1 Unit I Lesson 6: Grammar and Style Adjectives and Adverbs Adjectives Adjectives are modifiers: Modifiers include words, phrases, and clauses. Adjectives modify or say something about a noun or a pronoun. Adjectives can tell what color, how many, how big or small, in fact just about anything about the words they modify. There are several very specific things about adjectives that we have to be aware of as we write and speak: 1. One common error in slang, low diction, and conversational English is to misuse an adjective to modify another adjective. For example: He is real tall. Here the word real is an adjective, but it cannot modify another adjective, tall. The correct form would be, “He is really tall.” In this case, really, an adverb, can modify the adjective tall. Another example: Yesterday I was real sick the whole time at school Here real attempts to modify the adjective sick. As above, an adjective can never modify another adjective. The correct form would be, “Yesterday I was really sick the whole time at school.” 2. Adjectives conform to particular and traditional positions, in English usually immediately before what they modify. Most of the time, adjectives come directly in front of the word they are modifying. For example: She drove a new pink Mercedes. The hot, roaring fire engulfed the house. In both cases here, there are two adjectives in front of the words they modify. Another common position for the adjective is at the end of the sentence. This common structure takes the form of subject + linking verb + adjective. Many of these structures, as you will see, are common everyday expressions. For example: The quarterback for the opposing team is extremely tall. Here the adjective tall modifies the subject of the sentence, quarterback. Sharks in these waters have been known to be very aggressive. Here the adjective aggressive modifies the subject, sharks. Food in this part of New Orleans is generally accepted to be very expensive. Here the adjective expensive modifies the subject, food. 3. Adjectives also normally appear in three different forms, depending on what they are modifying and the context. These are called the positive, what you might call the normal or typical form of the adjective; the comparative, used when you are comparing two items; and the superlative, used when you are comparing one item to three or more other similar items. For example: Positive Comparative Superlative fast faster fastest good better best smooth smoother smoothest Note that adjectives of multiple syllables have to use more and most to make their comparative and superlative forms: Positive Comparative Superlative Redolent more redolent most redolent Note that you could not say redolenter or redolentest. Fragrant more fragrant most fragrant Again, there are no such words as fragranter or fragrantest. Also note that you cannot mix the two forms—that is, add more or most to a form that is made by ...

1. 1
Unit I
Lesson 6: Grammar and Style
Adjectives and Adverbs
Adjectives
Adjectives are modifiers: Modifiers include words, phrases, and
clauses.
Adjectives modify or say something about a noun or a pronoun.
Adjectives can tell what color, how many, how big or small, in
fact just about anything about the words they modify.
There are several very specific things about adjectives that we
have to be aware of as we write and speak:
1. One common error in slang, low diction, and conversational
English is to misuse an adjective to modify another adjective.
For example:
He is real tall.
Here the word real is an adjective, but it cannot modify another
adjective, tall.
The correct form would be, “He is really tall.” In this case,
really, an adverb, can modify the adjective tall.
Another example:
Yesterday I was real sick the whole time at school
Here real attempts to modify the adjective sick. As above, an
adjective can never modify another adjective.
The correct form would be, “Yesterday I was really sick the

2. whole time at school.”
2. Adjectives conform to particular and traditional positions, in
English usually immediately before what they modify.
Most of the time, adjectives come directly in front of the word
they are modifying.
For example:
She drove a new pink Mercedes.
The hot, roaring fire engulfed the house.
In both cases here, there are two adjectives in front of the words
they modify.
Another common position for the adjective is at the end of the
sentence. This common structure takes the form of subject +
linking verb + adjective. Many of these structures, as you will
see, are common everyday expressions.
For example:
The quarterback for the opposing team is extremely tall.
Here the adjective tall modifies the subject of the sentence,
quarterback.
Sharks in these waters have been known to be very aggressive.
Here the adjective aggressive modifies the subject, sharks.
Food in this part of New Orleans is generally accepted to be
very expensive.
Here the adjective expensive modifies the subject, food.
3. Adjectives also normally appear in three different forms,
depending on what they are modifying and the context. These
are called the positive, what you might call the normal or
typical form of the adjective; the comparative, used when you
are comparing two items; and the superlative, used when you

3. are comparing one item to three or more other similar items.
For example:
Positive Comparative Superlative
fast faster fastest
good better best
smooth smoother smoothest
Note that adjectives of multiple syllables have to use more and
most to make their comparative and superlative forms:
Positive Comparative Superlative
Redolent more redolent most redolent
Note that you could not say redolenter or redolentest.
Fragrant more fragrant most fragrant
Again, there are no such words as fragranter or fragrantest.
Also note that you cannot mix the two forms—that is, add more
or most to a form that is made by the simple addition of er or
est. To do so is a double comparison, a grammatical error.
For example:
This is the most biggest animal I have ever seen.
This is an error, a double comparison, and the correct form
would be—
This is the biggest animal I have ever seen.
Tom is more taller than his friend Bill.
This is an error, a double comparison, and the correct form

4. would be—
Tom is taller than his friend Bill.
The little words a, an, and the are called adjectives, sometimes
articles, and other times even determiners, but they always
indicate specific relationships, such as a or an meaning
something close to any or every, while the often indicates a
particular item of focus.
A man . . .(any man)
An apple tastes good. (any or every apple)
The man in the gray suit. (a specific or particular man)
Generally the word a must precede a consonant sound: He is a
man of principles.
Generally the word an must precede a vowel sound: Is that an
owl in the tree?
But be careful with the rule. The fact that an must precede a
vowel sound can be tricky, as in this example: I did not think
you could eat a opossum.
This word is pronounced pos’-sum, with the accent on the first
syllable. Unless you are a biologist and aware of the differences
between the two marsupials, you might spell it either way, but
with no sounding of the o that begins the word, the a must
precede the word because of the consonant p sound following
the silent o.
A very few other words follow this same exception, and they are
most often associated with a silent vowel beginning the word.
Be careful with acronyms too:
Note that if you say, “I attended an FSU game,” you do not say,

5. “a FSU game.” The letter F, is pronounced “ef”; therefore, you
have to use the an and not the a because the beginning sound of
the letter is actually a vowel.
Just one more interesting case that you will certainly encounter
is with what are called the absolute adjectives. These are
adjectives that in no way can be compared logically. Some
rather humorous examples are these:
He is deader than his oldest brother.
She is even more pregnant than the last time I saw her.
That is the most unique invention anyone might have come up
with.
Obviously if something or someone is dead, there is no more,
most, a little bit, somewhat . . . or any other comparison.
Likewise, more or less or a little bit . . . does not apply to the
word pregnant—you either are or are not. Unique, by definition,
means one of a kind; therefore, there can be no comparisons.
A final interesting case is that of good and well. Many people
often mistakenly use these words. Good is an adjective, and
well is an adverb. (You will learn more about adverbs later in
this lesson). Probably the most common mistake is found in the
following scenario:
How are you doing?
I’m doing good.
In this situation, the word good is describing the action of
“doing,” and is therefore acting like an adverb. The appropriate
ways in which that question could have been answered are the
following:
I’m doing well.
I’m good.

6. Good is used appropriately in the second option because it is
describing the pronoun I.
Check for Understanding (on Adjectives)
(See Answer Key at bottom of document.)
Indicate the correct choice in the following sentences:
1. His was (a, an) extremely difficult choice.
2. Geraldine realized she was the (taller, tallest) member of the
team.
3. The problem that confronted them was the (more, most)
difficult of the two choices.
4. The dinner, in her opinion, had been (more perfect, perfect).
5. Bill had all of the cash well hidden in (a, an) bureau.
6. After I ate six pieces of pizza covered with anchovies, I was
(real, really) sick.
7. Of the two brothers, in my opinion, Ivan is the (taller,
tallest).
8. The news from the flooded area was not (good, well).
9. (Proud, Proudly) of his grades, the scholar stood to receive
his award.
10. Their (real, really) concern was whether or not he could
relate to the staff.
11. His paper on internal combustion was (unique, more
unique).
12. When the three of them walked in, I noticed that Bill was
(shorter, the shortest).
13. He wanted to show me how (a, an) abacus worked to solve
math problems.
14. Whether he realized it or not, he had created the (biggest,
most biggest) problem.
15. When I got off the roller coaster, I was (very, real)
nauseated.

7. Adverbs
Like adjectives, adverbs are modifiers and, therefore, say
something about another word or group of words. While
adjectives say something about nouns or pronouns only, adverbs
are much more versatile. They are most often used to say
something about verbs, but you will find them just about as
often saying something about adjectives or even other adverbs.
Adverbs modifying verbs:
She quickly ran to the store for her mother.
Here the adverb quickly describes how the girl ran.
The referee saw the linebacker suddenly grab the back’s
facemask.
Here the adverb suddenly describes how the linebacker grabbed
the facemask.
Adverbs modifying adjectives:
Michael Jordan was really tall.
Here the adverb really describes to what extent Michael Jordan
is tall.
No matter what, an elephant is quite heavy.
Here the adverb quite modifies the adjective heavy.
Bill was too sick to stay in the game.
Here the adverb too modifies the adjective sick.
Adjectives modifying other adverbs:
The runner very quickly changed direction to avoid the
collision.
Here the adverb very describes to what extent about the adverb

8. quickly, which is modifying the verb changed.
He was far too tired to continue the marathon.
Here the adverb far describes to what extent about the adverb
too, which tells to what extent about the adjective tired.
Adverbs themselves are not confusing, but the biggest challenge
comes in writing when we often try to use an adjective to
modify another adjective.
The horse has been real sick all morning. (incorrect)
Here the adjective real is attempting to modify another
adjective, sick. Although such conversational structures are
very common, at no time can an adjective modify another
adjective. The easy fix here is to change the adjective real into
the adverb really.
The horse has been really sick all morning. (correct)
Check for Understanding (on Adverbs)
(See Answer Key at bottom of document.)
Indicate the correct choice in the following sentences:
1. The score was way (to, too) lopsided for me.
2. I was (real, really) sick when I left home this morning.
3. My plan all along was to be (extraordinary, extraordinarily)
careful with the car.
4. Of the two brothers, you will find John to be (friendlier,
friendliest).
5. The dog’s ears stood up rather (quick, quickly).
6. After taking the medication, she was (violent, violently) ill
for the next hour.
7. On the way to the mall, the engine did not run (good, well) at
all.
8. The doctor said the (real, really) issue was her fever at the

9. time of delivery.
9. Frank had been (real, very) disconcerted by his fiancé going
out with his best friend.
10. He claimed to have been reading an exceedingly (good,
well) book all morning.
Answer Keys
Adjectives
1. an
2. tallest
3. more
4. perfect
5. a
6. really
7. taller
8. good
9. Proud
10. real
11. unique
12. the shortest
13. an
14. biggest
15. very
Adverbs
1. too
2. really
3. extraordinarily
4. friendlier
5. quickly
6. violently
7. well

10. 8. real
9. very
10. good
1
Unit I
Lesson 5: Thinking about the Writing Process
Introduction
One constant during EH 1010 and now in EH 1020 is the writing
process. More specifically, these two courses have emphasized
the importance of learning about and understanding the writing
process—particularly, the importance of discovering your own
writing process. In this lesson, we will review some of these
key concepts and discuss how your writing process will change,
given that you are working on one project throughout the
course.
Thinking about the Writing Process
The act of writing is often described as a process rather than as
one action. In this way, writing is not simply a thing that you
accomplish by sitting down at a desk and doing it. Instead, it is
something that is accomplished through steps that are often
recursive. This is true of the essays that you wrote in EH 1010,
but it will be especially true of the research paper that you will
write for EH 1020. Mainly, this is the case because of the way
that we will think about, plan, organize, draft, and revise the
paper. Indeed, there will be some parts of the paper that you
will process a number of times. Especially for a research paper,
it is important for you to accept that the writing will not be

11. linear. There will be several assignments that require you to
revise previous drafts, but the expectation is that you will be
constantly revising and reconsidering your work as you proceed
through the course.
Throughout the course, you will gain a better understanding of
your own process. This is a natural byproduct of taking on a
large writing project. No doubt, you will discover the ways that
you work best and the situations in which you are less
productive. These are important elements to learn about how
you write and work because writing in this way is very different
than reading a unit’s materials and taking an exam.
The Rigor of Research
A research project is an intimidating undertaking; it often
causes anxiety for students. There are a number of reasons for
this reaction:
· The commitment: A research paper like the one we will be
undertaking is an eight-unit commitment. It is difficult to keep
up the pace of the writing process for that length of time.
Students will often become worried about meeting this
commitment for a number of reasons.
· The schedule: Because of the nature of an extended research
project like this one, you will find out quickly that the
assignments in the course are meant to keep you on a schedule
of production so that you can submit the final paper by the end
of the course. The schedule is also designed to help you reach
peak success with the writing process. In other words, like any
large writing project, you will revisit your writing in order to
improve upon it, and the schedule helps to break up the work of
that process so that you are not too overwhelmed at any one
time.
· Fear of writing: Some students express a fear of writing that
makes them wary of such a large project. These students have a

12. lack of confidence in their own abilities to write. Perhaps these
students feel “fine” about writing short essays, but the thought
of taking on a paper that could be 8-12 pages long is too much.
· Breaking it down: One of the fundamental philosophies in this
course is that no writing project is completed at one time. If
writing is a process, then topic selection, research, planning and
organizing, drafting, and revising are all processes as well.
Therefore, throughout the lessons, we will take on one idea at a
time. You will not be asked to do more than what is reasonable
in a single unit. If you do your best in each unit to write what is
asked of you, then at the end of the course, you will have a
successful paper.
· Going it alone: Much of the research on nontraditional, online
students states that they are vastly independent, often by
necessity, because many are returning to school after several
years, have careers and families, and want to succeed on their
own terms. However, as much as these are strong qualities that
CSU values in its students, these qualities can also lead some
students to feel as though they cannot ask for help. Of course,
they realize that help is available to them, but for a variety of
reasons, they do not seek out forms of assistance.
· You are not alone: Asking for help before you do something is
really the best way to save time and to be the most productive
you can be. Your professors want to help you. They have
dedicated themselves to your success, but they cannot help you
if you do not help yourself. Make it your mission to understand
the concepts of each lesson as much as you can. Then ask your
questions because that is what your support network is for!
· Seeking assistance from the Success Center: Because writing
is a central component of EH 1020, utilizing the resources
available in the Writing Center can be very beneficial. The
Writing Center offers services to help you in writing your
assigned papers, such as essays and research papers. Writing
specialists can provide recorded tutorials, coaching, and
assistance with academic writing and APA formatting skills.
Contact the Success Center at (877) 875-0533, by emailing

13. [email protected], or by visiting
https://mycsu.columbiasouthern.edu/student/support-
services/math-writing-center/writing-center/
· Not able to find enough relevant research: Students are often
concerned about being able to find enough relevant research to
support their arguments and assertions. This is a common
concern because even a student who feels confident in his or her
writing ability might become concerned about not being able to
find the supporting materials.
· Choosing a good topic: One of the easiest ways to put your
mind at ease is to choose a topic that is ubiquitous. In other
words, you want to avoid topics that are obscure or limited in
their scope. By choosing a topic about which many people are
concerned, you will be able to find a number of materials that
will give you expert opinions. While students are always
encouraged to choose topics about which they are interested,
students should also realize that the focus of the course is not
necessarily on the content of the research paper as much as it is
on the student’s ability to demonstrate a good understanding of
the concepts presented in the class. In other words, you want to
be able to construct a sound argument that is supported by
relevant research. Meeting this requirement is far more
important than struggling to write on a topic about which there
is little research.
· The CSU Online Library: The CSU Online Library has an
extensive collection of journal articles, e-books, and other
materials for your access. You can search the catalog to find
materials relating to your topic. If you ever have questions
about how to find materials on a particular subject, you can
always seek out the assistance of one of CSU’s librarians, who
are always happy to help students in navigating the online
library. Contact the CSU Online Library at 1-877-268-8046, by
emailing [email protected], or by visiting
http://libguides.columbiasouthern.edu/
Making a Plan (and Sticking to It)

14. When many people think of the research paper, they are struck
by the anxiety of producing a product. However, instead of
thinking about the final product, this course encourages you to
think about the process of writing the research paper.
Concentration on the process will help you to create the
required products. In the same way that making a cake is not as
simple as envisioning the final cake, writing a research paper is
not as simple as envisioning the final paper itself. There are a
number of steps that you must follow to get you to that final
stage. In many ways, this course is designed to take you from
the point of choosing a topic to that final research paper one
step at a time, with plenty of feedback and guidance along the
way. Therefore, an essential element of this process is being
organized. Success in this course, and in any course that
requires a writing component, requires being organized with
your writing. A key element of being organized is to know
where you are going before you get there. Planning and setting
goals are essential, and you are the only one who can plan
researching and writing time into your schedule. Do not allow
deadlines to sneak up on you. By setting goals and reminders
for yourself, you can organize your research and writing time so
that you can approach the process of writing a research paper
with as little anxiety as possible.
There are a few things you can do to help yourself along:
· Make the commitment:Make a commitment to yourself that
you will be successful in this course. Be strategic about how
you are going to be successful given your own life
circumstances. Give yourself the time you need to work on the
project. Do not wait until the last minute.
· Make time in your schedule for writing and research:Many
students have busy lives, so it is important that you schedule a
time when you can be dedicated to working on your research
project. You may need to find a quiet space to set up a block of

15. a few hours where you can sit quietly to read and write.
· Be gentle on yourself:If you plan to write at a certain time and
you are unable to meet that commitment, then do not allow the
disappointment to get the better of you. If you receive feedback
that is critical and constructive after working several hours on
an assignment, then accept your mistakes and incorporate the
changes and corrections. Writing is very much about how you
feel as much as it is about your abilities. So do not be
discouraged. Be positive!
Check for Understanding
(Answer Key is below Review)
1. True/False: Students who are concerned with the commitment
they must make to write the research paper should consider the
assignment schedule in the course because the schedule
provides a reasonable way for the commitment to be broken
down.
2. True/False: Many students have a fear of writing, which is
mostly founded because in this course they will be asked to
write the entire research paper at one time.
3. True/False: Students are all alone in the process of writing
the research paper.
4. True/False: Although it can be challenging to find relevant
research, it is possible to do so by choosing an accessible topic
and by using the CSU Online Library.
Review
1. Two key goals of this course are to discover and understand
your own writing process.
2. The act of writing is often described as a process rather than
as one action.
3. It is important to make a commitment, to make time in your
schedule for writing and research, and to be gentle on yourself.

16. Answer Key
1. True: The schedule helps to break up the work of that process
so that you are not too overwhelmed at any one time.
2. False: Throughout the lessons, we will take on one idea at a
time. You will not be asked to do more than is reasonable in a
single unit.
3. False: Students may always call upon the professor or the
Success Center’s writing specialists to help with the process.
4. True: One of the easiest ways to put your mind at ease is to
choose a topic that is ubiquitous. The CSU Online Library has
an extensive collection of journal articles, e-books, and other
materials for your access.
1
Unit I
Lesson 4: Selecting a Topic
Introduction
At the end of the last unit, we discussed that the undertaking of
creating a research paper is a project and that it is helpful to
think about the entire course as developing this project. As
such, you will take the first step in developing the project by
selecting a topic for your research and, subsequently, your
research paper. In this lesson, we will discuss some ways that
you can choose a topic.
What Makes for a Good Topic?

17. As we have discussed in the previous Unit I lessons so far, the
paper that you will be writing for this course will be
argumentative. Therefore, it is important for you to choose a
topic that is conducive to such an undertaking. In other words,
you need to choose a topic that will make it easy for you to
create an argument and argue your point using the relevant
literature to support that argument.
People have strong opinions about certain topics, even before a
conversation, let alone a debate, can begin. Abortion,
immigration, gun control, and health care are all examples of
these. Potential readers usually have deep, personal beliefs
about these topics, beliefs that are not easily changed. Even
when game-changing evidence is provided and new examples
given, a reader may not be persuaded because he or she is
unwilling to consider seriously and openly the argument
presented. This is why professors ask students to avoid such
topics because students often find themselves stepping foot in a
vast sea of opinions that will not be changed. Navigating this
body of works can be difficult.
Another aspect to consider is that writing a research paper
should be something of a learning experience for the student
writer. Discovery and expanding one’s understanding are two of
the great joys of a research project. If you bring steadfast
opinions to the project, then there is less of an opportunity to
experience these aspects. This does not mean that you must
choose a topic that is completely foreign, but you should
approach the research process with an open mind. If you choose
a topic, like abortion, and you do not feel that you can honestly
approach the topic with openness, then the best thing to do is to
accept your beliefs and choose another topic. You do this for
your own sake because it can be emotional, unnecessarily
challenging, and frustrating to weed through research when you
already know what you think. Therefore, you are encouraged to
choose a topic that enables you to explore a controversy that

18. you are interested in already—maybe something that is in the
news—so that you might uncover research and persuade your
reader at the same time.
Brainstorming an Academically Relevant Topic
It is a common pitfall that students choose topics that are
inappropriate for the kind of assignment that they are being
asked to complete. Here are a few things to avoid:
Informational: These are topics that are purely or mostly
informational, instead of being argumentative.
· Unsuitable: A student might want to write a paper about
football. The problem is that it becomes difficult for the writer
to insert an argument about a sport.
· Better: A student might decide to write about college football
and the fact that student athletes are not compensated in the way
that professionals are. A topic like this is highly controversial,
so there are plenty of ways to construct arguments.
Too broad: Students will sometimes discover broad topics that
interest them, thinking that if they write about a large topic,
then they will have plenty to write about. The truth is that when
a topic is too broad, the paper lacks the specificity to make any
definite statements. In other words, the paper—the argument—
glosses too much, thereby never making any impact statements
about anything.
· Unsuitable: For example, the topic of global warming is too
broad. While there are some more specific issues within this
larger topic, the topic of global warming itself is literally as
huge as the world. There is no way for a student to cover all of
the possible issues of global warming in one paper—nor should
he or she want to. It would be far better for a student to choose
one topic and then to narrow it down from there.

19. · Better: An example of narrowing a topic like global warming
might be something like choosing to write about water
pollution, specifically about the abundance of plastics in the
ocean. In order for a paper like this to be argumentative, the
student would need to argue for something in the paper—such
as stronger punishments for plastic dumping—rather than just
informing the reader about the issue.
Too difficult for nonexperts: Occasionally, a student will
choose a topic that he or she wants to write about, but a degree
of training and expertise that he or she does not possess is
necessary in order to write about the topic. This situation will
be the case, even if the student is able to include relevant
literature that contains experts. In addition, student writers
without expertise will find it nearly impossible to assert
authority over the topic, and being able to do so is one of the
main elements of persuasion.
· Unsuitable:This kind of situation occurs when a student
decides to write about a medical or scientific phenomenon that
would require an advanced degree to truly understand. For
example, a student desires to write about a particular disease
and how it should be treated. While it is understandable that one
would want to write about such a topic, most students lack the
medical training necessary to be able to understand the relevant
literature about a particular kind of cancer, for example, or a
mental disorder.
· Better: It would be far better for a student to write about an
issue where a side can be taken. If a student still wanted to
write about an issue like cancer, then the student could find a
controversy that did not involve expertise. A student might want
to write about physical pain management and how some
narcotics are considered Schedule II drugs, meaning that it is
much more difficult for people with chronic pain to get these
medications because the statistics show that prescription
narcotics are a significant risk to drug abusers. As you can see,

20. there are clearly two sides in this controversy, and exploring it
and establishing one’s own argument for, against, or partially
for and against would be interesting.
Too subjective: Another misstep is to choose a topic that is far
too subjective to support an argumentative paper. As we
discussed in EH 1010, there is a difference between opinion and
argument. An opinion is a belief or judgment that rests on
grounds insufficient to produce complete certainty. However, an
argument is a reason or set of reasons given with the aim of
persuading others that an action or idea is right or wrong. In
other words, for an argument to persuade, then it must be
reasonable and have support provided, but no such support must
be provided for an opinion. A person may have the opinion that
peanut butter is the best food in the world, but only an argument
can make the case for peanut butter as a smart choice for a
child’s lunch.
· Unsuitable: Students sometimes want to make arguments that
they cannot make. For example, a student may want to argue
that hip-hop music is great. The truth is that you might convince
someone to accept your opinion, and you may persuade him or
her to see hip-hop music in the way that you do. However, the
fact is that you two will share the same opinion, not that any
real argument has taken place because in order for an argument
to work, it must be supported with evidence.
· Better:A student may decide to write about the positive versus
the negative effects of hip-hop music on particular
communities. In this way, a student would not be arguing for
the reader to accept his or her opinion, but would be attempting
to vindicate a genre of music.
Do You Have an Argumentative Topic?
As we have established, the topic you choose for your research
paper should be argumentative. One of the best ways to ensure

21. this quality is to find a topic within a controversy.
Controversial issues invite arguments and choosing sides. An
example of this type of issue is gun control. However, as we
learned from the sections above, a topic like gun control is far
too large to tackle in one paper. So, let’s narrow the topic down
to a state house bill that would propose that all of the publicly
supported colleges and universities in an existing open-carry
state would allow open carry on their campuses.
There are at least two, if not more, sides to any given issue:
· Pro (agree):This side is for the passing of the state bill. This
side is also pro-open carry, stating that students have as much
right to carry firearms on campus as they do within the
surrounding cities. This side argues that personal risk does not
diminish once a person steps on a university campus.
· Con (against):This side is against the passing of the state bill.
This side is also anti-open carry, stating that a college campus
is no place for firearms. This side argues that the classroom
environment can become heated at times when oppositional
ideas are presented, so keeping firearms away is best for all.
· Pro/Con (neither or agree and disagree):This side does not
necessarily agree or disagree with the pro or con sides. Instead,
someone on this side might be pro-open carry, but might think
that a college campus is no place for guns. Another person
might believe that guns are generally unsafe, but agrees that
students, faculty, and staff should have a means to protect
themselves.
Once we understand that there are at least two sides to every
controversy or argument, then we are able to ask an important
question: Do you have an argumentative topic? One of the main
ways that you can test your topic to ensure that you have an
argumentative topic is to use the following guidelines:
1. Attempt to establish a thesis statement that embodies your

22. argument. (This thesis can be a sketchy one and can absolutely
be revised in the future.)
2. Ask yourself, does my thesis have a possible reverse of my
thesis statement? In other words, could someone argue the
opposite of what I am arguing?
3. Could you look for evidence that would support your
argument? Is this an opinion or a supportable assertion?
Example thesis:Texting while driving should be illegal in all
U.S. states.
Example inverted thesis:Texting while driving should be legal
in all U.S. states.
Looking at these two thesis statements, we must take into
account that these are simplified thesis statements. Obviously,
the actual thesis statements that develop out of these will be
more complicated and include more elements. However, we can
easily see this is a controversy because there are at least two
sides here—a pro and a con. Further, as the third question
makes clear, both of these sides in the debate could bring in
expert voices as articulated in the relevant literature that would
support or rebut the thesis. Evidence could be presented in
support of or against each thesis.
Check for Understanding
(Answer Key is below Review)
1. True/False: Topics that are informational should be avoided.
2. True/False: “Criminal behavior” is an acceptable topic.
3. Yes/No: Carla wants to write about how the U.S. is falling
behind in the space race, but she has never studied astrophysics.
Is this a good topic choice?
4. Yes/No: James is interested in renewable textiles and wants
to write about how cotton is really the best fabric for clothing.
Is this a good topic choice?

23. Review
1. You need to choose a topic that will make it easy for you to
create an argument and argue your point using the relevant
literature to support that argument.
2. Topics about which people have preconceived opinions
should be avoided because the reader and the writer are less
likely to learn and to be persuaded.
3. You want to avoid topics that are (a) informative, (b) too
broad, (c) too difficult for non-experts, and (d) too subjective.
4. An opinion is a belief or judgment that rests on grounds
insufficient to produce complete certainty.
5. When considering a controversy, ascertain the sides of the
issue—pro, con, and pro/con.
Answer Key
1. True: Topics that do not contain a controversy will not
facilitate writing an argumentative paper, which is a
requirement of the course.
2. False: This is an example of a topic that is “too broad.”
3. Yes, Carla can write about the defunding of U.S. space
programs without being an expert on astrophysics.
4. Yes, James wants to focus on the renewability of cotton as a
natural resource. If he just wanted to write about cotton as a
fabric, then he would be in danger of writing a paper that was
too subjective.
1
Unit I
Lesson 3: Foundations of Argumentation

24. Introduction
When you think about an argument, what comes to mind: two
people disagreeing maybe or a verbal fight perhaps? Certainly,
these are examples of arguments in one meaning of the word.
However, in the academic sense (and even in some public
writing instances), an argument is a reason or set of reasons
given with the aim of persuading others that an action or idea is
right or wrong. So as you can see, the heart of an argument is
persuasion.
What Is Argumentation?
In ancient Greece, during the time of the great philosophers like
Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, rhetoric served an important
function as part of critical citizenship. The rhetor, or orator,
was a key individual in democracy because the rhetor served as
the voice of the people. Some rhetors were trained speakers,
studying the art of speaking, eloquence, and presentation.
Others were naturally gifted orators who saw opportunities to
speak and accepted it as their duty to the city-state to do so. In
many ways, rhetoric was (and still is) about ethics, meaning that
there is an imperative need for people to speak out about
subjects that face society. Persuasion was key to the success or
failure of political careers and military movements in ancient
Rome, yet the notion of “an ethic to speak” did not change even
as the Romans adapted Grecian concepts of rhetoric to their own
republic.
This ethical imperative is why rhetoric is taught in nearly every
university as part of the undergraduate curriculum; it is
important for students to understand the connection that their
research and writing have to the world around them. Rhetoric is
the art of effective or persuasive speaking or writing, especially
the use of figures of speech and other compositional techniques.

25. In order to be persuasive, a rhetor must understand how best to
present the argument. This idea is connected to the focus we
have already had on audience awareness and genre. Further, this
idea of speaking or writing as a way to participate in your
society is carried through to multiple areas of life; rhetoric is
part of debates and acts of persuasion in every sphere of
influence.
It should be made clear that rhetoric is not deception or
intended deception, as it is sometimes incorrectly used. When a
news reporter states, “The senator’s rhetoric was thick today on
Capitol Hill” or “He blasted the crowd with empty rhetoric,” he
or she is trying to say that the speaker means to deceive the
listeners. But this is an incorrect use of the word rhetoric
because rhetoric is all about using a presentation of evidence to
persuade a reader or listener. Additionally, as the traditional
definition of rhetoric tells us, rhetoric can be thought of as the
use of certain means of presentation, such as figures of speech
and other compositional techniques. These means of
presentation are not, in and of themselves, deceptive. However,
it is possible for someone to deceive another person using
rhetorical means.
In rhetoric, arguments are made through the presentation of
evidence, a concept which should be familiar, as this idea was
presented several times in EH 1010, English Composition I.
This means that academic arguments must be grounded in
research. No one can make unfounded assertions that are not
based upon relevant literature, a body of knowledge around the
topic. Consider this diagram:
Relevant Literature Argument (thesis)
In this diagram, you can see the flow of the argumentative
process. The thesis statement, which embodies the argument,
can only come to be after you are familiar with the relevant

26. literature. For this reason, EH 1020 is set up so that you will
conduct research first and then learn about how to articulate
your argument.
Entering the Critical Conversation
Another aspect of this idea of research before argument is the
idea that all new assertions—all new arguments—come from
understanding the old ones. That does not mean that you
understand all of the relevant literature that has come before.
Obviously, in a course of this scope, that would be impossible.
Indeed, people study subjects their entire lives and never know
everything. To help with this idea, rhetoricians (scholars who
study argumentation) often discuss arguments in terms of a
critical conversation. The thought is that no argument is formed
in isolation. Instead, each argument is a response to what
someone else has written or said about the subject. When you
write a research paper, you are writing with the idea in mind
that you are (a) responding to previous research, (b) adding to a
previously existing conversation, and (c) asserting an argument
to which others may respond. This back and forth creates a
conversation about the topic, one that is described as critical
because an argument should persuade, not just inform.
In his The Philosophy of Literary Form, Kenneth Burke
describes this discussion about an issue as a conversation had at
a party:
You come late. When you arrive, others have long preceded
you, and they are engaged in a heated discussion, a discussion
too heated for them to pause and tell you exactly what it is
about …. You listen for a while, until you decide that you have
caught the tenor of the argument; then you put in your oar.
Someone answers; you answer him; another comes to your
defense; another aligns himself against you … The hour grows
late, you must depart. And you do depart, with the discussion

27. still vigorously in progress. (Burke, 1973, pp. 110-111)
Burke’s famous passage allows for a few revelations about
argumentation. One is that it is not necessary for you to feel as
though your argument (your research paper) must address the
whole history of the topic or the entire conversation around the
topic. In its place, you are addressing the specifics of the
conversation nearest and most relevant to you. Secondly, you
are not responsible for the final word on the topic; this is a
good thing because as a student writing a research paper, it can
be difficult to write with absolute authority. Further, your
argument will not and cannot stand for all time; when someone
answers your argument with a critique, a more logical
conclusion, or different compelling evidence, then your
argument may become defunct. That same rule applies for you
as the critic or logical conclusion writer. Again, this is a
positive attribute of argumentation because it means that you
can always adjust your argument according to these.
Reference
Burke, K. (1973). The philosophy of literary form (3rd ed.).
Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Establishing a Project
Now that the concepts behind argumentation are a bit clearer,
we can begin the process of writing the research paper. The first
step is to think about your research paper as a project—not just
a paper. A project is a supplementary, long-
term educational assignment necessitating personal initiative. A
project has many different working parts, and not all of them
are clearly represented in the finished product, which, in this
case, is the research paper. Instead, these other aspects of the
project enable you to complete the research paper and to make it
the strongest paper possible.

28. Check for Understanding
(Answer Key is below Review)
1. True/False: Academic arguments are best described as two
individuals fighting about something.
2. True/False: Rhetoric is deceptive.
3. True/False: The critical conversation is found within relevant
literature around a topic.
Review
1. An argumentis a reason or set of reasons given with the aim
of persuading others that an action or idea is right or wrong.
2. The heart of an argument is persuasion.
3. Rhetoric is the art of effective or persuasive speaking or
writing, especially the use of figures of speech and other
compositional techniques.
4. Rhetoric is not deceptive.
5. Relevant literature is a body of knowledge around the topic.
6. The critical conversation is the back-and-forth exchange
between scholars that allows for new knowledge to be made.
The critical conversation is found in the relevant literature.
7. When you write a research paper, you are writing with the
idea in mind that you are (a) responding to previous research,
(b) adding to a previously existing conversation, and (c)
asserting an argument to which others may respond.
8. The first step to success is to think about the undertaking in
this course as a project, a long-term academic undertaking
whereby you will finish items to aid in the completion of the
final product—the research paper.
Answer Key
1. False: An argumentis a reason or set of reasons given with
the aim of persuading others that an action or idea is right or

29. wrong.
2. False: Rhetoric is the art of effective persuasion; it is not
deceptive.
3. True
1
Unit I
Lesson 2: Academic Writing: The Argumentative Research
Paper
Introduction
Throughout this course, we will discuss both the technical and
philosophical aspects of writing a large research paper. We will
discuss the technical aspects so that you understand the
conventions of form and style. The philosophical aspects are no
less important to learning about the process. In other words, the
philosophical aspects will be disclosed so that you understand
why we are going about the process in a particular way; further,
we will discuss these matters so that you can learn the concepts
by learning the logic behind them. In the following lesson, we
will discuss some of the basic concepts that are foundational to
understanding both academic writing and the argumentative
research paper.
Remembering Genre and Convention
In EH 1010, English Composition I, we discussed foundational
concepts about the writing process, including, but not limited
to, concepts of audience awareness, genre, academic writing,
and the writing situation. Each of these concepts expanded our
understanding of the writing process and how we can better

30. meet the requirements of different writing contexts. Let’s
refresh our memories about some of these concepts as they are
again foundational for our discussions of the argumentative
research paper.
Genres are forms of writing that follow a set of conventions or
expectations that convey a message to a particular audience
using a devised structure, style, and content. As we discussed in
EH 1010, genres have a way of expressing values that are held
by a given group, so conforming to the conventions of a genre is
a way for you (a) to show your understanding of the culture and
values of a given audience and (b) to speak to those individuals
in a form that makes sense to them.
Genres can take several forms, depending upon the context and
the sphere of influence, different areas of life where writing
takes place (private, public, business, and academic). For
example, the memorandum (memo) is one of the most
recognized forms of business writing that, of course, comes out
of the business sphere of influence. The memo contains
recognizable and conventional characteristics. Without even
knowing all of the conventions of a memo, you are still able to
recognize that these conventions exist, and expectations of
structure, style, and content must be met.
Knowledge Building and Your Contribution
Academic writingis a particular style of expression used by
academics, including both students and researchers, to produce
prose that is precise, formal, and objective. The purpose of
academic writing is to build knowledge. Even when you might
not think so, you are engaged in the process of knowledge
creation when you are writing your essays—especially so when
you write an argumentative research paper—because you are
adding to what is already known or accepted. Further, with the
argumentative research paper, you are attempting to persuade

31. the reader to your perspective. In the eyes of academics, this is
an act of contribution to the body of knowledge that humankind
has so far created. You may not feel as though you have much
to add, but your contributions are important!
Additionally, composition as a field within English studies
holds that it is valuable for students to learn how to understand
and to write arguments. Understanding and writing arguments
are key aspects of engaging in society and taking responsibility
as a citizen. In this way, we see how the understanding and
writing of arguments are both academic and public
undertakings. However, we can easily transfer these skills to
our private and business lives as well. Sometimes, we have
debates with our significant others about the latest bill on
Capitol Hill, or we might need to persuade our superior at work
that our proposal is the strongest. These are all arguments to be
made, and the aspects of evidence-based writing help us to
make them.
Building Upon the Work of Others
Academic knowledge building relies on the principle that
knowledge is not stagnant. In other words, what we thought was
once true will likely be replaced by newer, more precise
findings. Because the world is always changing and the tools we
use to measure it are always becoming more exact, human
beings are constantly revising what we thought to be the case.
In the sciences, researchers read and interpret data to come to
the best conclusions they have at the time, yet new researchers
come along who reinterpret those results or who gather new
results. This method becomes how science and technology
advance. Sociology and psychology are constantly producing
new studies on human behavior and the human mind in large
part due to the ever-changing nature of their subject matter.

32. No matter which discipline, though, all of these researchers
build upon work that has come before them because knowledge
is built upon prior knowledge. By establishing the background
for the reader or by using the knowledge of others to support
their assertions, these researchers strengthen their studies
through independent confirmation.
Revisability
In addition to building upon the knowledge of others, academic
writing also values revisability—the understanding that ideas
are being posited and might be revised by the author(s) or by
others who read them. The notion of revisability gives
academics the freedom to make determinations based on the
data that they have at a given time. Then, as things change or as
the tools for detection improve, they can reexamine the same
questions to make new determinations. In science, technology,
and medicine, this principle is applied all the time, allowing for
new discoveries to be made upon the foundations of older ones.
In other pursuits, like history and anthropology, we are always
exploring and learning more about what we thought we knew
about the past. We can see this principle applied to the study of
our societies and politics as well because many of the same
questions about what is right or wrong for our nation remain up
for debate as we continue to pass legislation that changes how
we govern. In your own field of study, you will likely see a
great deal of revision as time progresses because innovation is
the key to progress. Academic writing allows for this kind of
progress and recognizes that arguments should be made to the
best of one’s ability at the time.
Check for Understanding
(Answer Key is below Review)
1. True/False: Genres are forms of writing that follow a set of
conventions and expectations.

33. 2. True/False: Spheres of influence include private, public,
home, and academic.
3. True/False: The purpose of academic writing is to build
knowledge.
Review
1. Throughout this course, we will discuss both the technical
and philosophical aspects of writing a large research paper.
2. Genres are forms of writing that follow a set of conventions
or expectations that convey a message to a particular audience
using a devised structure, style, and content.
3. Genres have a way of expressing values that are held by a
given group, so conforming to the conventions of a genre is a
way for you (a) to show your understanding of the culture and
values of a given audience and (b) to speak to those individuals
in a form that makes sense to them.
4. Spheres of influence are the different areas of life where
writing takes place, including the private, public, business, and
academic spheres.
5. Academic writingis a particular style of expression used by
academics, including both students and researchers, to produce
prose that is precise, formal, and objective.
6. The purpose of academic writing is to build knowledge.
7. New knowledge is built upon the foundations of previous
knowledge.
8. Revisability is the understanding that ideas are being posited
and might be revised by the author(s) or by others who read
them. The notion of revisability gives academics the freedom to
make determinations based on the data that they have at a given
time.
Answer Key
1. True: Genres use these conventions and expectations to
convey a message to a particular audience.

34. 2. False: The spheres are private, public, business, and
academic.
3. True: Academic writing seeks to add to existing human
knowledge.
2
Unit I
Lesson 1: Introduction to the Course Structure
Introduction
Welcome to EH 1020, English Composition II. This course will
focus on the academic sphere of writing. Specifically, we will
be learning about, understanding, and creating the academic
argumentative research paper, one of the fundamental genres of
academic writing. The academic argumentative research paperis
a paper that supports a central argument (in the form of a thesis
statement) by incorporating research that meets academic
standards.
What is EH1020?
In this course, you will write one research paper. The course is
designed so that you will learn about the process of writing a
research paper and how to execute the skills necessary to create
one. Each unit will provide you with the necessary content to
understand how each section of the paper functions as well as
inform you of the purpose and genre conventions of each. In
this way, you will learn not only how to write a research paper,
but you will also learn the why behind each action you take.
The Structure of the Course

35. In EH 1020, you will submit seven assignments in eight units.
The following list introduces these assignments and the course
structure:
Unit I: Foundations of the Argumentative Research Paper: You
will learn some of the basic concepts of academic writing and
the academic argumentative research paper.
Unit II: Beginning the Research Process: You will learn about
how to choose a topic and begin the research process, and you
will write an annotated bibliography after learning about the
conventions of this academic research tool.
Unit III: The Project Takes Form: Writing a Proposal: You will
learn how to narrow the scope of your project by using the
research you have already gathered. Further, you will learn how
to construct a proposal for your research project.
Unit IV: Beginning the Drafting Process: You will be reminded
of the four main sections of the research paper as well as learn
how to write an introduction and literature review for your
paper. Within this unit, you will submit a draft of both the
introduction and the literature review.
Unit V: Understanding Editing and Revising as a Process: After
discussing ways that you can use feedback from your professor,
you will learn methods for editing and revising your work. You
will submit a final draft of the introduction and literature
review.
Unit VI: Drafting the Argument: You will learn about the body
paragraphs and how to explicate your argument (thesis) through
these paragraphs. You will submit a draft of the body
paragraphs.

36. Unit VII: Revisiting the Structure: In this unit, you will revisit
the overall structure of the paper so that you can imagine the
paper in order to ensure the strongest structure possible. You
will also submit a revised final draft of the body section.
Unit VIII: Pulling It All Together: In the final unit, you will
submit a final draft of your research paper, which will include
revisions of the introduction, literature review, and body. To
these you will add a conclusion and abstract, aspects that will
be discussed in this unit.
Review
1. The academic argumentative research paperis a paper that
supports a central argument (in the form of a thesis statement)
by incorporating research that meets academic standards.
2. In EH 1020, you will write one research paper.