18ES51- Module 1.pptx

31-08-2020 © R R INSTITUTIONS , BANGALORE 1
TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATION MANAGEMENT &
ENTRPRENEURSHIP(18ES51)
MODULE 1 - MANAGEMENT
R R INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Dr.SUNITHA H D
Professor & HOD
Department of ECE
RRIT

© R R INSTITUTIONS , BANGALORE
2
TEXT BOOKS
1. Principles of Management – P.C Tripathi, P.N Reddy, McGraw Hill Education, 6th Edition, 2017. ISBN-13:978-93-5260-
535-4.
2. Entrepreneurship Development Small Business Enterprises- Poornima M Charantimath, Pearson Education 2008, ISBN
978-81-7758-260-4.
3. Dynamics of Entrepreneurial Development and Management by Vasant Desai. HPH 2007, ISBN: 978- 81-8488-801-2.
4. Robert D. Hisrich, Mathew J. Manimala, Michael P Peters and Dean A. Shepherd, “Entrepreneurship”, 8th Edition, Tata Mc-
graw Hill Publishing Co.ltd.-new Delhi, 2012
REFERENCE BOOK:
Essentials of Management: An International, Innovation and Leadership perspective by Harold Koontz, Heinz Weihrich McGraw
Hill Education, 10th Edition 2016. ISBN- 978-93-392-2286-4.

31-08-2020 © R R INSTITUTIONS , BANGALORE
3
OVERVIEW OF SYLLABUS
MODULE 1: MANAGEMENT & PLANNING
MODULE 2: ORGANIZING &STAFFING, DIRECTING & CONTROLLING
MODULE 3: SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITIES OF BUSINESS, ENTRENEURSHIP
MODULE 4: FAMILY BUSINESS, IDEA GENERATION & FEASIBILITYANALYSIS
MODULE 5: BUSINESS MODEL

31-08-2020 © R R INSTITUTIONS , BANGALORE
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MODULE 1: MANAGEMENT & PLANNING
1. CONTENTS: MANAGEMENT( CHAPTER 1 OF TEXT 1)
• Importance of Management
• Definition of management
• Process of management
• Levels of management
• Roles of a manager
• Managerial skills
• Management &administration
2. PLANNING (CHAPTER 4 OF TEXT 1)
• Nature & Importance
• Steps & limitations of planning
3. DECISION MAKING(CHAPTER 5 OF TEXT 1)
• Meaning, steps and types

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Nature and Functions of Management
•Management is the “ art of getting things done through people”- Mary Parker Follet.
•George R Terry defines management as a process “consisting of planning, organising, actuating and controlling, performed to
determine and accomplish the objectives by the use of people and resources”.
• 4 activities of management
1. Planning- means that the managers think of their actions in advance (based on some method, plan or logic)
2. Organising: coordinating material and human resources of an organisation
3. Actuating : manager motivates and directs subordinates
4. Controlling: managers attempt to ensure that there is no deviation from the norm or plan
• Management is the process by which the objectives of an organisation is achieved.
ex: objective of hospital is to provide comprehensive medical care to the community.
objective of a university might be to give students a well-founded education in a congenial environment

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MANAGEMENT FUNCTIONS OR PROCESS OF MANAGEMENT
• 4 Functions of a manger: Planning, Organising, Directing and controlling
• 2 additional managerial functions considered important by Ernest Dale- Innovation & Representation
1. Planning
• Planning is the function that determines in advance what should be done
• It is a process of deciding the business objectives and charting out the methods of attaining those
objectives
• It is the determination of what is to be done, how and where it is to be done, who is to do it and how
results are to be evaluated
• Planning is a function which is performed by managers at all levels- top, middle and supervissory
• Plans made by top management may cover periods as long as 5 to 10 years
• Plans made by middle or first line managers cover much shorter periods

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2. ORGANISING:
• Providing everything useful for the functioning of a business like- personnel, raw materials, tools, capital
• Can be divided into 2 main sections:
1. Human organisation
2. Material organisation
Ex: Staffing
• Involves building human organisation
• Manager attempts to find the right person for each job
• Staffing fixes a manager’s responsibility to recruit required manpower in an organisation
• It involves selection and training of future managers

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3.DIRECTING:
• Can also be termed as “leading”, “directing”, “motivating”, “actuating” and so on
• Involves 3 sub functions:
1. Communication
2. Leadership
3. Motivation
• Communication is the process of passing information and understanding from one person to another
• Leadership is the process by which a manager guides and influences the work of his subordinates.
• Motivation means arousing desire in the minds of the workers to give their best to the enterprise
• 2 categories of motivation: Financial( in the form of salary, bonus, profit sharing etc.,) & Non-financial(job security,
recognition, praise etc.,)

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3.CONTROLLING:
• The manager must ensure that performance occurs in conformity with the planning
• Involves 3 elements:
1. establishing standards of performance
2. measuring current performance and comparing it against the established standards
3. taking action to correct any performance that does not meet those standards
4. INNOVATING
• Innovation means creating new ideas, which may improve a product, process or practice

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5. REPRESENTING:
• Manager should represent his organisation before various outside groups which have stake in the organisation
• Stake holders can be government officials, labour unions, financial institutions, suppliers, customers etc.,
• Every function has 2 dimensions: Substantive and Procedural
• Substantive dimension is what is being done, process is how it is done
Reference: https://www.toppr.com/?utm_source=guides

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Levels of Management
1. First line managers- foreman and white collar supervisors
2. Middle line managers- sales managers, plant managers, personnel managers and many other
department heads
3. Top managers- board chairman, company presidents, executive vice presidents
Roles of a manager:
1. Interpersonal roles- figure head, leader, liasion
2. Informational roles- monitor, disseminator, spokesman
3. Decision roles- entrepreneur, disturbance handler, resource allocator and negotiator

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Introduction to Management
Managerial Skills: a skill is an individual’s ability to perform physical or mental tasks with a specified
outcome
1. Conceptual skills:
• Ability of the manager to take a broad view of the organisation and its future, his ability to
think in abstract, his ability to analyse the forces working in a situation,
• His ability to conceptualise the environment, the organisation and his own job, so that he can
set appropriate goals for his organisation
2. Technical skills:
• The managers understanding of the nature of job that people under him have to perform
• It refers to a person’s knowledge and proficiency in any type of process or technique
3. Human relations skill:
• Is the ability to interact effectively with people at all levels
• This skill develops in the manager sufficient ability to recognise the feelings and sentiments of
others, to judge the possible reactions to the outcomes of various courses of actions he may
undertake

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Introduction to Management
Management as a Science:
• Discipline scientific:
1. Methods of inquiry are systematic and empirical
2. Information can be ordered and analysed
3. Results are cumulative and communicable
• Being systematic means being orderly and unbiased
• All scientific information collected first as raw data is finally ordered and analysed with the help of
statistical tools. It thus becomes communicable and intelligible
• Science is also cumulative in that what is discovered is added to that which has been found before
• On the basis of the above definition of science, it is presumed that management is also a science.
• Management is not like the exact or natural sciences
Management as an ART:
• It is the art of getting things done through others in dynamic and mostly non-repetitive situations
• The manager has to constantly analyse the existing situation, determine the objectives, seek alternatives,
implement,cordinate, control and evaluate information and make decisions.
• Manager has to apply learnt principles and body of knowledge to his special problem
• Conclusion:Management has to involve both elements- those of a science and an art

MODULE 1- Chapter 2 PLANNING
• Planning is the beginning of the process of management
• Planning sets all other functions into actions
• Planning follows systematic approach which results in an emphasis of 3 systems
1. Environmental subsystem- population changes, governmental policies, international
developments
2. Competitive subsystem- consideration of past, present and anticipated actions of
competitors
3. Internal subsystem- location, facilities, personnel etc.,
• Planning is an intellectual process which requires a manager to think before acting
• Decision making is an integral part of planning. It is the process of choosing among many alternatives
• Planning is a continuous process
• Planning is an all-pervasive function
• Levels of planning:
1. Strategic Planning- long term planning
2. Tactical planning- short term planning
3. Contingency planning- takes into account possible occurrences

MODULE 1- Chapter 2 PLANNING
• Importance of planning:
1. Minimises risk and uncertainty
2. leads to success
3.focuses attention on the organisation’s goals
4. Facilitates control
5. trains executives

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TYPES of PLANS

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Types of Plans
1. Vision:
• top of hierarchy
• Creates direction that a business should pursue in future
• Vision should be brief, focused, clear and inspirational to an organisation’s employees
• It should be linked to customers needs and convey a general strategy for achieving the mission
2. Mission:
• Unique aim of an organisation
• It is an organisations specialisation in some area-service, product or client
3. Objectives:
• Objectives are goals or aims that the management wishes the organisation to achieve in pursuit of its mission
• These are the end points or pole star towards which all business activities like organising, staffing, directing and controlling
are directed
• Difference b/w purpose and objective: purpose is the primary role defined by society, objectives are the “specific
targets” to be reached by the organisation

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TYPES of PLANS- Objectives
Characteristics of Objectives:
1. Objectives are multiple in number
2. Objectives change over time- short and long range economic, technical,social, political And ethical changes
3. Objectives are either tangible or intangible- quantifiable(productivity, physical and financial resources),
not quantifiable(managers performance, workers morale,public responsibility)
4. Objectives have a priority
5. Objectives are generally arranged in hierarchy
6. Objectives sometimes clash with each other

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TYPES of PLANS- Objectives
Characteristics of Objectives:
1. Objectives are multiple in number
Ex: objectives of a manufacturing and marketing company
i. achievement of a specified market share for its products
ii. Development of a new product or service
iii. Identification of a parasitical overhead which only adds to costs
iv. Provision for raw material and physical facilities
v. reduction in costs
vi. Direction of managers by objectives
vii. building of an employee relations index

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TYPES of PLANS- Requirement of sound Objectives
1. Objectives must be both clear and acceptable- clarity is the people’s understanding of the objectives
2. Objectives must support one another
3. Objectives must be precise and measurable
• Easier to decide how to achieve it
• Better motivators of people than general goals
• Easier for lower level managers to develop their own plans
• Easier for managers to ascertain whether they are succeeding or failing
4. Objectives should always remain valid

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TYPES of PLANS- Advantages of Objectives
1. They provide basis for planning and for developing other type of plans such as policies, budgets and
procedures
2. They act as motivators for individuals and departments of an enterprise by pointing the way to desired
performance
3. They eliminate haphazard action which may result in undesirable consequences
4. They facilitate coordinated behavior of various groups which otherwise may pull in different directions
5. They function as a basis for managerial control by serving as standards against which actual performance
can be measured
6. They facilitate better management of the enterprise by providing a basis for leading, guiding, directing and
controlling the activities of people of various departments
7. They lessen misunderstanding and conflict and facilitate communication among people by minimising
jurisdictional disputes
8. They provide legitimacy to organizations activities

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PLANNING- STRATEGIES
• Strategy - a plan of action designed to achieve a long-term or overall aim.
• Plans should take into account the environmental opportunities and threats and the organizational strengths
and weaknesses usually termed as SWOT analysis.
• A corporate strategy is a plan that takes these factors into account and provides an optimal match between the
firm and the environment
• 2 important activities involved in strategy formulation
1. Environmental appraisal
2. Corporate appraisal

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PLANNING- STRATEGIES- Environmental appraisla
• Components of external environment
1. Political and legal components
i. stability of the government and its political philosophy
ii. Taxation and industrial licensing laws
iii. Monetary and fiscal policies
iv. Restrictions on capital movement, repatriation of capital, state trading etc.,
2. Economic components
i. level of economic development and distribution of personal income
ii. Trend in prices, exchange rates, balance of payments etc.,
iii. Supply of labour, raw material, capital etc.,
3. Competitive components
i. identification of principal competitors
ii. Analysis of performance in major areas- market, product, sales etc.,
iii. Anti monopoly laws and rules of competition
iv. Protection of patents, trade marks, brand names and other IPR
Economic components

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PLANNING- STRATEGIES- Environmental appraisla
• Components of external environment
4. Social and cultural components
i. literacy levels of population
ii. Religious and social characteristics
iii. Extent and rate of urbanization
iv. Rate of social change
Attributes of External environment:
1. Turbulence- marked by unpredictable changes and contradictory, unreliable information
2. Hostile – marked by risk, stress and frustration, arbitrary and harsh laws, severe price competition
3. Diverse – marked by clientele with variegated needs
4. Restrictive- marked by many legal, political, economic and cultural restraints
5. Technically complex- marked by the requirement of a high order of technical expertise in management
Economic components

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PLANNING- STRATEGIES- Corporate Appraisal
• Involves company’s strengths and weaknesses
• Company’s strengths- outstanding leadership, excellent product design, low cost manufacturing skill, efficient
distribution, efficient customer service, personal relationship with customers, efficient transportation,effective
sales promotion, outstanding research, advertising and so on.
• Core competency- skills or resources that determine company’s competitive edge

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PLANNING- Modes of strategy Formulation
• Mintzberg has described 3 modes: Planning mode, Entrepreneurial mode and Adaptive mode
1. Planning mode:
i. systematic and rational
ii. Deliver mix of values that are different from rivals
iii. Rivals Cannot imitate
2. Entrepreneurial mode
i. is one in which proactive, bold plan is drawn to seek new oppurtunities on the basis of intution
ii. Also known as “ Inside-out” mode
iii. Believes that greatest constraints lies in its mindset
3. Adaptive mode:
i. also known as “ outside-in” mode
ii. Is reactive and timid
iii. Used to formulate strategies for solving problems as they come

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PLANNING- Operational Plans
• These plans act as means of implementing the organisation’s strategy
• 2 types of Operational plans- Standing plans & Single-use plans
1. Standing Plans
i. these plans are designed for situations that recur often enough to justify a standardized approach
ii. Ex: plan for processing a loan application by bank
iii. 3 types of standing plans
1. Policies
2. Procedures
3. Methods & rules

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PLANNING- Operational Plans- Standing plans
1. POLICIES
• General guideline for making decisions
• “ Policy is a verbal, written or implied overall guide, setting up boundaries that supply the general limits and
direction in which managerial action will take place”- George R Terry
• Policies deals with “how to do” the work and do not dictate terms to subordinates
• They only provide framework in which decisions should be made by the management
Advantages of Policies:
1. policies ensure uniformity of action in respect of various matters
2. Policies speed up decisions
3. Policies make it easier for the superior to delegate more and more authority to his subordinates
4. Policies give a practical shape to the objectives by elaborating and directing the way in which the
predetermined objectives are attained
Disadvantages of policies:
Policies with broad areas of discretion and initiative lead to inconsistent interpretations and make the very
delegation of authority difficult which they are intended to implement

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PLANNING- Operational Plans- Standing plans- Policies
Types of POLICIES
1. Classification on the basis of sources
i. Originated policies- established formally by top managers for the purpose of guiding subordinates
ii. Appealed policies- arises from the appeal made by subordinate to his superior regarding the manner of
handling a given situation
iii. Implied policies
iv. Externally imposed policies- imposed by external agencies
2. Classification on the basis of functions -policies may be classified into production, sales, finance, personnel
policies etc.,
3. Classification on the basis of organizational level -range from major company policies through major
departmental policies to minor or derivative policies applicable to the smallest segment of the organization

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Guidelines for effective Policy making
1. Policies should be stated in writing and should be clearly understood
2. Policies should make their purpose clear, define the appropriate methods, action and responsibilities and
delineate the limits of freedom of action
3. Participation of top mangers and subordinates in policy making for successful implementation
4. Policy must strike a reasonable balance between stability & flexibility
5. Different policies in the organization should not pull in different directions and should support one another
6. Policies should not be detrimental to the interest of the society
7. Policies must be comprehensive to cover as many contengies as possible
8. Policies should be periodically reviewed

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2. PROCEDURES:
• Provides a detailed set of instructions for performing a sequence of actions involved in doing a certain
piece of work
• Ex 1: procedure for purchasing raw material may be
• Requisition from the storekeeper to the purchasing department
• Calling tenders for purchase of materials
• Placing orders with the suppliers who are selected
• Inspecting the materials
• Making payment to the supplier of materials
• Ex2 : procedure for recruitment
• Invite application through advertisement
• Screening the applications
• Conducting written test
• Conducting interview for those who have passed written test
• Medical examination for those who are selected for the posts

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PLANNING- Difference between policy and Procedure
Policies Procedures
Policies are general guides to both thinking
and action of people at higher levels
Procedures are general guides to action only
usually for people at lower levels
Policies help in fulfilling the objectives of the
enterprise
Procedures show us the way to implement
policies
Policies are generally broad and allow some
latitude in decision making
Procedures are specific and do not allow
latitude
Policies are often established without any
study or analysis
Procedures are always established after
thorough study and analysis of work

33
PLANNING- Procedures
Advantages of procedures:
• They indicate a standard way of performing a task, ensures high level of uniformity
• They facilitate executive control over performance( by laying down sequence and timing of each task)
• They enable employees to improve their efficiency by providing them with knowledge about entire
range of work
Limitations of Procedures:
1. By prescribing one standard way of performing a task,they limit the scope for innovation or
improvement of work performance
2. Results in overlapping, duplication and conflict that the actual work does not get done properly and
resources are wasted
• Limitations can be overcome by constructive auditing- management reviews and appraises
the procedures with an intention to eliminate unnecessary steps and overlapping and simplifies
work

34
PLANNING- Methods and Rules
3. Methods and Rules:
• A method is a prescribed way in which one step of a procedure is to be performed
• Methods help in increasing the effectiveness and usefulness of procedure
• Ex: Recruitment
• Method- screening applications or conducting a written test
• Procedure- sequence of steps involved in recruitment of personnel
RULES: are detailed and recorded instructions that a specific action must or must not be
performed in a given situation

35
PLANNING- Operational Plans-Single use plans
• Are developed to achieve a specific end
• Types:
1. Programmes-
• precise plans which need to be made to discharge a non-routine and non-repetitive tasks
• Essential ingredients – time phasing and Budgeting
2. Budgets:
• Defined as “ a financial statement prepared prior to a definite period of time, of the policy to be
pursued during the period, for the purpose of obtaining a given objective”
• Budgets are plans for a future period of time containing statements of expected results in numerical
terms( rupees, man hours, product units and so on)
• Important budgets are sales budget, production budget,cash budget and revenue and expense budget

36
PLANNING- Steps in Planning
1. Establishing verifiable goals or set of goals to be achieved
2. Establishing planning premises
• Internal and external premises
• Tangible and intangible premises
• Controllable and non controllable premises
3. Deciding the planning period
4. Finding alternative course of action
5. Evaluating and selecting a course of action
6. Establishing and deploying action plans
7.Developing derivative plans
8. Measuring and controlling progress

37
PLANNING- Steps of strategic planning process
1. Evaluate and improve last year’s strategic plan process
2. Reaffirm the organisation’s vision, mission, values and objectives
3. Review organisation’s operational performance for the prior year
4. Evaluate the external environment to prepare for each environmenntal element
5. Conduct swotanalysis
6. Identify, evaluate and select alternative approaches if a change in the existing strategy appears
necessary
7. Deploy modified plan
8. Provide for updates and tracking to be conducted throughout the year

38
PLANNING- limitations of Planning
1. Planning is an expensive and time consuming process
2. Planning sometimes restricts the organisation to the most rational and risk free oppurtunities
3. Limited in the case of organisations with rapidly changing situations
4. Establishment of advance plans tends to make administration inflexible
5. Planning may sometimes face people’s resistance to it

39
MODULE 1- Chapter 3- DECISION MAKING
• A decision is a choice between 2 or more alternatives. This implies 3 things:
1. When managers make decisions they are choosing- they are deciding what to do on the basis of some
conscious and deliberate logic
2. Managers have alternatives available when they are making a decision
3. Managers have a purpose in mind when they make a decision
• Types of Decisions:
1. Programmed and Non- programmed decisions
2. Major and Minor decisions
3. Routine and strategic decisions
4. Sequential and Bear-by-the-tail decisions
5. Individual and group decisions
6.Simple and complex decisions
7. heuristics and intuitive decisions
8. Rational decisions

40
MODULE 1- Chapter 3- DECISION MAKING
• A decision is a choice between 2 or more alternatives. This implies 3 things:
1. When managers make decisions they are choosing- they are deciding what to do on the basis of some
conscious and deliberate logic
2. Managers have alternatives available when they are making a decision
3. Managers have a purpose in mind when they make a decision
• Types of Decisions:
1. Programmed and Non- programmed decisions
2. Major and Minor decisions
3. Routine and strategic decisions
4. Sequential and Bear-by-the-tail decisions
5. Individual and group decisions
6.Simple and complex decisions
7. heuristics and intuitive decisions

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MODULE 1- Chapter 3- DECISION MAKING- TYPES
2. Major & Minor decisions: if a decision affects only 1 function then it is a minor decision
• Decisions which are rare and have no rules or precedents as guides may be regarded as
major decision
• 4 ways to measure the relative significance of decision making
1. degree of futurity of decision- decision which has long range impact, like
replacement of men by machinery or diversification
2. Impact of decision on other functional areas-
3. qualitative factors that enter the decision- A decision which involves certain
subjective factors is an important decision. These subjective factors include basic principles
of conduct, ethical values, social and political beliefs
4. Recurrence of decisions- decisions which recur very often and have rules as guides
Ex: whether to or not to renew office’s subscription to Business week

42
3. Routine & Strategic decisions:
• Routine decisions- housekeeping decisions. They relate to the present rather than central to
the company’s operation.
• The main purpose is to achieve high degree of efficiency as possible in the company’s
ongoing activities
•Provision of air conditioning, better lighting, parking facilities, cafeteria service, deputing
employees to attend conference etc.,
• Strategic Decision- requires lengthy deliberation and large funds and are taken by managers at
higher levels
•Ex: lowering the price of product, changing the product line, installation of automatic plant
etc.,

43
4. Sequential and Bear-by-the Tail decisions:
Sequential Decision:
• In sequential decision the manager makes a decision one part at a time, he makes a series of
decisions to solve one main problem
• This form of decision is often used for executive promotions.
• The individual is made to pass through several successive assignments before he is given the post
Bear-by-the Tail decision:
• Are like passing a car on a crowded 2 lane highway
• Here it is difficult for a manager to retrace his steps or to defer further steps until the results of the
last step are known

44
5. Individual and Group decisions:
• Individual decisions are taken where the problem is of routine nature, where the analysis of
variable is simple and where definite procedures to deal with problem already exist.
• Group decisions- important and strategic decisions, interdepartmental decisions, important price
decisions.
• The Dialectic method- is a time honoured group decision making method which calls for
managers to foster a structured debate of opposing viewpoints prior making a decision.
• Devils Advocacy- involves assigning someone the role of a critic
• Decisions may involve subordinates participation in the decision making process
• Advantages of group decisions:
1. increased acceptance by those affected
2. Easier coordination
3. Easier communication
4. more information processed
5. Group cohesion

45
5. Individual and Group decisions:
• Disadvantages of group decisions:
1. Group decision can take longer
2. Groups can be indecisive
3. Groups can compromise
4. Groups can dominated
5. Groups may have a prior commitment to a particular solution

46
1. Nominal group technique- This technique proceeds as under
• Members first silently and independently generate their ideas on a problem in writing
• Then they present their ideas one by one to the group without discussion
• The recorded ideas are then discussed for the purposes of clarification and evaluation
• Finally each member gives his rating about various ideas through a system of voting
2. Delphi Technique:
• The group consists of persons who are physically dispersed and are anonymous to one another
• They are asked to send their opinion on a topic through mail
• Their responses are summarised into a feedback report and sent back to them along with a second
questionnaire
• Thus, there is a learning process for the group as it receives a new information and there is no
influence of group pressure or dominating individuals
• 2 important limitations of this technique:
1. there may be a bias in the way the questions are worded
2. a different group of experts may not reach the same conclusions

47
6. Simple and complex decisions:
• When variables to be considered for solving problem are few, the decision is simple
• When they are many, the decision is complex
• When these 2 types of decisions are combined with the low or high certainity of their outcomes, we get 4
types of decision
1. Mechanistic or routine decisions- decisions in which the problem is simple and the outcome has a
higher degree of certainty
2. Judgemental decisions- decisions in which the problem is simple but the outcome has a low
degree of certainty
3. Analytical decisions- decisions in which the problem is complex but the outcome has a high
degree of certainty
4. adaptive decisions- decisions in which the problem is complex and the outcome has a low degree
of certainty.

48
7. Heuristics & Intuitive decisions:
• Heuristics are rules of thumb which organization evolve from their experience for use in recurring decision
situations

49
Steps involved in the process of rational decision making:
Recognizing
Problems
deciding
priorities
Diagnosing the
problem
Developing the
alternative
solutions
Measuring and
comparing
consequences
Decision
implementation
Follow up

50
Steps involved in the process of rational decision making:
1. Recognising the problem: a problem exists if any of the following conditions do occur
• When there is a deviation from past experience
• When there is a deviation from the plan
• When other people bring problems to the manager
• When the competitors outperform the manager’s organisation

Reference
• Principles of Management by P C Tripathi & P N Reddy, McGraw Hill
Education
08-04-2023 © R R INSTITUTIONS , BANGALORE 51

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