Rural areas near cities experience population growth and increasing development due to their proximity to urban centers, however they also face challenges from sparse populations and greater competition from developed urban service sectors. More remote rural areas suffer from economic and social backwardness, underinvestment, and even depopulation as opportunities concentrate in growing urban regions. This creates increasing disparities between vibrant urban and struggling rural areas within the country.

1. Pursuit of coherence
Vision towards more compact and cohesive regional spatial development. Case of Kaunas
Delft University of Technology
P2 report
Viktorija Gailiūtė
4187601
victoria.gailiute@gmail.com
23 January 2013

2. P2 report Studio Coplex Cities and Regions in Transformations Key words:
Date: 23 January 2013 Studio supervisors: Prof Vincent Nadin, Francisco Regional spatial strategy, compact development,
Delft University of Technology Colombo, Dr Akkelies van Nes, Dr Qu Lei, Dr Stephen rural areas, economic, social and environmental
Faculty of Architecture Read, Dr Roberto Rocco, Dr Diego Sepulveda sustainability
Department of Urbanism
Chair of Spatial Planning and Strategy Contact:
Studio Complex Cities and Regions in Transformation Dr. D.A. Sepulveda Carmona
T: +31 (0)15 27 87919
Author E: D.A.SepulvedaCarmona@tudelft.nl
Viktorija Gailiūtė Dr. S.A. Read
4187601 T: +31 (0)15 27 88859
victoria.gailiute@gmail.com E: S.A.Read@tudelft.nl
Mentor team
Chair: Spatial Planning and Strategy
1st mentor: dr Roberto Rocco
R.C.Rocco@tudelft.nl
Chair: Cultural History and Design
2nd mentor: Prof. Eric Luiten
E.A.J.Luiten@tudelft.nl
urbanism
Image on the front cover by author
2

3. Preface
This report including thesis plan is written within
the framework of the graduation Studio Complex
Cities and Regions in Transformation in the Technical
University Delft, Faculty of Architecture, department
of Urbanism in MSc 3 and MSc 4. This document
explains the framework for the development of
the research and analysis which will lead to the
graduation project. It will be used as a guidance for
the graduation track in direction to the Master thesis.
This document is intended for the examination (P2) of
the graduation track.
3

4. 4

5. Table of contents
1. Introduction 7 3. Kaunas region 53
1.1 Motivation 9 3.1 Introduction 55
1.2 Context 11 3.2 Green structure 56
1.3 Problem field 13 3.3 Ecological network 57
1.4 Aim and goal of the project 21 3.4 Traffic network 58
1.5 Research questions 22 3.5 Economic network 59
1.6 Societal and academic relevance 23 3.6 Daily urban system 61
1.7 Theoretical framework 25 3.7 Work framework for the strategy 62
1.8 Involved disciplines 26 3.8 Regional planning in Lithuania 63
1.9 Methodology 27 3.9 Rural development policies 64
1.10 Time schedule 28 3.10 Rural development policies
1.11 Preliminary literature 29 in Lithuania 65
2. Research 33 4. Rural definition 67
2.1 Introduction 35 4.1 Transformation of typologies in Eu 69
2.2 Spatial transformations during 4.2 Classification at national level 73
socialism 37 4.3 Current rural definition in LT 75
2.3 New challenges for a country 41
2.4 Democracy and new planning
system 42
2.5 Free-market economy 47
2.6 Demographic peocesses 50
Left
Impression showing alternative functions
in the village.
Source: Image by author
5

6. “Spot master plans” near Kaunas city
Source: http://www.bing.com/maps/#
6

7. 1. Introduction
7

8. 8

9. Motivation
1.1
“Traditionally cities were at the core of their hinterland The motivation for this thesis is two fold. Firstly it Why spatial planning?
regions, linked to smaller towns and settlements originates from a desire to understand the effects of Rural and urban areas become complex and
through a pattern of radial routes and a hierarchy of spatial transformations taken place after regained diverse systems with growing economic, social and
centres revolving in a centripetal fashion around the independency in Lithuania and possible methods for spatial interrelations. Separated urban and rural
regional core. Place effects were experienced through addressing them. Secondly, it arises from a belief, that development cannot ensure coherent region growth
dimension of physical proximity. The closer were two if urban and rural development was more integrated, anymore, therefore integrated strategic spatial
phenomena in actual space, the greater their impact it could provide better accessibility of services and planning becomes an important tool to organise
on each other. The city centre was seen as the site of amenities for the rural society and ensure economic the city regions and to ensure economic, spatial and
greatest synergy, and the periphery site of greatest vitality of rural areas while sustaining more cohesive environment sustainability.
isolation. In recent years, however, a new regional economic, spatial and social growth of the regions in As Healey describes, the term “spatial planning” refers
geography has developed to explore the dynamic Lithuania. to:
complexity of various relational webs which transect self-conscious collective efforts to re-imagine
urban areas.” (Healey, 2007) Choice: Complex Cities a city, urban region or wider territory and to
Until recently spatial policies and strategies had translate the result into priorities for area
Urbanization accelerates at increasing speed, when envisioned urban and rural development as separate investment, conservation measures, strategic
rural turns urban at the pace it is hard to imagine. spatial entities, where the cities were surrounded infrastructure investments and principles of
Though this process is almost finished in Europe, by green, open landscape and rural development land use regulation. The term “spatial” brings
still a considerable amount of population lives in the was bound to the agriculture activities (Hidding and into focus the “where of things”, whether the
areas, which are called “rural”. Moreover after many Teunissen, 2002; Korf and Oughton, 2006; Terluin, static or in the movement; the protection of
decades of urban expansion, a growth of the rural 2003). However as current dynamics of the network special “places” and sites; the interrelations
areas re-appears (Clark, 2003) as a consequence of society and growing complexity of spatial organization between different activities and networks
spatial processes of globalization. Rural areas are not within and between urban-rural regions indicates - in an area; and significant intersections and
place of production anymore; instead, they became as “rural development is no longer the ‘monopoly of the nodes in an area which are physically co-
complex as urban systems, dealing with interrelated farmers’” (Korf and Oughton, 2006, p. 278). Instead, located (Healey, 2004, p. 46).
issues of social well-being, economic growth, ecology according to Gallent et al. (2008) rural spaces become
and sustainable growth, energy production and many “increasingly important to regional economies and to
others. environmental quality and liveability”(p. 28).
Left
Impresion showing alternative future for the village
as science and research centre.
Source: Image by author
9

10. Former East Block coutries
Central and Eastern Europe
Scheme of the main transportation axes in Lithuania.
Bowth of them crosses Kaunas region.
Source: Lietuvos keliu direkcija www.lra.lt
Map of Europe: Central and Eastern Europen countries
source: Cartographic Research Lab University of
Alabama; The Regional Environmental Centre for
Central and Eastern Europe, 2010
drawing by Vytas Buinevicius
10

11. Context
1.2
Geographical context Planning
Lithuania is a country in the North-East Europe. It is a The new planning system was introduced in 1995
part of The Baltic Sea Region and the southernmost - during the period of developing marker and
country of the Baltic states, situated on the eastern democracy and it is still being shaped.
side of the Baltic sea. With the position on the edge of Due to considerably new urban planning and
the central Europe Lithuania holds a strategic location management system, spatial patterns in Lithuania
in the region, functioning as the transition south- changes rapidly. Similarly to many cities of Central and
north and east-west directions. Eastern Europe, urbanisation level increases despite
the fact that already nearly 70% of inhabitants live in
Demography the cities.
With the population of 3 043 000 inhabitants and area
of 65 300 km2 Lithuania is the largest of the Factsheet:
Baltic States. However since the last decade total Lithuania [Lietuva]
number of inhabitants in Lithuania is shrinking. language: Lithuanian
According to Eurostat prognosis, only 2.5 million capital: Vilnius
inhabitants will live in this country by the year 2060. population: 3 043 429 inh.
Furthermore predictions show that the number of area: 65 300 km2
elderly people of retiring age has greatly grown up density: 46.6 inh/km2
(dependence on the factor will increase three times)
and the possibility to use public funds for infrastructure source: Department of Statistics, www.stat.gov.lt
development will be continuously decreasing. (2010)
Political-economical context
On March 11, 1990 Lithuania re-established the
independent state declaring independence from the
USSR. In the political- economical context of the post-
communist countries Lithuania is regarded as a Central
and Eastern European Country (CEE), not as Former
Soviet Union (FSU) country as not being a member
of Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). Since
2004 Lithuania is also a member of European Union
(EU) and NATO.
11

12. Past two decades have marked significant political,
socio-economic, spatial and cultural changes in
Lithuania as well as in other post-socialist countries
(Kay, Shubin, & Thelen, 2012). Yet despite the
historical legacy, on-going spatial transformations
in the urban and rural areas in Lithuania are similar
to the processes occurring in many capitalist based
countries. Driven by free-market economy, increasing
importance of networks and competition for global
attention, economic growth concentrates in urban
regions while creating vacuum in the periphery, thus
economic and social disparities between urban and
rural areas become even greater now than during the
socialist regime (Tsenkova, 2006). Moreover lack of
public planning, individual pursue of fast economic
profit, dependency on private transportation, societal
norms and increasing life standards result in rapid
suburban expansion around previously compact
cities and increasing tension between urban and rural
areas.
12

13. Problem field
1.3
Backwardness of remote rural areas
On the one hand locations with highest concentration
of population, skilled labour, capital and access
to global communication- the capital and the few
largest urban centres attracts people, concentrates
urban activities and experience economic growth
(Stanilov, 2007). Whereas development of the rural
areas is largely dependent on their proximity to the
urban centre: remote rural areas experience economic
and social backwardness comparing to urban regions,
underinvestment and decay or even desertion of rural
settlements due to extreme rural population loses.
Income differences between growing regions and
peripheral rural ares indicates the increasing gap Foreign direct investment per district shows even
between economic development as well. higher disparities between economic growth between
Source: Department of Statistics, www.stat.gov.lt the regions.
(2010) Source: Department of Statistics, www.stat.gov.lt
Attractive regions (2010)
Rural
Rural-urban
Urban
Unattractive regions
Rural
Rural-urban
Urban
This scheme above shows the most attractive and
unattractive regions. Mapping is based on neto
migration saldo from and to the region for 2006-2008.
Attractive regions that have population growth, are
those in the vicinity of urban centre. The rest regions
in most cases looses population. Previous page
Source: Lithuanian Institute of Agrarian Economics, Abandoned village. Some rights reserved by
2010 cindy47452, source: www.flickr.com
13

14. 14

15. 1.3
home
Homogeneity of rural areas close to the city
C
C Secon-
dary
Due to a vicinity of an urban centre other rural
C Secon-
dary
Cultur
areas experience population growth and increasing
home
Primary
school
Primary Primary Secon- High Secon-
school school dary dary
school
High
C
Voca-
tional school
C
use of a landscapes through spatial and economic
Secon-
dary
Primary
school
C
development and growing recreational industry.
High
school
C
Cultur
home
Secon-
dary
Cultur
home
Kinder
However proximity of urban centre has negative
Secon- garden
dary
C
Secon-
dary
Cultur Secon-
home dary
Secon-
dary Primary
C
school
C C
effects on rural development as well: due to sparse
Secon-
dary
C
High
school
C
Primary
school
Secon-
dary
rural population and better-developed service sector
Kinder
garden
Cultur
Primary
home
school
C C
Kinder High
Secon- Cultur
C
Primary garden
school
school dary home
in the cities, services in adjacent rural areas encounter
C
C
Primary
school
Primary Primary Secon- High
school school dary
High school
school Primary
C
Voca-
school
U tional
Secon- Kinder
Primary
school Cultur Primary
school
C
difficulties to sustain. Vicinity of urban centre creates
home
dary garden
Voca- Kinder Cultur
tional garden
Primary
home
Primary school Secon-
High Voca- High
C
school dary Sana
school tional school torium
C
Secon-
C
Secon-
C
dary
dary
dependency on the city for employment, accessibility
of commercial and social services and cultural
Secon-
dary Primary
Primary
school
school
C
Kinder
garden
C Secon-
dary
Cultur Secon-
home dary
Kinder Kinder
garden garden
C High
school
activities thus increasing homogeneity in rural areas.
C
Primary
school
C
High Kinder Kinder
garden
school garden
Kinder Primary Primary
Primary garden school school
school
Voca- Kinder
High
C Co High tional garden
Kinder
school
school
C
High
C C
Secon-
garden
school
C C dary
Kaunas District Development Strategy (2008) states
Kinder Secon- Primary Primary High Secon- Secon- Primary Primary High
garden dary school school dary dary school school High
school school
school
Sana High High High High High Secon- Secon- High High High Secon-
C
Secon- dary dary
dary
torium
school school school school school school school school dary Kinder
garden
Co
High Primary Primary High High Secon-
Kinder High High High
dary
school school school school school school
school school
CCo
garden High
High High Primary Secon- Secon- Secon- Primary Secon- school
school dary dary dary school dary
school school
C High CHigh High
Co High school U school school
Primary
that already 42 per cent of towns can be counted as
school Secon-
C High C
school dary
school school U school U school
High High High
Kinder Primary
garden school
school Co school U
High High Secon-
High
dary
U
Primary High school Secon-
school
C school Primary High
dary
High
school C High
school
school
Kinder Sana
garden school High
torium
C
Primary school
school Primary High Primary Primary Secon- High Primary
satellite cities –sleeping areas of Kaunas.
school dary
school school school Secon- school school
Sana
dary
High Voca-
C
torium High Secon-
dary school tional
school
U Co
Kinder Secon-
Secon- garden
Primary High dary
dary
school
school Primary
Primary school
Co C school
Kinder
garden
High
school
C Secon- Secon-
dary
U
dary
C
Secon-
dary High
school
Primary
school
C
High
As map on the closer right indicates, these sattelite
school
Primary
school
Primary
school
C
High
Primary school
school
C Secon-
dary
C
Primary
cities are located on the highest accessibility routes
school
Secon-
n-
Secon-
dary
Cultur
home
dary
C C
High
school
High
school
C Secon-
High
C
dary
school
- highways, or in the beautiful environment - near
Secon-
dary
C
Secon-
dary
Secon-
dary
rivers, lakes, yet still close to the city. High Cultur
school home Secon-
dary Secon-
dary
Secon-
dary
C
Secon-
dary
C
Secon-
dary
Secon- High
dary
school
Secon-
Voca-
tional C dary
Secon-
dary
Sana
torium
Secon-
dary
C C
C High
school C
Secon- High
dary
school
Secon-
dary
Secon-
dary
Above The map above shows organisation of health care,
location of settlements that developed high educational and cultural services in Kaunas region.
dependency on the city. Bigger settlement and cities can provide these
Source: image by author activities, however many dispersed household are
quite remote from them.
Source: image by author
Previous page
“Spot master plans” near Kaunas city
Source: http://www.bing.com/maps/#
15

16. “Spot master plans” near Kaunas city
Source: http://www.bing.com/maps/#
16

17. 1.3
Suburbanisaion
On the other hand, process of suburbanization Map on the left indicates new areas, where, according Due to insufficient civic planning perspective,
disperses previously compact cities and changes to comprehensive plans of the municipalities, suburban areas are extremely mono-functional
urban pattern. Suburban expansion consumes agricultural land use can be changed to residential. with little physical, economic and social diversity
agricultural land and fragments the landscape. Major developers in Lithuania are private investors and activities. Moreover, due to a suburban growth,
that favours small scale development. Not all areas maintenance of infrastructure, public transportation
will be converted , but it is most likely that owners and social services in suburbs become less effective
of the best accessible areas will use their chance to and more costly for a city, thus increasing demand for
pursue short term profit and built a house to sell. It private transportation furthermore.
means that the landscape will become even more
fragmented than it is now.
Images on the left (p.16) illustrates the consequence
of “spot master plans” - plans that appear due to
considerably easy process of land use change. Scheme
below indicates the trends of land use change from
rural towards urban in the last two decades.
Residential areas, that appear inween the agricultural
land usually have no city infrastructure, or basic
services, like water, sewage, internet, cable.
Areas, where land use change to residential use is Land designated for construction
possible Source: Department of Statistics, www.stat.gov.lt Above
Source: image by author (2010) Author: Tadas Jonauskis
17

18. 18

19. 1.3
Deconcentration of inner city
Lastly suburban sprawl not only changes rural Recent official statistical data shows that only one city
landscape around the cities but also strongly affects - capital Vilnius manages to hold unchanging number
the inner city as well. Social mix, achieved due to of residents. The rest cities experience population
socialist regime, decreases as richer and more mobile loses. Kaunas among them experience considerable
people exchange the city life to the suburban dream loss of inhabitants - between 2001-2009 decrease
leaving weaker social class in the inner city. Secondly of population in Kaunas was 17%. It is nearly 67 400
as the inner city depopulates, its residential areas start inhabitants. The large amount of this migration ends
decaying, thus making the city even less attractive to in the suburban areas around Kaunas.
stay.
The graph below shows that major growth between
1959 - 1989 and 2001-2009 was in the cities, while
later growth is orientied only in the suburbs.
-17% + 8.7%
Source: Department of Statistics, www.stat.gov.lt
(2010)
Author: Vytas Buinevicius
Above
Urban and suburban growth before and after Previous page
independency Decaying buildings in the inner city
Source: Department of Statistics, www.stat.gov.lt Source: http://www.miestai.net/forumas/showthread.
(2010) php?p=129977
19

20. R=30km
Product: regional spatial strategy
R=10km
Product: elaborated strategy in selected area
R=3km
Product: design for specific settlement
Spatial strategy for kaunas region
Source: http://www.kaunoplanas.lt
20

21. Aim and goal of the project
1.4
Aim of the master thesis • to develop an approach, which addresses The final product will be based on a planning and
these spatial changes in urban regions through design through three different scales:
The major aim of the master thesis is to learn the more compact urban development while 1. Spatial strategy based on long-term vision
principles of academic research in the field of supporting economic, social and environmental for Kaunas regional development will provide
urbanism and to develop critical and analytical skills sustainability in the region. guidelines for urban development and environment
neccessary in the practice or academic work in the protection from its negative impacts
areas of spatial planning and urban design. Outcomes of the research will facilitate the spatial 2. It will be elaborated in more detail in a
This master thesis intends to provide an insight to planning, which intends to answer the main research selected area, which has highest demand for new
a variety of research methods and techniques and question: urbanisation and where conflicts between urban and
practice them in academic field. • to optimize urban growth; rural development are the strongest.
Lastly the thesis aims to understand the governance • to ensure accessibility of services to rural society 3. Concept of more organised and compact
principles of urban region and planning tools, which and urbanisation patterns will be developed and tested
could be applied to the region. • to strengthen economic vitality of the rural areas through a design in selected rural settlements.
while increasing environmental qualities and The research and analysis leading to the draft of
Project objectives assets of the region. regional spatial strategy will be presented in a thesis
plan for P2 presentation.
Project objectives reffer to the main elements of the Lastly the main objective of design for selected The final project report for P5 will include:
project, particularly to research, strategy and design. settlement is to illustrate possible and desirable • Completed research and analysis of
The main objectives of research are : outputs of the strategy. literature regarding a) political, economic, social and
• to understand current spatial transformations, spatial trends applying both to the urban as well as
underlaying reasons and their effects in the rural areas in the post-socialist countries; b) rural
urban regions in Lithuania and development theories; c) current regional and rural
development policies, strategies and d) network
based development and landscape urbanism theories.
• Regional spatial strategy and design,
elaborated through three different scales from the
region to the settlement.
• Impact evaluation of spatial strategy for
Kaunas region and its applicability to other regions.
Left
Different scales for spatial strategy, its elaboration
and design
21

22. Research questions
1.5
Main research question Sub-research questions During the research and analysis of the region and
of existing body of literature on urban and regional
The main research question arises from the two spatial Following sub-questions will be answered to define development, specific question arise. These questions
development issues, namely, increasing economic certain issues related to the main research question. will be answered in order get better understanding
and social inequalities between urban and rural areas on issues, regarding spatial development in Kaunas
and suburban expansion into the rural landscapes: What characteristics define an urban region and can region:
this definition be applied to Kaunas region?
What rural definition applies in Lithuania’s plannig
How to manage the future urban growth
To what extent legal acts and planning can influence system and how does it influence on-going regional
and ensure accessibility of services to spatial development of the region? development policies and strategies?
rural inhabitants through regional spatial
What defines rural economy in Kaunas region? How can landscape urbanism theory be adapted to
strategy, while strengthening rural economy a region with low density and sparse development
What are natural environment assets that could form a patterns?
and improving environmental quality in
backbone for region strategy in Kaunas?
Kaunas region?
Source: Image by author
22

23. Societal and academic relevance
1.6
As current dynamics of the network society and in the rural environment should become equally
age
an vill nce”
growing complexity of spatial organization within important to urban development while seeking
ani
and between urban-rural regions indicates - “rural cohesion between rural and urban areas.
development is no longer the ‘monopoly of the The researches on spread of post-socialist cities
“Lithu on-exista
on
farmers’” (Korf and Oughton, 2006, p. 278). Instead, are quite new. Analyses of Daily Urban Systems of
according to Gallent et al. (2008) rural spaces become
“increasingly important to regional economies and to
Ljubljana and Belgrade (Pichler-Milanovic and Krevs,
2010; Stamenkovic and Gataric, 2010) are one of few s i nks int
environmental quality and liveability” (p. 28). early examples of the urban region in post-socialist
Yet in Lithuania’s’ case, the post-industrial reality countries. In Lithuania, only Vilnius region has been
where there is no fundamental living quality analysed in similar manner (Ubareničienė, Burneika
differences between the village and the city, is yet and Kriaučiūnas, 2011).
to come: remote rural regions experience economic This thesis aims to develop a vision for a more balanced
and social backwardness comparing to urban ones, and compact regional growth that would ensure
underinvestment and decay or even desertion of accessibility for services to rural society, strengthen
Printschreen from newspaper website. Title says
rural settlements due to extreme rural population rural economic diversification while improving natural
“Lithuanian village sinks to nonexistence. Source:
loses. While lack of planning perspective, individual environment qualities in the region.
www.lzinios.lt
pursue of fast economic profit, dependency on Project intends to add collected academic and
private transportation, societal norms and increasing empirical observations, gained during the research,
life standards result in rapid suburban expansion planning and design, to the existing body of
around previously compact cities and increasing knowledge of regional development concepts in post-
tension in land use between urban and rural areas socialist countries, hoping that it would contribute
by consuming and fragmenting the landscape and to more integrated spatial-economic regional
increasing economic and social homogeneity of rural development strategies in the future.
settlements. Lastly the regional spatial strategy for Kaunas region
These economic and spatial processes affect nearly could be adapted to other regions in Lithuania that
a million rural inhabitants and are incompatible face similar issues of unbalanced economic and
with a country’s pursue for economic, social and spatial growth and rural population outmigration.
environmental sustainable development goals set in
Comprehensive plan of the territory of the Republic of
Lithuania (Ministry of Environment of the Republic of
Lithuania, 2004). Rural areas can no longer be seen as
places of production; instead environmental agenda,
rural economic vitality and increasing physical quality
23

24. This thesis is based on two main groups of theories.
Theoretical framework Outcome Research, spatial planning
The first one focuses on transformations in economic,
and design
spatial and social dimensions in socialist and post-
Socialist city Literature review paper Research socialist cities and countries. The works of Stanilov
Context, problem field
Main spatial transformations
(2007), Andrusz et al. (1996), Tsenkova (2006), Vanagas
Post socialist city Thesis plan
Trends and problems et al. (2002) Kay et al. (2012) among others are analysed
Research questions to form a background for thesis plan.
Project report Research approach (methodology)
Second group of theories focus on later phase of the
project, which includes defining the guidelines for
Urban netoworks Vision for the region Research the spatial strategy and the strategy itself. This group
Element Scale
consists of the landscape urbanism(Waldheim, 2006),
Landscape urbanism Guidelines for regional
spatial strategy
Socialist legacy National urban networks(Dupuy, 1998; Rocco, 2007) and rural
Post-socialist city Regional
Rural development concepts Urban region City development (Terluin, 2003; Ploeg and Renting, 2000,
Urban networks
Landscape networks Gallent et al., 2008).
Rural developmet
Regional spatial strategy
Design proposal for the Planning and design
settlement
Regional spatial strategy
Urban design
Evaluation
Above
Principal scheme of project framework
Source: Image by author
Right
Images group 1. Theories on post-socialist cities.
Images group 2. Theories on urban networks,
landscape urbanism and rural development.
2 1
Source: http://books.google.nl; www.scopus.com
24

25. Theoretical framework
1.7
Landscape urbanism aims at an integrated approach of
the urban and nature functions, where infrastructure
as carrying structure to organise different functions
“does open up possibilities for new combinations
of rural and urban development” (Hidding and
Teunissen, 2002, p. 302).
Urban networks development concept, according
to Hidding and Teunissen (2002) can help achieving
a more balanced regional development as they
“subscribe to principles like concentration of
urban functions, spatial differentiation and spatial
coherence” (p. 307). Similarly polycentric development
aims at “diminishing urban disparities to enhance
cohesion” (Meijers et al., 2007, p. 4).
Although in general network and polycentric
concepts are aimed at European and national scales,
they can contribute to regional development through
improving urban-rural partnership and strengthening
links between agricultural and non-agricultural
sectors. As Murdoch (2000) states, rural development
strategies have to benefit from networks by
strengthening rural economies.
The levels of spatial analyses based on the Levels
Scheme above briefly explanes city landscape of Network Operation (Dupuy, 1998) with two
concept, which preserves qualities of a landscape supplementary levels: The First Nature and
while constructing urban development Governance. Image by Rocco, 2007
Source: (Hidding and Teunissen, 2002) Source: (Rocco, 2007)
25

26. Involved disciplines
1.8
Chair: Spatial Planning & Strategy
Literature review
First mentor: Roberto Rocco
Statistics and data
Roberto Rocco is specialised in regional planning
in the framework of emerging city regions and analyses
metropolises under conditions of globalisation. His
background is on spatial planning and new economic Mapping
geography applied to strategic planning. He is
particularly interested in the planning and governance
of networked city regions like the Randstad. He also
SWOT analyses
specialises in research methodology and academic
writing skills.
Chair: Cultural History & Design
Interviews and
Second mentor: Prof. Eric Luiten observations
Prof. Eric Luiten is landscape architect and strategic
planner with experience on the regional scale. His
research focuses on landscape and urban heritage
preservation and revitalisation in the context of
spatial transformations.
Research
Urban and Regional development
Urban design Design
Ecology
Sustainable development
Rural development
Evaluation
26

27. Methodology
1.9
Literature and case studies Statistical data Observations
In the large body of literature on rural transformations Statistical information on economic profile, General observation about the issues and problems
in the post-socialist countries, rural changes are demographic processes and spatial restructuring in the region will be made from personal experience,
mostly explored through a narrow perspective of an will help to evaluate current trends in the region. since I am familiar with region as a former resident of
agricultural and land ownership reforms (Kay et al., Information will be used from official department Kaunas.
2012). However the fundamental political, economic, of statistics of Lithuania (2005) and Statistical Office
social and spatial trends apply both to the urban as of the European Union (Eurostat, 2012). Additional Design/ drawing
well as rural areas and are highlighted in the literature information from regional policy documents (Kauno Design proposal a method of communicating
exploring post-socialist cities by Stanilov (2007), Rajono Vietos Veiklos Grupė, 2008) (Ministry of between a strategy and its implementation will be
Tsenkova (2006) Andrusz et al. (2011) Vanagas et Agriculture, 2007) and others) will be used in case of used to test whether a strategy is viable and suitable
al. (2002) and others. Rural development concepts a lack of data. for an area. This evaluation can be used in reversed
and economic, spatial and social rural development order as well: strategy can be improved according to
perspectives by contrast, are well documented in a Mapping the region a design proposal.
large volume of works. Works of Terluin (2003), Ploeg Mapping will be used to show results of analyses of
and Renting (2000), Hidding and Teunissen (2002), statistical data. Analysis on the Kaunas region size
Korf and Oughton (2006) among others will be studied and its influence to the surrounding rural areas will be
as their researches provide comparative review and translated into drawings as well.
critical analyses of European rural development
theories and practices. Literature regarding network Interviews and questionnaires
based development model and landscape urbanism Practical knowledge about specific issues concerning
theory will be reviewed to form draft guidelines for a the development plans of the citiy and its region will
regional spatial strategy. be obtained through interviews with governmental
Additionally, current regional and rural development officials. Interview in a form of questionnaire will be
policies, strategies and their evaluations (when proceeded during the site visit to get the opinion
available) will be reviewed to understand to what about their living conditions from local residents.
extent do they impact development in Kaunas region
and whether they bring positive effects to sustainable SWOT analysis
regional development. It is hoped that successful SWOT analysis will explore the weaknesses and
development examples in terms of economic, social threats of current urban structure in rural areas with
and environmental sustainability, will give an insight and provides the support for regional spatial strategy Left
to which direction could rural areas in Lithuania by revealing area’s strengths and opportunities. Scheme, explaning relation among research, design
develop and what economic and spatial consequences and evaluation stages
it would bring to them. Source: Image by author
27

28. Time schedule
1.10
Design Concept of a regional strategy Regional strategy Elaboration of regional final design refinement
strategy in detail
Evaluation of in selected area
regional strategy
Problem statement & through research Design for
Defining main research question
research questions and sub-research questions questions selected settlement
Analysis of : Evaluation of design
- rural development theories
- regional / rural development
policies and strategies
- network based development model Conclusions
- landscape urbanism theory
Literature review on:
political, economic, social and spatial
transformations in post-socialist countries
Literature review paper
Graduation plan
Project report
Research
Thesis plan Project report Final thesis report
and analysis
2 weeks before
P1 1 week before P2 P3 1 week before P4 1 week before P5
Scheme showing intended time schedule of the
project. Scheme by author
28

29. Preliminary literature1
1.11
Andersen, E., Elbersen, B., Godeschalk, F., and Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications agriculture/rurdev/countries/lt/index_
Verhoog, D. (2007). Farm management of the European Communities. en.htm
indicators and farm typologies as a basis Council. (2006, February 20). Community European Communities. (2009). Common
for assessments in a changing policy strategic guidelines for rural development policies. Retrieved November 20, 2012 from
environment. Journal of environmental (programming period 2007 to 2013). European Parliament: http://circa.europa.
management , 82, 353-362. Retrieved November 20, 2012 from eu/irc/opoce/fact_sheets/info/data/
Andrusz, G., Harloe, M., and Szelenyi, I. (Eds.), European Union: http://eur-lex. policies/agriculture/article_7208_en.htm
(2011). Cities After Socialism: Urban and europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ. Eurostat. (2012). Eurostat. Retrieved Oktober 16,
Regional Change and Conflict in Post- do?uri=CELEX:32006D0144:EN:NOT 2012 from http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.
Socialist Societies. Oxford: Blackwell Department of Statistics. (2005, January 1). eu/portal/page/portal/statistics/search_
Publishers Ltd. Retrieved October 30, 2012 from Statistics database
Bachtler , J., and Downes, R. (1993). Regional Lithuania: www.stat.gov.lt Gallent, N., Juntti, M., Kidd, S., and Shaw, D.
Socio-Economic Development in Poland, Derkzen, P., and Wiskerke, H. (2008). Country (2008). Introduction to Rural Planning.
Hungary, the Czech Republic and Slovakia. profile on rural characteristics Netherlands Chippenham, Wiltshire: Routledge.
Report to the European Commission, . Retrieved October 16, 2012 from Rural Halfacree, K. (1993). Locality and social
DGXVI. development Impacts: http://www.rudi- representation: space, discourse and
Bardauskienė, D., and Pakalnis, M. (2012). europe.net/uploads/media/Netherlands_ alternative definitions of the rural . Journal
Foresighted Urban Planning . WP1_Report_01.pdf of Rural Studies , 9 (1), 23-37.
Environmental Research, Engineering and Dijkstra, L., and Poelman, H. (2008). Remote Rural Hamilton, F., and Andrews, K. D. (2005).
Management , 1 (59), 62-72. Regions. How proximity to a city influences Transformation Of Cities In Central And
Bebbington, A. (2001). In Development: Rural the performance of rural regions. Retrieved Eastern Europe: Towards Globalization.
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Elsevier Science Ltd. http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/ Healey, P. (2004). The treatment of space and
Buinevičius, V. (2011). Exploring potentials sources/docgener/focus/2008_01_rural.pdf place in the new strategic spatial planning
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a06b3f21c121/. Studies , 4 (2), 217-244. Strategies: Towards a relational planning
Clark, D. (2003). Urban World/ Global City. European Commission. (2010). National Rural four our times. Trowbridge, Wiltshire:
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Copus, A., Psaltopoulos, D., Skuras, D., Terluin, evaluation report - summary. Retrieved Hidding, M. C., and Teunissen, A. T. (2002).
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Juškevičius, P. (2003). Miestų Planavimas. Vilnius: Ministry of Environment of the Republic of Rural and Small Town Canada Analysis
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Available at: http:// resolver.tudelft.nl/ Lithuania. (2004). Conceptualizations of “Rural”:
uuid:8eecaffe-fb23-4142-900d-fcfe8b- Murdoch, J. (2000). Networks- a new paradigm Challenges and Implications for Nursing
feab49. of rural development? Journal of Rural Research. Online Journal of Rural Nursing
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Lietuvos Respublikos Seimas. (1994, July 19). Nuissl, H., and Rink, D. (2005). The ‘production’ Central Europe. GeoJournal , 49 (1), 7-16.
Teritorijos administracinių vienetų ir jų ribų of urban sprawl in eastern Germany Schmidt, S. (2011). Sprawl without growth in
įstatymas. Žin., 1994, Nr. I-558. Retrieved as a phenomenon of post-socialist Eastern Germany. Urban Geography , 32 (1),
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lt/pls/inter3/dokpaieska.showdoc_l?p_ shaping territorial policies. Paris: OECD. structure changes inside post-communist
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(2012). Lietuvos regionu tipologijos Publishing House of the Faculty of Arts. between urban-periurban-rural regions:
kaimiskumo aspektu. Vilnius Pizzoli, E., and Gong, X. (2007, October 13). first findings from the EU-project PLUREL.
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Vidickienė, D., Melninkienė, R., Gedminaitė-
Raudonė, Ž., and Ribašauskienė, E. (2012).
31

32. Call for Independency
Author: Gediminas Bartuška, source: http://www.
diena.lt/vaizdai/albumai/ivykiai-lietuvoje/sausio-13-
ivykiu-minejimas-prie-televizijos-6549
On the right
Shortages in department store in the capital, circa
1990s
source: http://www.viv.lt/vilniaus_fenomenai/vilnius_
ir_frank_zappa
32

33. 2. Research
33

34. 34

35. Introduction
2.1
To analyze the spatial patterns of post-socialist (Stanilov, 2007, p. 29-30)
regional development one needs to begin with an
understanding of the main principles of socialist
urbanization, which determined the postwar patterns
of regional growth in Central and Eastern Europe in
a way markedly different from the logic of regional
spatial organization in the Western countries. Enyedi
has described spatial development under socialism
as “reverse urbanization,” in the sense that it was a
process designed to concentrate growth in the largest
regional centers at the expense of the development of
all other settlements (Enyedi, 1996).
Many villages in the suburban periphery of the large
socialist cities were annexed in the 1960s and 1970s
to the urban territory in order to increase the share of
the urban population and to assure land reserves for
future urban growth. This type of forced urbanization
contrasted sharply with the one observed in Western
Europe, which proceeded “from below” as the
growth of the largest centers was feeding from the
development of the smaller settlements in the urban
hierarchy. While urbanization in Western Europe
reflected a long process of organic growth, under
socialist rule the growth of the urban settlements
in Eastern Europe depended on decisions made by
the state authorities on investments in a system of
planned industrial centers. The role of cities was not
determined by their importance as market places,
but by their economic designation assigned in the
Communist Party headquarters. Thus, no market
based economic relations between cities were
formed, which made the whole settlement network
very vulnerable to system change.
35

36. Map showing Lithuania’s possition in Soviet Union. From http://www.philatelicdatabase.com/history/soviet-communications-1965/
36

37. Spatial transformations during socialism
2.2
Spatial transformations due to the collective farming
Annexation of the Eastern Block countries in 1940s Image below shows the town in Kaunas district, Collectivization was followed by large-scale land
immediately brought their spatial and economic Lithuania that was expanded and built-up with reclamation that was implemented in the following
structures into line with the USSR. This meant uniform socialist housing to accommodate few decadesin order to provide more arable land.
centralisation of the government and economic newcomers. During the occupation, Ziezmariai town Until 1978 2 million ha land was reclamed in Lithuania
restructuring based on the principles of planned was the central settlement of Kaisiadoriai collective (which consist nearly one third of all area in a country).
economy in the Soviet Union, with a disregard to the farms, specialized in horticulture and had largest Though economic objectives were reached (drained
local conditions, historical and national traditions and flower plantations in Lithuania. Today the small fields in some regions appeared to be as productive
economic efficiency (Stanilov, 2007). town is shrinking though the horticulture industry as in Western European countries, the effect for
managed to survive restructuring. the environment was intense: regulation of water
Due to a strong political influence to economic state streams, destruction of valleys due to the construction
and planning, spatial changes between annexation of dams, and large-scale reclamation significantly
of Lithuania and its regained independency were reduced natural habitats, like meadows, marshes
extremely rapid and large scale. and swamps, resulting in biodiversity decrease and
damage to ecologic corridor systems.
One of the major political drivers of the rural space Land reclamation was, and is, at times very strictly
transformation since 1940s were nationalisation, criticized. From the perspective of today’s concept
which resulted in the abolition of private property, of environmental exposures and requirements, land
and the establishment of the collective farms. reclamation patterns should have been adapted to
Between 1940-1950s numbers of previous historically the landscape, not vice versa.
formed villages were re-planned and adapted to
serve as a central settlements and to accommodate
management and other major facilities of the
collective farms (Kocik, 1996). At the same time other
villages and farmsteads were abandoned due to
relocation of rural inhabitants to central settlements
(Vanagas et al., 2002).
View to the central settlement of the collective farm
in Kaunas district. Historical settlement was extended Destroyed river by the dam
with socialist houses to accommodate new rural Source:http://mokslasplius.lt/mokslo-
workers. lietuva/2006-2011/node/26787e91.
Source: (Buchaveckas, 1989) html?page=0%2C1&%24Version=1&%24Path=/
37

38. First picture on the left shows polycentric urban
development model that was introducen in 1967
and implemented through centrally planned
industrialization and forced migration.
Second picture on the left show the outcomes of this
planning.
First picture on the right illustrates the urban
expansion of rural settlements in lithuania, while
picture below shows current condition of this estate.
1. Central collective farm’s settlement. Expanded with
uniform socialist housing
1. Central place theory model adapted to Lithuania. Source: http://www.miestai.net/forumas/showthread.
Author Vanagas J., source: (Vanagas, 2003) php?p=598630
1. Current condition of socialist housing in the rural
areas.
2. Current urban structure in Lithuania in 2006.
Source: http://www.miestai.net/forumas/showthread.
Author Corine land Cover, source: http://eea.maps.
php?p=598630
arcgis.com
38

39. 2.2
Spatial transformations due to the urbanisation
Besides direct changes of the rural space, caused It is important to mention that such polycentric Residential extensions was the most significant ele-
by collectivization and land reclamation, rural areas urbanisation was driven first and foremost by centrally ment of the socialist construction. This development
were affected by transformations of urban system as planned industrial growth. was based on the modernistic planning principles
well. In 1967 Lithuania introduced even development of highrise residential blocks in green surroundings.
system based on Christaller’s central place theory, Possitive aspect of polycentric development model, However adapted to soviet ideology and practicalities
which enabled rapid urban population growth: in less that was implemented in Lithuania is that it halted such as shortage of housing, enforced industrialization
than 30 years (between 1940 and 1970) previously expansion of the biggest urban centres in this way and urbanization as well as limited financial capacities,
considerable small urban population, reaching avoided growth of only one strong centre (as it it produced extensive monofunctional areas with
only 20 per cent, levelled and finally exceeded rural happened in the case of Latvia). dense patterns of identical apartment blocks, much
inhabitants. In Lithuania’s case urban population grew more dense and monotonous that their western
mainly at the expense of rural population (Vanagas et However some deviations in Lithuania’s polycentric counterparts (Di Maio 1974; Morton, 1984; French and
al., 2002). This was done in two ways: a) by artificially settlement system occurs as well as top-down Hamilton, 1979).
joining adjacent villages to cities or b) the urban administration had huge influence on urbanisation Socialist housing neighborhoods in the cities as well
growth was impossible without huge amounts of process: central government had influenced as in the rural areas we were built starting from the
blue-collar workers; therefore numbers of redundant development of this polycentric urban system by sixties until the late eighties. These neighborhoods
rural inhabitants migrated to urban areas (Tsenkova, orienting industry to central state, not to region are also called sleeping districts because of mono
2006) (Juškevičius, 2003). and decentralizing it, this way preventing region to functional, residential only functions. Over time
Furthermore, as Enyedi (2011) indicates, accelerating become independent (Vanagas, 2003). Kaunas grew most in this period from 80.000 to
urbanisation was penetrated by heavily taxed 450.000 therefore most of the people were placed in
agriculture, which resulted in a low standard of living these new neighborhoods.
of rural population. New housing areas were planned according to
As a consequence, forced urbanisation resulted in modernistic principles with high rise residential blocks
broken social ties in former rural communities and in in the green environment. Moreover public transport
drastically reduced rural population. was the main feature which enabled to spread these
neighborhoods further away form the industrial areas,
where most jobs were concentrated and enabled to
connect them with the city centre.
39

40. 40

41. New challenges for a country
2.3
Socialist regime was as extremely repelling to the Country now pursues to anchor its position in new In international scale, Lithuania has extravert
society as an example of countries of Western Europe system- European Union (EU). It means participating structure, which actively participates and reacts to
was appealing. As Stanilov points out: “the post- in EU network socially (through politics), economically European context (Vanagas, Krišjane, Noorkoiv, &
socialist reforms in the CEE region can be depicted as (participating in EU market and exchanging Staniūnas, 2002). At the same time spatial structure
an attempt to make a desperate leap from totalitarian production) and spatially (integrating physical as well in regional scale changes in completely different
existence to capitalism in a matter of only a few years. as urban structure of a country into Europe network). direction and becomes more and more introvert:
Therefore, it is not surprising that the post-socialist As a consequence physical connection to Europe biggest centres have highest concentration of
city takes on many of the characteristics of the North becomes significantly important and is reflected in functions while periphery becomes less active part
American patterns of urban development, rather than emergence of three transport corridors that cross of urban structure. Moreover, urban centres tend to
settling in on the more balanced model of Western Lithuania: Via Baltica, Via Hanseatica and Klaipeda – de-concentrate: some functions shifts to the ring of
European urbanization.” (Stanilov, 2007, p. 7) Minsk connection. Increasing importance of transport an urban centre and a core becomes less compact.
corridors and market economy create specific spatial To sum up, shift in activities concentration changes
development patterns that appear in Lithuania in past the whole urban model of a country: morphologically
two decades. even development structure is still there, however
functionally it does not perform like one anymore.
Image showing Lithuania’s position in European
Union physical network.
Source: http://ec.europa.eu/transport/themes/
infrastructure/connecting_en.htm
41

42. Democracy and new planning system
2.4
After the fall of Soviet Union, Lithuania re- Decentralization of government caused unequal
established political, fiscal and administrative urban development patterns between and
decentralization in order to make governance within the regions in Lithuania. Economically
Central planning
both more democratic and more efficient. stronger regions (capital Vilnius and a few largest
Decentralization However the downside of this trend was “the cities) had the economic and social capital to
general retreat of public authorities from urban maintain public facilities and economic activities,
planning” (Stanilov, 2007, p. 10). while weaker ones faced difficulties sustaining
employment, educational, health care and
On the one hand democratic government system other public facilities due to the increased local
allowed transferring part of the power and governments’ expenditures and lower governing
responsibility for urban planning, management, knowledge (Tsenkova, 2006; Stanilov 2007).
Nationalisation maintenance of infrastructure, public and social
services to local governments, thus providing This differentiation especially visible between
Privatisation
more freedom for regions to grow and develop urban and rural areas.
economically (Tsenkova, 2006). first image on the right shows Central Square of
On the other hand due to weak public the Dainava, former collective farm settlement in
support for comprehensive planning and lack Kaunas rural region. During the socialism, village
of funds needed for planning activities, “the had secondary school, kindergarden, first aid
Public
effectiveness of urban development regulations medical centre, culture house, post office, shops,
development has been seriously undermined and the etc. Transition period led to closure of most
provision of public services drastically curtailed.” of the services in the settlement due to lack of
Private
(Stanilov, 2007 p. 10). funding and high explotation costs. Now village
development has only primary school, post office and culture
house.
On the other hand services (especially
commercial) in the city expands yearly. Picture
on the bottom right shows one of the largest
Urbanisation shopping malls in the country - Kauno Akropolis.
Suburbanisation
Left
the most important political and planning
transformations in Lithuania. Image by author
42

43. 2.4
Secondly, privatisation Law, issued in 1994,
caused rapid fragmentation of resources in
the whole Lithuania affecting rural space
and rural economy, previously dominated by
the collective farming estates and industries.
Socialist state enterprises and farms were based
on extensive hand labour, lacking innovation and
urging for re-organisation, moreover emerging
multiple owners found it difficult to find mutual
agreements to continue economic activities in
socialist corporations. Consequently only a few
Dainava central square now. agricultural and industrial businesses managed Picture 1. Unattended ruins of socialist heritage that
Source:http://www.miestai.net/forumas/showthread. to be reorganised – in most cases socialist-based caused fatal injuries for two Czech cyclists, trying to
php?t=12936andpage=2 farms and industry collapsed (Vanagas et al., hide from the storm.
2002) leaving a lot of derelict buildings. Source: http://www.15min.lt/gallery/show/
Kauno-rajone-dviratininku-is-Cekijos-nelaime-
Vast numbers of poorly maintained or 12443?p=2#21
abandoned land or real estate properties from
socialist era not only degrades the countryside
but also sometimes become even the cause of
death. Picture 1 on the right illustrates one of
the recent accidents, when two Czech cyclists
were fatally injured in one of the socialist ruins
in Kaunas region.
Though there are many of such crumbling relicts
across the rural areas, the situation changes
Large shopping mall in the inner city very slow. In most of the cases any efforts to
Source: http://www.15min.lt/naujiena/aktualu/ regenerate decaying properties and land are put
lietuva/paslaptingas-akropolio-nuomininku- down due to lack of political support or (and)
maistas-56-29101 funding. Picture 2 illustrates typical crumbling
buildings across the rural regions. Picture 2.
Source: http://www.ukioklubas.lt/straipsniai/gaires/
apleisti%20pastatai
43

44. Pictures 3, 4 and 5 above, show newly emerging
houses in the Kaunas district. The newcomers prefer
to live in the natural surroundings, yet they are
completely dependent on the city, which provides
work, shopping, services and culture. This hectic
development not only fragments the landscape, but
also do not contribute to creating rural communities.
Source: http://www.bing.com/maps/#
Right
Current master plans for municipalities in Kaunas
region.
Source: www.kaunoplanas.lt
44

45. 2.4
Though some rural areas experience the decline This fragmention is intended to increase furthermore:
and poorer accessibility of social services, private according to the future urbanisation plans, Kaunas
development patterns in other rural areas increases could settle 1.4 times more residents than has now
yearly. and Kaunas region could increase even 2.5 times.
Although the demographic situation is completely
There are several underlaying reasons whe oposite to the development trends and in some cases
suburbanisation flourishes in Lithuania. it would wise to revise extreme urbanisation plans,
it is not an easy task to reject the foreseen “hyper –
1. Some outhors name privatization as a driving force development”, largely because of the landowners who
for suburban expansion (Stanilov, 2007; Tsenkova, think that it is their “legal expectation” (Bardauskienė,
2006). and Pakalnis, 2012).
The insufficient investigation into the demographic
2. Other authors (Bardauskienė, and Pakalnis, trend, overreacted expectations of municipality
2012) claim that national planning system creates authorities and citizens pursue to have as many
the backbone for sprawling development. This territories as they want for their bare land investment
claim in general is true: as of the year 2009, not all do not contribute to sustainable growth of the region.
municipalities had comprehensive development Instead they pushes environment of the region to the
plans while longer term strategies and visions can further exploitation.
be found just for a few cities (Vilnius region, Kaunas,
Klaipeda and few others). 3. Moreover, intention to use the land for construction
The development after 1990s was driven merely by is being considered as the perfect investment in
privately developed detailed plans, where citizens or comparison with the agricultural use. Pursue of fast
investors had their parcels and their own vision. economic profit is considered as one of the driving
Even now due to lack of motivation for a long-term forces of suburbanisation.
planning, most of the master plans in municipalities
foresee extreme suburbanization. On the other hand 4. Rapid increase in automobile ownership and
Areas, where according to master plans, land use
society shows no interesting in changing that as decrease in public transport uses are among the the
change to residential use is possible
a private estate in a countryside is a part of a social most important suburban development reasons as
Source: image by author, based on master plans’
mentality. well.
analysis
45

46. Due to insufficient civic planning perspective, today Lastly suburban sprawl not only changes rural Not only suburban growth has direct effect on land
rural areas around the biggest Lithuanian cities are landscape around the cities but also strongly affects fragmentation and provision of public services in
fragmented by hectic urban development without the inner city as well. Social mix, achieved due to Lithuania, it affects rural society as well.
any urban infrastructure, public spaces or any other socialist regime, decreases as richer and more mobile
amenities. people exchange the city life to the suburban dream Firstly as the focus of development is concentrated
These suburban areas are extremely mono-functional leaving weaker social class in the inner city. Secondly to serve the needs of the newly emerging upper and
with little physical, economic and social diversity and as the inner city depopulates, its residential areas start middle class inhabitants, investments are concentrated
activities. decaying, thus making the city even less attractive to in certain, more prestigious places (Stanilov, 2007).
stay. This leads to spatial and social stratification of the
Another issue related with suburban growth The graph below shows that major growth between rural areas where segmented individuals replace rural
is provision of public services. Maintenance of 1959 - 1989 and 2001-2009 was in the cities, while communities.
infrastructure, public transportation and social later growth is orientied only in the suburbs. Secondly significant decrease of public transportation
services in suburbs become less effective and more Recent official statistical data shows that only one services pushes marginal rural communities further
costly for a city, thus increasing demand for private city - capital Vilnius manages to hold unchanging down the edge: those, who cannot afford a private
transportation furthermore. number of residents. The rest of the cities experience transport, encounter difficulties accessing and using
population loses. Kaunas among them experience social services.
considerable loss of inhabitants - between 2001-2009
decrease of population in Kaunas was 17%. It is nearly
67 400 inhabitants. The large amount of this migration
ends in the suburban areas around Kaunas.
-17% + 8.7%
Source: Department of Statistics, www.stat.gov.lt
(2010)
Author: Vytas Buinevicius
Left
Urban and suburban growth before and after
independency
Above Source: Department of Statistics, www.stat.gov.lt
Author: Tadas Jonauskis (2010)
46

47. Free-market economy
2.5
Lithuania today has service-based economy where The last few decades’ technological progress and
the service sector accounts for more than a half of the production intensification allowed agricultural sector Agriculture and
regions’ GDP. The shift from industrial towards service employing less rural inhabitants while increasing
industry economy
based economic activities affected regions in the economic growth. Emerging excess of rural workforce
country differently: rural areas have more difficulties was a relevant stimulus for rural economy to be Service based
during this change than the urban ones. On the one diversified, to offer new services for increasing social
economy
hand, as Tsenkova (2006) concludes the ideas of Adair needs.
et al. (1999), General Council for St Petersburg (1998) However, differently from the western democracies,
and Ghanbari-Parsa and Moatazed-Keivani (1999): rural areas in Lithuania experience some issues in
the transition to service based rural economy. For
Within the service economy, the capital cities example, instead of experiencing economic growth,
Polycentric
across the region are regaining their position as less skilled and less flexible rural society (compared to development
financial, business and administrative centres the urban one) experiences growth of unemployment
of the nation-state. Some (Prague, Budapest, and income polarization, where few residents involved
Network
Warsaw, Vilnius) clearly state their ambitions in agricultural activities have higher incomes than based model
to become the springboard for international urban inhabitants, while at the same time large part
investors; others market themselves as the of rural inhabitants not involved in agriculture gain
regional centres of command and control only half of income of those in cities (Department of
for head offices and servicing operations in Statistics, 2005). This trend is shown in a table below. Planned
resource-rich countries and other regional sub-
markets (p. 33). 1200
economy
Income, in Litas
1000 Market
On the other hand, until recent years rural areas in
Lithuania were dependent on primary economic
800
economy
600 Urban residents
sector, such as agriculture, forestry and fishery
400
(Vanagas et al., 2002). In the context of increasing Farmers
200
demand for services, economic state, based on Rural residents
primary sector, became a halt forutilizing economic Years 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
potential of an area.
Source: Lithuanian Institute of Agrarian Economics,
2010
47

48. Despite the historical legacy, on-going economic Remote rural areas experience economic and social
transformations in the urban and rural areas in backwardness (comparing to urban regions or the
Lithuania are similar to the processes occurring in regions that are proximate to major transport and
many capitalist based countries. Driven by free- economic flows), underinvestment and decay or even
market economy, increasing importance of networks desertion of rural settlements due to extreme rural
and competition for global attention, economic population loses.
growth concentrates in urban regions while creating
vacuum in the periphery, thus economic and social
disparities between urban and rural areas become
even greater now than during the socialist regime
(Tsenkova, 2006).
Increasing importance of networks is visible not only
in traffic flows in the transport networks, but also in
different economic growth rates between areas. Attractive regions
Rural Foreign direct investment per district shows even
Rural-urban higher disparities between economic growth
Urban
Unattractive regions between the regions.
Rural
Rural-urban Source: Department of Statistics, www.stat.gov.lt
Urban (2010)
The scheme above shows the most attractive and
unattractive regions. Mapping is based on neto
migration saldo from and to the region for 2006-2008.
Attractive regions that have population growth, are
those in the vicinity of urban centre. The rest regions
in most cases looses population.
Source: Lithuanian Institute of Agrarian Economics,
2010
Right
Income differences between growing regions and
peripheral rural ares indicates the increasing gap
Scheme of the main transportation axes in Lithuania. between economic development as well.
Bowth of them crosses Kaunas region. Source: Department of Statistics, www.stat.gov.lt
Source: Lietuvos keliu direkcija www.lra.lt (2010)
48

49. 2.5
home
C
C Secon-
dary
On the other hand, due to a vicinity of an urban
C Secon-
dary
Cultur
centre or major networks, other rural areas experience
home
Primary
school
Primary Primary Secon- High Secon-
school school dary dary
school
High
C
Voca-
tional school
C
growth and increasing use of a landscapes through
Secon-
dary
Primary
school
C
High
spatial and economic development.
school
C
Cultur
home
Secon-
dary
Cultur
home
Kinder
garden
However proximity of urban centre has negative effects
Secon-
dary
C
Secon-
dary
Cultur Secon-
home dary
Secon-
dary Primary
C
school
C C
on economic rural development as well: due to sparse
Secon-
dary
C
High
school
C
Primary
school
Secon-
dary
rural population and better-developed service sector
Kinder
garden
Cultur
Primary
home
school
C C
Kinder High
Secon- Cultur
C
Primary garden
school
school dary home
in the cities, services in adjacent rural areas encounter
C
C
Primary
school
Primary Primary Secon- High
school school dary
High school
school Primary
C
Voca-
school
U tional
Secon- Kinder
Primary
school Cultur
home
Primary
school
C
difficulties to sustain. Vicinity of urban centre creates
dary garden
Voca- Kinder Cultur
tional garden
Primary
home
Primary school Secon-
High Voca- High
C
school dary Sana
school tional school torium
C
Secon-
C
Secon-
C
dary
dary
dependency on the city for employment, accessibility
of commercial and social services and cultural
Secon-
dary Primary
Primary
school
school
C
Kinder
garden
C Secon-
dary
Cultur Secon-
home dary
Kinder Kinder
garden garden
C High
school
activities thus increasing homogeneity in rural areas.
C
Primary
school
C
High Kinder Kinder
garden
school garden
Kinder Primary Primary
Primary garden school school
school
Voca- Kinder
High
C Co High tional garden
Kinder
school
school
C
High
C C
Secon-
garden
school
C C dary
Kaunas District Development Strategy (2008) states
Kinder Secon- Primary Primary High Secon- Secon- Primary Primary High
garden dary school school dary dary school school High
school school
school
Sana High High High High High Secon- Secon- High High High Secon-
C
Secon- dary dary
dary
torium
school school school school school school school school dary Kinder
garden
Co
High Primary Primary High High Secon-
Kinder High High High
dary
school school school school school school
school school
CCo
garden High
High High Primary Secon- Secon- Secon- Primary Secon- school
school dary dary dary school dary
school school
C High CHigh High
Co High school U school school
Primary
that already 42 per cent of towns can be counted as
school Secon-
C C
school dary
U High U school
High High High
Kinder school school school Primary
garden school
school Co school U
High High Secon-
High
dary
U
Primary High school Secon-
school
C school Primary High
dary
High
school C High
school
school
Kinder Sana
garden school High
torium
C
Primary school
school Primary High Primary Primary Secon- High Primary
satellite cities –sleeping areas of Kaunas.
school dary
school school school Secon- school school
Sana
dary
High Voca-
C
torium High Secon-
dary school tional
school
U Co
Kinder Secon-
Secon- garden
Primary High dary
dary
school
school Primary
Primary school
Co C school
Kinder
garden
High
school
C Secon- Secon-
dary
U
dary
C
Secon-
dary High
school
Primary
school
C
High
As map on the closer right indicates, these sattelite
school
Primary
school
Primary
school
C
High
Primary school
school
C Secon-
dary
C
Primary
cities are located on the highest accessibility routes
school
Secon-
n-
Secon-
dary
Cultur
home
dary
C C
High
school
High
school
C Secon-
High
C
dary
school
Secon-
- highways, or in the beautiful environment - near
dary
C
Secon-
dary
Secon-
dary
rivers, lakes, yet still close to the city. High Cultur
school home Secon-
dary Secon-
dary
Secon-
dary
C
Secon-
dary
C
Secon-
dary
Secon- High
dary
school
Secon-
Voca-
tional C dary
Secon-
dary
Sana
torium
Secon-
dary
C C
C High
school C
Secon- High
dary
school
Secon-
dary
Secon-
dary
Above The map above shows organisation of health care,
location of settlements that developed high educational and cultural services in Kaunas region.
dependency on the city. Bigger settlement and cities can provide these
Source: image by author activities, however many dispersed household are
quite remote from them.
Source: image by author
49

50. Demographic processes
2.6
On 1 March 2011, the population of Lithuania totalled
Growing 3 million 43 thousand. The highest population was in
the urban and peri-urban regions, while the lowest - in
population remote rural areas.
Shrinking
According to the 2011 Census data, two-thirds of the
population country’s population (66.7 per cent) lived in urban
areas, out of which 40.2 per cent – in the major cities.
Over the decade, the population decreased by 12.6
per cent (440.6 thousand). The urban population
Relocaction decreased by 300.9 thousand, while rural – by 139.7
of rural thousand.
population Migration caused 77 per cent of total population loss. Internal migration rates, 2008
Out migration During the last few years migration tends to stabilise, Source: Department of Statistics, www.stat.gov.lt
however the majority of immigrated people chooses (2011)
to reside in urban areas. It means that in case of
population growth, number of rural inhabitants will
Growing remain stable or even decreases further.
population
Aging
population
Urban and rural population, 1959–2011 Population density
Source: Department of Statistics, www.stat.gov.lt Source: Department of Statistics, www.stat.gov.lt
(2011) (2011)
50

51. 2.6
The map below shows saldo migration between j
Kedainiu raj age group change 2001-2011,
Raseiniu raj
regions in Lithuania. It is visible that the only growing -7%
-5% percent from total population
regions are close to the urban centre. Largely it is +3%
+6% 0-15
caused by suburbanisation as immigration to the +2%
+1% 16-45
country is yet not increasing.
Jurbarko raj
> 45
-6.5%
The scheme on the right shows more detailed analysis
on demographic changes in Kaunas region in the +5%
Kauno raj
-5%
last 10 years. Kaunas district municipality, which +1.5%
-4%
surrounds Kaunas city, is the only growing district in Sakiu raj
+4%
+1.5%
this region.This happens due to growing suburban -7% +3.5%
0 Kauno m
expansion around the city. +7.5%
-4%
-0.5%
0
The general trend in the region is shrinking Kazlu rudos raj -5.5%
population, especially decreasing is the youngest age -6.6% +4%
+6.%
group. Working age people increases in all parts, while +5.5%
-1%
senior group increases in all districts except few. 0
Total inhabitants 2001 2011
Kauno apskritis 702 090 600 363
-6% Birstono sav. 5 458 4 542
Jonavos r. sav. 52 258 45 775
The tendency that this scheme shows is that if the +7%
Kaisiadoriu r. sav. 37 632 33 425
Kauno m. sav. 379 706 311 148
general demographic trends in Lithuania will not Birstono raj Kauno r. sav. 81 373 86 200
-1% Kedainiu r. sav. 65 717 52 997
change in the near future, region will experience -8% Prienu r. sav. 35 769 29 391
Raseiniu r. sav. 44 177 36 885
shrinking and rapidly aging population. +6%
Skuodo r. sav.
Kazlu Rudos sav.
25 637
14 934
20 164
13 039
Sakiu r. sav. 38 788 32 052
+2% Jurbarko r. sav. 37 795 29 693
This process will alter region development, especially
huge challenge can be maintaining social services
and social safety net. Furthermore aging society will
increase a demand for health care facilities. This brings
attention to alternative regional development model
since current suburban development pattern cannot Scheme showing demographic changes in the region
ensure proper accessibility of services for seniors. Source: Image by author
51

52. Both pages
The Kaunas Free Economic Zone (FEZ) - a 534 ha
industrial development area which provides tax
incentives.
Source: http://www.investkaunasregion.lt/english/
business-oppurtunities/kaunas-free-economic-zone/
52

53. 3. Kaunas region
53

54. 54

55. Kedainiai
Introduction
3.1
Kaunas region is one of the most important regions in
Lithuania, consisting of administrative centre Kaunas
and region sub-centres of Raseiniai, Kėdainiai, Jonava,
Kaišiadorys, Prienai and Birštonas town.
The region is home to 600 000 people. Kaunas district
with sub-centres are considerably dense, e.g. Kaunas
city - 2 000 inh./km2, however density in the whole Jonava
region berely excedes 75 inh./km2.
Kaunas Kaisiadorys
Prienai 55
Birstonas

56. Green structure
3.2
Kaunas region is located on the confluence of the
two largest rivers in Lithuania - Nemunas and Neris. In
1960 hydropower plant was built and Nemunas river
was dammed. 20 villages in the west of Kaunas had
to be relocated due to the the formation of Kaunas
lagoon. Today Kaunas Lagoon is among the protected
environments in Kaunas region.
Forests cover nearly two third of the whole land, the
second largest group is agricultural land. The land
productivity rate is one of the highest, therefore
level of land use in Kaunas region is one of the most
intensive in the country.
6 % urban and
industry
Other
Water bodies
Forests
Agriculture
94 % rural
56

57. Ecological network
3.3
River habitats in Kaunas region belongs to national
ecological frame.
They also serve as migration corridors for the birds.
Confluence of two largest rivers in Lithuania
Author: Giedriusok, source: www.efoto.lt
Dubrius river entering Kauno marios. Dubrava forest,
vilage and forest enterprise were named after the
name of this river
Author: Pliura A., Source: www.panoramio.com
57

58. Traffic network
3.4
Two international multimodal transport corridors
cross Kaunas region. Via Baltica, crosses the Region
from north to south and serves as a connection
between Nordic countries and Central and Western
Europe. Corridor No. 9B is the main corridor crossing
the Region from east to west (Kiev - Klaipeda).
Moreover, two roads of TEN-T road network (Kaunas-
Daugavpils and Vilnius-Marijampole) cross the
Region.
Kaunas region has a highly developed railway
infrastructure.
There is a local waterway Kaunas-Birstonas and one
of the most important waterways connecting Kaunas
with sea port. However water network is reletively
underused.
Kaunas International Airport is the biggest cargo
airport in the Baltics. It can serve practically all types
of aircraft and has passenger air connections to major
cities in Europe.
There are also several local airports that are widely
used for aerial tourism (Pociunai Airport in Prienai
district, Darius and Girenas Airport in Kaunas city).
58

59. Economic network
3.5
The main economic sectors (input to GDP) in Kaunas
region are:
Agriculture 4%
Industry and Construction 34,5%
Services 60,2%
Region produces one fifth of Lithuanian GDP.
The most important products are: furniture, yarn,
pharmaceuticals, meat and its products, milk
production, flour, combined fodder, sulphuric and
phosphoric acids, lasting food products, building
bricks, industrial wood, peat, paper, beer and non-
alcoholic drinks, firewater and liqueur products,
textile, mineral waters.
Kaunas has concentration of manufacturers; Kėdainiai
district has well developed canning industry; the
largest fertilizer producer is in Jonava and Kaišiadorys
has well developed meat production.
Only 7 per cent of region’s population is employed
in agriculture. Main production consists of livestock,
horticulture and agriculture, however primary sector
adds only four per cent to regions GDP – one of the
lowest values in the country.
59

60. commuting zone/ car commuting zone commuting zone/ public tr commuting zone/ public transport
intensive intensive intensive
intensive
extensive extensive extensive
extensive
commuting zone/ public tr
commuting cars to urban buses
intensive last city bus stop
centre, per day
microbuses
extensive train station
> 8 000 public transport frequency,
development plan per day buses
expansion zone > 60 microbuses
highest real estate value disparities
trains
apartments 6 000 - 8 000
40 public transport frequency,
houses
per day
commercial
> 60
industrial 4 000 - 6 000
20
40
combined influence
zone 2 000 - 4 000 20
2
highest real estate value
last city bus stop
2
apartments
houses
commercial
industrial
60

61. Daily urban system
3.6
One of the major intentions while analysing Kaunas
region was to understand what commuting patterns
exist, do they consist Daily Urban System (DUS) for
the whole region or whether the region is largely
monocentric with Kaunas as the main centre.
The findings of this research helps to understand
to what extent regional strategy can influence
development in the region: combined influence zone
indicates approximate area in which the commuting
flows are the highest. Conclusion can be drawn that
this zone is preferred by inhabitants as still close
to the city and has the highest potential for new
development. It also means that the impact of the
regional strategy is likely to be the largest inside this
area, because the pressure for the land is highest here.
This analysis was carried out using methodology of
commuting zone/ car
Ubarevičienė, Burneika and Kriaučiūnas (2011) where commuting zone commuting zone/ public tr
intensive intensive intensive
“city functional region, is treated as functionally
extensive
united spatial system, where capital city is one of the extensive extensive
main factors of development of the area and vice commuting zone/ public tr
commuting cars to urban buses
intensive centre, per day
versa.” (p.98). microbuses
extensive
> 8 000 public transport frequency,
development plan per day
expansion zone > 60
highest real estate value disparities
apartments 6 000 - 8 000
40
houses
commercial
industrial 4 000 - 6 000
20
combined influence
zone 2 000 - 4 000
2
highest real estate value
apartments last city bus stop
houses 61
commercial
industrial

62. Work framework for the strategy
3.7
Urban network Kaunas region Landscape architecture
development approach analysis approach
Analysis of areas for urban Analysis of the landscape assets in
development in relation to: relation to:
- connectivity (physical access) - ecological network
- access to public transport - production network (agriculture,
- access to social services forestry, industry, energy)
- proximity to other settlements - consumption network (recreation,
- landscape assets tourism, herritage)
Types of urban development Areas with different urbanisation
with different set of rules: impact on the landscape:
- highest level of urbanisation - no negative impact on the
allowed (in relation to density, landscape (a)
height, built up area percent) (1) - priority to the landscape and urban
- moderate urban development equal (urbanisation can be used to
(lower density, adittional improve the landscape) (b)
investment for public services, - priority to the landscape (urban
landscape from developers) (2) development has largest negative
- low level of urbanisation (low effect) (c)
density, priority to landscape) (3)
Matrix of combined types of areas
from urban and landscape approach
maximum urban largest conflict between
landscape types programme space use
a b c a1 c1
urban types
1 a1 b1 c1
2 a2 b2 c2
3 a3 b3 c3
c3 a3
restricted urbanisation no conflict for space use
62

63. Regional planning in Lithuania
3.8
Until 1990 regional planning in Lithuania was based Legal basis There are two main policy tools in Lithuania at the
on planned economy model, which considered Regional planing in Lithuania is based on the moment:
development to be adequate to the whole country. Comprehensive plan of the territory of the Republic
of Lithuania issued in 2002. The document presents 1. From EU perspective: Structural EU regional policy.
After 1990, 10 Counties were formed (culturally the main solutions of the territory in the following Lithuania reaches only 55 per cent of EU average
territory of Lithuania consists of 4 ethnic sub-regions). main directions: GDP per person (EU27, 2010). The main tool to raise
- common territorial structures; the level of socio-economic development is through
From 2000 Regional Development Law was issued - specialised territorial structures; Structural Funds (Cohesion policy implementation
and Regional Development Councils were formed to - spatial integration of the development of the through State investments).
each County. These were delegated from Municipal teritory of the state;
councils, not directly elected. - reserving the territories for the common needs of 2. From national perspective: regional development
the state. policy.
In 2010 July Administrative reform was held. With the issue of Regional Development Law in 2000
Administrations of Counties Governor were cancelled. “The Comprehensive plan: increasing disparities of development level within
Functions from County Governor’s administration - is obligatory for state governmental institutions the country were recognized (for example Taurage
(which do not involve EU funding, for example health taking decisions on national level related to the reaches 49 per cent of LT average GDP, while Vilnius -
care, education) delegated to local – municipal level. use, management and protection of the territory of 153 per cent) and policy was aimed at reducing them.
Other functions (land reform, coordination of EU the country, forming regional policy;
support at regional level) are transfered to central - forms planning conditions for national level special Kaunas Regional Development Plan 2003 – 2013;
level - ministries. plans, long term programmes and strategies and 2014-2020 (under preparations, 2012);
for regional level comprehensive and special plans. Strategy of tourism development in Kaunas Region
2007 – 2013;
All development strategies of economy sectors, Strategy of Kaunas Region Image (2007-2013).
other strategic plans and programmes of state Strategic development plans for separate
institutions have to rest upon the Comprehensive municipalities and areas (Jonava District, Rukla,
plan of the territory of the Republic of Lithuania.” Kaišiadorys District, etc.)
(Ministry of Environment of the Republic of
Lithuania, 2004, p.68).
63

64. Rural development policies
3.9
Rural development in Europe has undergone several objectives; • Improving the quality of life in rural areas and
reforms since the common market Treaty, established e. strengthening rural development, allowing encouraging diversification of the rural economy;
in Rome in 1958. The underlying reasons for this the creation of additional income and jobs in • Building local capacity for employment and
treaty arose from instability of agricultural market agriculture and contributing to the economic and diversification (Leader programme).
and were to control agricultural supply, provide price social cohesion of the Union; Following these guidelines, Member States has
guarantees and assure income support for the farmers. f. increasing the EU’s negotiating position during developed their own national or regional rural
For agricultural production to be included in the free World Trade Organisation (WTO) talks; development programmes for 2007-2013 based on
movement of goods, suitable national intervention g. simplifying administrative provisions relating key actions for each axis. Since this project eventually
mechanisms were to be established in EU member to market management and payments made to will concentrate on dealing with spatial planning and
states through common agricultural policy (CAP) producers; design, the emphasis in the analysis will be given to
(European Communities, 2009). h. incorporating the agricultural sectors of the new spatial issues.
Initial objectives of CAP, laid in the Treaty: Member States into the single market.
a. to increase agricultural productivity by Generally aim of new CAP, also known as the Second
promoting technical progress and ensuring the Pillar of the CAP, was “to establish a model for
optimum use of the factors of production, in European agriculture that would be closely linked
particular labour; to the balanced development of rural land, which
b. to ensure a fair standard of living for farmers; covers 90% of the Community’s territory” (European
c. to stabilize markets; Communities, 2009). Cohesive and sustainable future
d. to assure the availability of supplies; of rural areas is based on agricultural multifunctionality
e. to ensure reasonable prices for consumers. – “the ability of the rural economy to create new
Though these objectives are still valid today, following income and employment whilst conserving the
CAP reforms, particularly the 2003 mid-term review, culture, environment and heritage of rural areas”
adapted different mechanisms to attain those (European Communities, 2009).
goals more successfully and introduced some new Since the enlargement of European Union in 2004,
objectives into CAP (European Communities, 2009): scale and intensity of rural development in EU had
a. improving competitiveness by gearing changed; therefore new strategic guidelines were set
agriculture more to the market; up for the upcoming period starting 2007. European
b. producing safe, good quality food in line with Rural Development Policy for 2007 to 2013 focuses
the expectations and needs of society; on four themes (known as “thematic axes”) (Council,
c. stabilising farmers’ incomes while covering 2006):
budgetary costs; • Improving the competitiveness of the agricultural
d. maintaining a sustainable agricultural sector, and forestry sector;
incorporating environmental and planning • Improving the environment and the countryside;
64

65. Rural development policies in Lithuania 3.10
The Rural Development Programme 2007-2013 of the rural economy. Though these issues are not
(RDP) of Lithuania is prepared following the National directly related with spatial problems, the latter ones
Strategy Plan of Lithuania for the period 2007-2013, greatly depend on socio-economic conditions of the
which subsequently is based on a set of measures in area, therefore improving these conditions can help
accordance with aforementioned axes of the European increase the physical quality of the space.
Rural Development Policy 2007-2013. Mid-term evaluation carried out in 2010 emphasizes
The main (in the RDP referred as “global”) objective for that though measures related with agriculture
rural development in Lithuania is “to ensure growth competitiveness and modernisation absorbed the
through improving the competitiveness of agrifood assistance of EU funds, no funds were distributed in
and forestry sectors as well as creating possibilities for the areas such as “village renewal and development”
diversification of economic activities and improving the or “implementation of local development strategies”
quality of live in rural areas meanwhile enhancing the (European Commission, 2010). In addition, over a 1000
human, environmental and other countryside values jobs were created or preserved in agricultural, forestry
and reducing disparities between rural and urban areas and food sector while only 13 jobs were created in non-
as well as separate regions” (Ministry of Agriculture, agriculture area. Evaluation concludes that impacts
2007, p. 52). of the RDP were smaller than planned, both due to
This, in general a very broad objective, is a repetition the exogenous factors (economic crisis) and internal
of European Rural Development Policy 2007-2013 reasons (underrated demand for certain actions). It is
with no individual adaptation for the case of Lithuania. also stated that the Rural Development Programme
However the following more specific objectives are “is likely to have a positive impact on increasing
based on concrete problems of the country. The competitiveness of the Lithuanian agriculture, a
fundamental issues concerning spatial development positive effect on changes in the number and structure
of rural areas are related with improvement of the of rural inhabitants, employment, income” (European
environment, both natural and man-made. Threat Commission, 2010, p. 5)
towards the environmental and cultural heritage, This brings to the conclusion that nonetheless RDP
unused agricultural land, quality of drinking water in the enables economic growth of agricultural sector; it
dug wells, decline of biodiversity and need to combat does not contribute to the spatial development and
climate change are among the key priorities while increasing physical quality of the rural areas. Neither
improving the environment of the countryside (Ministry it contributes to the diversification of activities: “no
of Agriculture, 2007). Overdependence on agriculture, impact on employment growth in the non-agricultural
insufficient social and physical infrastructure and need sector” (European Commission, 2010, p. 3).
to preserve rural heritage are listed as priority issues
regarding quality of life in rural areas and diversification
65

66. 66

67. One of the tools in policy making and its evaluation A typology can be understood as territorial More accurate definition of typology is useful for
is spatial pattern typologies (Meredith & Salas classification based on scientifically sound and researchers to identify other areas in Europe that
Olmedo, 2012). Therefore definition of term “rural” is politically relevant indicators (Ulied, Biosca, & Rodrigo, are similar to those that they are studying and to
fundamental when talking about rural development 2010). Such indicators can be social, economic, avoid overlapping work if a research is undertaken
and strategies related to it (Nordregio, 2011). However environmental variables, ecological processes, etc. already within similar social, spatial, economic or
“rural” does not have obsolete definition; it varies Identification of individual area units that bear similar environmental contexts (Meredith & Salas Olmedo,
from country to country and even within one nation. characteristics allows more accurate evaluation of the 2012).
Distinctive areas may be classified as being equal due areas. Besides it helps to identify areas confronting The following few pages gives a brief literature review
to mismatch of the definition, e.g. area with 3000 similar challenges and opportunities and to support of “rural” definition transformations in European
inhabitants in Lithuania has different socio-spatial design and evaluation of territorial targeted policies scale. Later the overview of current rural classification
characteristics from the area with 3000 inhabitants (Andersen, Elbersen, Godeschalk, & Verhoog, 2007) existing in various countries will be given.
in the Netherlands, though they both are classified (Copus, Psaltopoulos, Skuras, Terluin, & Weingarten,
as rural. Therefore it is crucial to understand, identify 2008).
and classify similarities and differences between areas
in both national and local scales (Meredith & Salas
Olmedo, 2012).
4. Rural definition
67

68. OECD 1994 ESPON 1.1.2, 2004
68

69. Transformation of typologies in Europe 4.1
1. DGRegio. 2nd and 4th reports on social and 4. SPESP (2000) Study program on European 5. ESPON 1.1.2 (2004) proposal based on
economic cohesion. Need to establish typologies Spatial Planning. A specific typology developed urban influence and human intervention.
to differentiate rural areas (Ulied, Biosca, & for the European territory, based on urbanization Typology provided by ESPON 1.1.2 in 2004 for
Rodrigo, 2010) (Ulied, Biosca, & Rodrigo, 2010) rate; rural population density; the degree of better understanding the diversity of European
2. Green Paper on territorial cohesion. It contrast in the distribution of settlement size; regions. Degree of urban influence (two classes)
identifies three specific types of region having average distance to any urban settlement; the and degree of human intervention (three classes)
particular development challenges: 1) mountain primacy of the largest city; and the size of the creates a base for this typology (Ulied, Biosca, &
regions, 2) island regions and 3) sparsely largest centre (Ulied, Biosca, & Rodrigo, 2010). Rodrigo, 2010). Mixed six-type model has main
populated regions, all rural and almost all border two divisions of high and low urban influence,
regions. which accordingly have three sub-divisions of
3. OECD (1994). Proposal of a classification high, medium and low human interventions:
between urban, intermediate and rural regions • High urban influence + high human
based on density of population living in rural intervention;
local units (OECD, 1994). Rural local units are local • High urban influence + medium human
administrative units with a population density intervention;
below 150 inhabitants/km2: • High urban influence + low human
• Rural regions, more than 50% live in rural intervention;
local units; • Low urban influence + high human
• Intermediate regions, between 15% and intervention;
50% live in rural local units; • Low urban influence + medium human
• Urban regions, less than 15% live in rural intervention;
local units. • Low urban influence + low human
However, some unexpected results occurred intervention.
due to delimitation of communal boundaries, Unexpected results were uneven distribution of
particularly in large, heterogeneous NUTS3 units: regions across the six classes. Nearly 700 NUTS
rural area may be classified as intermediate or areas were identified as high urban influence and
intermediate area as urban (if has urban centre high human intervention.
within boundaries) (Ulied, Biosca, & Rodrigo,
2010), which made classification unreliable in
some cases.
69

70. Urban-rural typology Guadeloupe (FR) Martinique (FR)
A new urban-rural typology Guadeloupe (FR) Martinique (FR)
of NUTS3 regions for NUTS 3 regions (1)
Predominantly urban regions
Predominantly urban regions; rural population
Intermediate rural regions, close to a city less than 20 % of total population 0 25 0 20
0 25 0 20
Intermediate rural, remote regions
Intermediate regions; rural population Guyane (FR) Réunion (FR)
Predominantly rural regions, close to a city Guyane (FR) Réunion (FR)
between 20 and 50 % of total population
Predominantly rural, remote regions
Predominantly rural regions; rural population
Data not available
is 50 % or more of total population
Data not available 0 100 0 20
0 100 0 20
Close to a city: at least 50% of the population of the regions lives Açores (PT)
Açores (PT) Madeira (PT)
at less than 45 minutes travel by road to a city of at least 50 000 Madeira (PT) © EuroGeographics Association, for the administrative boundaries
inhabitants Cartography: Eurostat — GISCO, 03/2010
0 600 km
0 100 0 20
0 100 0 20
Data source: Eurostat Canarias (ES) Malta
© EuroGeographics Association, for the administrative boundaries Canarias (ES) Malta
Cartography: Eurostat — GISCO, 01/2009
0 600 km
0 100 0 10
0 100 0 10
Ísland
Ísland
0 100
0 100
(1) This typology is based on a definition of urban and rural 1 km² grid cells. Urban grid cells fulfil two conditions: 1) a population density of at least 300
inhabitants per km² and 2) a minimum population of 5 000 inhabitants in contiguous cells above the density threshold. The other cells are considered rural.
OECD classification (2008) based on L.Dijkstra, Thresholds for the typology: 50% and 20% of the regional population in rural grid cells.
H.Poelman remoteness indicator OECD, 2010
70

71. 4.1
more diversified (Ulied, Biosca, & Rodrigo, 2010).
6. Dijkstra and Poelman (2008) based on Agricultural regions are classified as:
combined OECD and remoteness classifications • Semi-subsistence;
to propose alternative typology. Remoteness • Para-productivists;
classification is based on driving time to the • Peri-productivists.
closest city. “Close to the city” implies that at least Diversified regions are divided into:
50 per cent of the population can reach a city • “New Rural Economy”;
with 50 000 inhabitants in less than 45 minutes • “Declining Fordist” regions.
(Ulied, Biosca, & Rodrigo, 2010). OECD classifies
regions into predominantly urban, intermediate To sum up, most typologies developed at
and predominantly rural: European scale are based on regions (NUTS2) or
• Predominantly urban regions; sub-regions (NUTS3) provided by OECD at the
• Intermediate regions, close to a city; early 90s. However, classification at NUTS3 levels
• Intermediate, remote regions; in many cases is too vague and either thinner sub-
• Predominantly rural regions, close to a city; division or more various classification aspects are
• Predominantly rural, remote regions. necessary in order to better identify rural areas
7. ESPON - EDORA (2010) based on “Grand (Pizzoli & Gong, 2007).
Narrative” – narratives, developed by research The first approach can be illustrated with a work
team to explain occurring trends in the Europe. of EUROSTAT, where modified OECD definition
Narratives focus on agriculture, urban – rural is applied on EU grid cells (Wirthmann, 2006).
relations and globalisation issues. In this Another method is visible when more complex
proposal on new rural – urban typology, Grand factors, such as degree of human intervention
Narratives plays an important background role. or remoteness, are taken into consideration.
The typology is elaboration of aforementioned However classification at European scale in most
Dijksta – Poelman classification “representing cases is too vague and not applicable in rural
a range of rural socio-economic environments development policies at national or regional
which act as starting points for individual highly levels, therefore more into depth research is done
differentiated pathways of change” (Ulied, Biosca, to understand definition at national scale.
& Rodrigo, 2010).
Rural regions are first distinguished from urban,
then “depleting” regions from “accumulating”,
and lastly those in which the primary sector is still
important are separated from those, which are
71

72. 72
4
3
2
1
Population
2. Land use
by “rurality”
3. Remoteness
Postal codes/km2
1.Economic activity
Regions classification
Rural classification by:
Population density, inh/km2
(Statistics Canada, 2007)
(Derkzen & Wiskerke, 2008)
the rest of the data (Clark, 2003)
“Rural and small town” (subtotal) 3
Strong Metropolitan Influenced Zone (Strong MIZ)
Moderate Metropolitan Influenced Zone (Moderate MIZ)
Canada
<400
Weak Metropolitan Influenced Zone (Weak MIZ)
<1 0001
No Metropolitan Influenced Zone (No MIZ)
Lietuvos Respublikos Teritoriju Istatymas, 1994
Non-urbanised (<500 post c/km2)
Hardly urbanised (500-1000 post c/km2)Moderately urbanised
The
(1000–1500 post c/km2)
Netherlands
<1 0002
<30 000
Highly urbanised (1500-2500 post c/km2)
Extremely highly urbanised (>2500 p.s./km2)
Statistical Area Classification, 1996 in (Statistics Canada, 2007)
United
Kingdom
<1 000
<25% in market t.
Village (no attribute of city or town)
Town (500-1000 inh, 1/2 works in ind/service)
City: (>3000inh, 2/3 works in ind/service) Lithuania
service
<3 0004
industry/
1. <2/3 in
France
<2 000
>200m
3. distance
between houses
Switzerland
suburbs
<10 000
Including
Denmark/
<200
Iceland
Places with some form of local authority South Africa
Places with municipal corporation, town committee or
Pakistan
cantonment

73. Classification at national level 4.2
Rural regions in Europe differ in the degree of population is inaccurate and does not reflect specific planning to meet the growing demand of new
accessibility, natural resources and human capital, the conditions of these places, such as occupation of agriculture non-related rural inhabitants (Vidickienė,
socioeconomic structure, networking capacity and inhabitants, use of land and other aspects. Melninkienė, Gedminaitė-Raudonė, & Ribašauskienė,
land use patterns (Meredith & Salas Olmedo, 2012). Population plus additional criteria 2012).
According to Racher et al. (2004) “rural” definitions fall More accurately-defined classification of rural – urban • Organization of functions. This criterion
into four categories: 1) descriptions, 2) dichotomies is made when population is combined with additional refers to the level and number of services available
(emphasising the urban-rural divide or having or criteria, such as minimum distance between houses in in the area. Since it is not always easy to find and
not urban centre), 3) typologies (definite ones) or 4) urban areas (e.g. not more than 200m in France), share count proper variables for this aspect, some authors
indexes (showing the different shades of “rurality”). of population involved in agricultural activities (e.g. (Wirthmann, 2006) (Plessis, Beshiri, & Bollman, 2001)
Classification of urban – rural areas at national level in Lithuania, more than two thirds of urban residents suggesting this approach applies alternative solutions,
usually falls into dichotomy or typology categories work in industry/service sector) or density (e.g. urban e.g. distances from key services, services available per
and is defined e.g. by land use, population, density, areas has to have more than 400 inhabitants per square kilometre or per capita.
economic activity, etc. Most common of these square kilometre in Canada). • Availability of jobs within the settlement.
definitions can be grouped threefold: based only on There is a tendency for every discipline as well as This aspect analyses both the commuting patterns
population; on population plus additional criteria or every country to outline its own definition of “rural”. / flows and the level of inhabitants’ activity in job
on legal, administrative governmental criteria. Construction of rural definition to address particular searches. It is largely useful in socio-economic
Legal, administrative governmental criteria purpose becomes more and more favourable policies dealing with unemployment/poverty and
To start with, definition on legal or governmental instead of the all-purpose definition (Halfacree, other negative socio-economic issues (Vidickienė,
criteria is the least objective as it identifies urban – rural 1993). Therefore even more precise classification Melninkienė, Gedminaitė-Raudonė, & Ribašauskienė,
dichotomy based on boundaries of administrative of rural areas can be achieved when size, density of 2012).
centres (Clark, 2003). Therefore it is omitted from population and additional characteristics are adjusted • Remoteness. Integration of this criterion
further analysis as irrelevant for this project. and applied according to specific issues. In some cases (based on driving less than 45 minutes to the closest
Population criteria definition might need to reflect social capital of the city of at least 50 000 inhabitants (Ulied, Biosca, &
Though initially definition based on population rural area, while in the others – geographical division Rodrigo, 2010)), allows policies to ensure accessibility
intends to be the most suitable indicator whether is more important. There are several criteria that could of services for those living in remote areas.
area is urban or rural, however some inadequacies be applied to rural areas in order to achieve tailored • Natural characteristics. Example of this
occur. First of all, countries vary greatly in a size of classification as following: criterion is European Joint Research Centre (JRC)
population that is considered as urban: starting from • Having/not having urban centre. This study in territorial classification that considers land
200 in Iceland up to 10 000 inhabitants in Switzerland. criterion constructs a typology according to the cover profiles
Secondly area with considerable share of commuters number of inhabitants in the largest urban centre in
may be counted as urban though the actual number of the region. Taking into account peri-urban areas as
people who reside there might be much lower (Clark, well, where most of the transformations take place
2003). Defining rural areas based merely on number of (Tötzer, 2008), this aspect can adjust the regional
73

74. (arable, forest, etc.), topographic roughness (mountain, o Settlements functional links with the urban
hill, plain) as the leading features of rural areas. The centre;
study argues that natural environment influence o Functional links within settlements and
human opportunities and behaviour resulting in o Functional links with other regions.
high differences between urban (favourable for
human activities) and rural (disadvantaged for human The last of the additional criteria – functional links - is
activities) areas (Pizzoli & Gong, 2007). one of the most relevant for this analysis. Interaction
• Symbolic assets. Cultural heritage or special between urban and rural is visible not only in
properties are important while perceiving the identity economic activities, employment and commuting,
of a place. Therefore these characteristics can help to but also in leisure activities, real estate markets and
classify rural areas as well. many other variables. As urban and rural cannot be
• Attractiveness of the area. Basically, it seen as entirely separate entities, so the definition
defines the areas as either attractive or not as a living of rural cannot ignore continuous interaction
space for inhabitants. This criterion is rather subjective, between settlements or urban centres. Consequently
because it is difficult to evaluate attractiveness typologies of rural areas can reflect the degree or the
using scientifically sound measures. Surveys and level of aforementioned socio-economic interaction.
interviews provide the necessary knowledge for the The most important issue is to understand both
assessment, however net migration can determine the uniqueness of place and the linkages between
the attractiveness of the areas as well. Though different areas and communities (Gallent, Juntti, Kidd,
typology based on subjective judgement is not largely & Shaw, 2008).
adaptable for policies and strategies, attractiveness The level at which the area is classified as “rural” has
expressed through net migration is useful while implications for the application of each definition
evaluating effectiveness of regional strategies. (Plessis, Beshiri, & Bollman, 2001). This is especially
• The degree of social and economic relevant in policies and strategies, as each rural issue
integration and interaction with the urban centre is addressed at different scale. E.g. definition based
(Plessis, Beshiri, & Bollman, 2001). It determines the on organization of functions can be more useful in
function of the area or, in other words, the way space is regional and national context, while a strategy on
used. Furthermore functional relationships in the area community – local scale can adapt definition based
can be classified threefold (Vidickienė, Melninkienė, on natural, cultural and attractiveness assets.
Gedminaitė-Raudonė, & Ribašauskienė, 2012):
74

75. Current rural definition in Lithuania 4.3
Currently there is no differentiation in urban or express social, economic, spatial and environmental
rural regions in Lithuania. Law on the Territorial differences among the regions. Last but not the least
Administrative Units of Lithuania, issued in 1994 weakness of current typology is ignorance of on-
determines dichotomy between urban - rural by going socio-economic changes in urban pattern that
settlement types. Accordingly cities with more than cause and supports disparities in the first place.
3 000 inhabitants of which two thirds are employed This results in rural development policy trying to
in non-agricultural sector are considered urban, while improve old paradigms instead of fundamentally
the rest of the area is called rural. In latter category changing the attitude towards the challenges of
fall both towns (having 500 - 3 000 inhabitants of post-industrial society. Multiple issues concerning
which two thirds are employed in non-agricultural rural development are addressed by introducing
sector), villages (less than 500 inhabitants) and all area sub-objectives in existing agricultural development
in-between. Definition used in Rural Development (Vidickienė, Melninkienė, Gedminaitė-Raudonė,
Programme 2007-2013 describes rural area as village, & Ribašauskienė, 2012). On the one hand it keeps
town or city having less than 6 000 inhabitants that agricultural sector dominant and integral centre of
does not function as administration centre. the policy. On the other hand other rural development
Both of these definitions used in Lithuania at issues becomes only a small part of an agricultural
the moment are considerably similar and fail to development policy. Such approach prevents
meet current situation of rural areas (Vidickienė, understanding rural region as a whole; therefore
Melninkienė, Gedminaitė-Raudonė, & Ribašauskienė, part of the issues in rural areas, especially concerning
2012). Firstly, rural definition is not applicable for spatial quality, lacks proper attention from policy-
public policy implementation and its performance makers.
evaluation. The urban-rural profile based on settlement
types is relevant for distribution of resources and New rural typologies for Lithuania
public infrastructure only while analysing the large Lithuanian Institute of Agrarian Economics (2012)
cities. Secondly agriculture sector is not characteristic recently issued a study on alternative rural typologies
feature of rural areas anymore, moreover since 2006 in Lithuania. According to this research municipalities
more than half of rural population became employed are the most suitable territorial units to identify
in service industry and this is shift is irreversible - differences in the region, as they are the smallest
characterizing areas as rural or urban according to the units that contains independent budget and regional
share of population employed in agriculture sector management functions.
has no meaning anymore (Vidickienė, Melninkienė,
Gedminaitė-Raudonė, & Ribašauskienė, 2012). Thirdly
dichotomy-based typology classification does not
75

76. First of all, study analyses regions whether they have
Secondly, municipalities are divided according to Dijkstra and Poelman (2008) suggested classification
urban centre or not, which allows indicate urban
the density of population. Those having more than method where areas are perceived as urban, peri-
areas. Urban centre here is considered a city having
150 inh/km2 are considered as urban; between urban or rural according to the distance to the nearest
more that 50 000 inhabitants with the exception of
35 - 150 inh/km2 as peri-rural and less than 35 inh/ large urban centre. The study on Lithuanian region
Palanga city (summer resort with 18 000 permanent
km2 - rural. Urban areas remain the same as in the typologies adjusted this classification to Lithuania’s
inhabitants). Region is considered as peri-rural region
first classification, yet some differentiation occurs in case: in the first step, instead of using the minimum
if the number of the inhabitants in the centre of
peri-rural division. This classification has the same number of inhabitants, researchers listed cities
municipality varies between 16 000 and 50 000. Rural
issue of identifying influence of a large urban centre meeting the following requirements: having the
regions are those with less than 15 000 inhabitants in
to the area, therefore third organization is added university and a hospital and providing bank, legal
the centre of municipality. However when using only
differentiating areas according to the remoteness. advice and specialized services. Six cities suited this
this classification, regions that are close to the urban
large city category: Vilnius, Kaunas, Klaipėda, Šiauliai,
centre are considered as rural, though due to the
Panevėžys ir Telšiai. Driving distance is prolonged
influence of large city and functional links with it they
respectively to 45, 75 and 90 minutes as well. If at
do not act as purely rural areas.
least 50 per cent of area’s population can reach large
urban centre in less than 45 minutes, it is a city region.
In case driving time varies between 45 – 75 minutes
for at least 50 per cent of the population the region is
considered as peri-rural. When driving time exceedes
90 minutes – area is rural.
76

77. 4.3
The fourth typology in this study analyses direction of Result of this study provides elaborated classification
on-going socio-economic processes translated into of rural areas that takes into account three
demographic growth of rural and urban areas in the aforementioned criteria: size of urban centre;
region. If the net growth ratio in rural areas is higher density of population and remoteness. Regions
that in urban ones, region is considered as growing; if that are addressed as rural in all three categories are
the growth ratio in urban areas exceeds rural – region considered as strong rural; those meeting two of the
is weakening. The rest non-urban regions are stable criteria are categorised as intermediate rural, while
(ratio is equal to 1). areas that fall only into one set – slightly rural. Eight
officially rural municipalities did not fall into any of
these categories, therefore they are considered as
peri-urban areas.
All images on this and on previous page:
Source: Lithuanian Institute of Agrarian Economics,
2010
77