
• Examples of endemic diseases/conditions:
"endemic malaria“ in the tropics
"food shortages and starvation are endemic in
certain parts of the world“
Botulism in Alaska
Cholera among some Asian/Pacific Islanders
47
48. Epidemiological Key Terms
• Point epidemic: a time-and-space-related
pattern which is an indicator for toxic exposures.
▫ Outbreak of a GI illness due to contaminated food
• Example: E-coli infection due to contaminated
spinach in summer 2007 in Western USA
48
49. Epidemiological Key Terms
▫ Pandemic - an epidemic that is
geographically widespread or over a
wide geographical area; occurring
throughout a region or even
throughout the world
AIDS in Africa
49
53. Measures of Morbidity and Mortality
• Rates –Frequency of a health event
• Proportions – Fraction of population affected
• Risk –Probability that an event will occur
54. Rates (Rates of Occurrence)
• Rates of occurrence are statistical measures that
indicate the extent of health problems in a group
• An expression of events relative to the size of the
population in which they occurred.
• Enables us to compare the risk of health events
across different groups of people, places, and
time periods
54
56. Rates
A measurement of the frequency of a health
event in a specific population over a specific
period of time
• Mortality rate is expressed as an annual death
rate or mortality rate from all causes:
Total no. of deaths from all causes in 1 yr. X 1,000
No. of persons in the population at mid year
57. Expression of Rates
• Rate is a measure of a part
• A portion of the population experiencing an
event
• It is expressed per 1,000 people because that is
easier to relate to 51 per 1,000 rather than 0.051
cases per person
58. Case Fatality Rate
Case fatality is the number of people who die of a disease
over the total number of people with the disease.
Die from disease X 100
Total with disease
Find the case fatality rate for 20 women diagnosed with
ovarian cancer if 18 die in one year.
59. Crude Rates
• Total number of events divided by total
population
• For mortality, crude rates can either be deaths
from all causes OR cause-specific (e. g., deaths
from coronary heart disease)
59
60. 60
Crude Rates: Total Mortality
Place Total
Death
Population Rate per
100K
Mercer
Island
(1991-95)
736 103,805 709.0
Snoqualamie
Valley
(1991-95)
707 157,750 448.2
61. Problem with Crude Rates
• They don't account for underlying demographic
differences
AGE
LOCATION
TIME
62. 62
Age-adjusted rates
• Age-adjustment is a statistical process applied to
rates of disease, death, injuries or other health
outcomes that allows communities with different
age structures to be compared.
63. 63
Age-Adjusted Rates
• Applies the observed age-specific rates to a
standard population
▫ 1950 U.S. population
▫ 2000 projected U.S. population
• Represents the hypothetical rate that would
have been observed if the population of interest
had the same age distribution as the standard
population
64. What rates tell us
• How quickly things are happening
• How things are changing
• Moving form one state of being to another
65. Proportion
• Example: In 2008, there were 31,753,000
persons 65 or older in a population of 252,
177,000
31,753,000
__________
252,177,000 = .126 or 12.6%
65
66. Deaths per live Births
• A proportion that indicates the portion of a
population who experience an event during
some specified period of time, e.g. the annual
infant mortality rate.
66
67. Incidence
• The incidence of disease is the number of NEW
cases of a disease that occur within a specified
time period.
• Expressed as a fraction:
Number of new cases of a disease occurring in the
population during a specified period of time
______________________________ X 1,000
Number of persons at risk of developing the disease during
that time period
68. Incidence Rate
• Example 1
• Incidence rate = 5 new people with a diagnosis of HIV=
0.50
• Population of 10 people
• Example 2:
• Incidence rate = 5 new people with a diagnosis of HIV=
0.05
• Population of 100 people
• 5% or 5 of 100 people
68
69. 69
Incidence Rates
• It is very important to know the number of new
people infected with a disease (incidence) in
relation to the total population at risk of
contracting that disease *during a specified time
period.
*Point Prevalence
70. Incident Rates
• Tell us 3 things
The occurrence of NEW cases during a specified
time period
QUANITFIES the rate of development of NEW cases
Tells us the probability that a person at risk will
develop the disease
71. Prevalence Rates
• Measures the presence of a disease or
attribute in a population at a given
time (Point Prevalence)
• Probability that an individual in the
population has a disease/condition
71
72. 72
Prevalence data
• Provide an indication of the extent of a condition
and may have implications to the provision of
services needed in a community.
• Prevalence is most useful for measuring the
burden of chronic diseases such as tuberculosis,
malaria and HIV in a population.
73. Calculate HIV Prevalence Rate
• In 2003 (specific point in time) Clinic B gave
service to 1000 patients (population at risk)
• 200 of these patients were HIV +
• The HIV prevalence rate among the clinic’s
patients at the end of 2003:
▫ Existing # of pt. with HIV = 200
▫ Divided by population at risk 1000
= 0.20 (20%)
73
74. 74
Examples of Prevalence Rates
• Disease/violence risk factors (e.g., tobacco use,
firearm ownership)
• Health care access (e.g., health insurance
coverage, unmet medical need)
• Health screening (e.g., mammography. Pap test,
cholesterol, blood pressure)
76. 76
Distinguishing between I & P*
• Incidence gives us a barometer of how many new
cases of a disease are being detected,
• While prevalence gives us a barometer of how
long people are living with a disease.
*I: Incidence
*P: Prevalence
77. 77
Hepatitis A Cases: Hypothetical
Location # of Cases Time
Period
Annual
Population
Union
County
33 1992-95 17,715
Essex
County
44 1994-95 394,923
Where is the risk of Hepatitis A higher?
78. 78
Hepatitis B occurred more frequently in
which County?
Location # of
Cases/Pop/Year
Average Annual Rate
Orange
County
33/ 17,715/3 years
(11 cases per year,
on average)
62.1 / 100,000 people per
year
Dale
County
55/394,923/3 years
(22 cases over 2
years, on average)
46.4 / 100,000 people per
year
*When comparing rates in different places use the same time period
for each place.
79. 79
• Public health surveillance is the ongoing
collection and timely analysis, interpretation,
and communication of health information for
public health action
• Public health surveillance systems are
important tools for collecting and
disseminating descriptive epidemiologic data
Surveillance
80. 80
Surveillance
Method
• population-based
• representative sample
• convenience sample
Example
-- vital statistics
-- BRFSS
-- survey at local mall
Different surveillance collection methods
provide varying levels of confidence in the
data.
81. 81
Sampling
Types
• Simple random sampling = every sampling
unit has an equal chance of being sampled
• Systematic sampling = every ith sampling
unit is sampled
84. 84
Surveillance Data on the Internet
• Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
(www.cdc.gov)
▫ CDC Wonder
▫ Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System
• National Center for Health Statistics
(www.cdc.gov/nchs)
86. 86
National Center for Health Statistics
(NCHS)
• http://www.cdc.gov/nchs
• What parts of this site are useful for fact lookup,
research and indicators?
87. 87
Public Health Surveillance Loop
Data Program
Interpretation Evaluation
Data Information
Program
Analysis Dissemination
Implementation
Data Program
Collection Planning
88. 88
Screening
• Screening is defined as the testing of
groups of individuals who are at risk for
certain conditions but are as yet
asymptomatic.
• CHN strategies
▫ Know latest guidelines
▫ Link to referral mechanisms
▫ Follow-up
90. 90
Validity
• In a screening test is measured in terms of the
probability of correctly classifying an individual
with regard to the disease or outcome of interest
• Usually measured by sensitivity and specificity.
91. 91
Sensitivity
• Quantifies how accurately the test identifies
those with the condition or trait
• Represents the proportion of persons with the
disease whom the test correctly identified as
positive (True Positive)
92. 92
Specificity
• Indicates how accurately the test identifies those
without the condition or trait
• Represents the proportion of persons who do
not have (without) the disease whom the test
correctly identified as negative for the disease
(True Negative)
93. 93
Sensitivity and Specificity
• Determined by comparing the results from the
test with results from a definitive diagnostic
procedures
▫ Diabetes
▫ Pap smear
• Combination of two or more tests are used to
enhance sensitivity or specificity
▫ ELISA and Western Blot tests for HIV
94. 94
Series Testing
• Used to enhance sensitivity or specificity
• Sequence is important
• The final result is considered positive only if all
tests in the series were positive
• It is considered negative if any test was negative
• Series testing enhances specificity, producing
fewer false positives, but sensitivity will be lower
95. 95
Applications of epidemiology in community and public
health nursing.
• Community-oriented nurses work in diverse
settings and agencies, with a range of
responsibilities.
• The practice of community-oriented nursing is
enhanced by the understanding and application
of epidemiological concepts and methods.
96. 96
Applications of epidemiology in community and
public health nursing.
• Epidemiological measures are used to assess the
health needs of a population.
• Planning and implementation of health care
services, interventions, and policies depend on
understanding factors that influence health and
disease and on the ability to evaluate
interventions, programs, and policy.
97. Levels of prevention
• Primary prevention involves interventions to
reduce the incidence or prevent disease by
promoting health and preventing disease
processes from developing.
• CHN Strategies:
▫ General Health Promotion Activities
Health education
Counseling
▫ Prevention
Immunization
97
98. 98
Levels of prevention
• Secondary prevention includes programs
designed to detect disease in the early stages,
before signs and symptoms are clinically
evident, to allow early diagnosis and treatment.
• CHN Strategies:
▫ Health screenings (community settings)
▫ Examples: Diabetes, cholesterol, skin cancer
99. 99
Levels of prevention
• Tertiary prevention provides interventions
directed toward persons with clinically apparent
disease, with the aim of curing, ameliorating the
course of disease, reducing disability, or
rehabilitating.
• Clinics, hospitals, homes
100. 100
Levels of Prevention: Examples
• Primary- Discuss with client low-fat diet and the
need for regular exercise
• Secondary- Implement BP and cholesterol
screening; give treadmill stress test
• Tertiary- Provide cardiac rehabilitation,
medication, out-patient post-cardiac surgery
care, community exercise program
101. 101
Summary
• Epidemiology: is a core component of public
health,
▫ studies populations to understand causes of disease
and to develop and evaluate effective interventions to
prevent disease and maintain health.
▫ multidisciplinary enterprise, encompassing clinical
medicine and laboratory sciences, quantitative
methods, such as biostatistics, and public health policy
and goals.
102. 102
Summary
• Clinical medicine:
▫ focuses on the diagnosis and treatment of disease
in individuals
• Community and public health nursing:
▫ bridges these disciplines in its focus on individual
clients and services, and in its use of
epidemiological methods and findings in
community health nursing practice.