12 AmERIcAN EdUcATOR | SPRING 2012
Principles of Instruction
Research-Based Strategies That All Teachers Should Know
By Barak Rosenshine
T
his article presents 10 research-based principles of
instruction, along with suggestions for classroom prac-
tice. These principles come from three sources: (a)
research in cognitive science, (b) research on master
teachers, and (c) research on cognitive supports. Each is briefly
explained below.
A: Research in cognitive science: This research focuses on how
our brains acquire and use information. This cognitive research
also provides suggestions on how we might overcome the limita-
tions of our working memory (i.e., the mental “space” in which
thinking occurs) when learning new material.
B: Research on the classroom practices of master teachers: Mas-
ter teachers are those teachers whose classrooms made the high-
est gains on achievement tests. In a series of studies, a wide range
of teachers were observed as they taught, and the investigators
coded how they presented new material, how and whether they
checked for student understanding, the types of support they
provided to their students, and a number of other instructional
activities. By also gathering student achievement data, research-
ers were able to identify the ways in which the more and less effec-
tive teachers differed.
C: Research on cognitive supports to help students learn complex
tasks: Effective instructional procedures—such as thinking aloud,
providing students with scaffolds, and providing students with
models—come from this research.
Even though these are three very different bodies of research,
there is no conflict at all between the instructional suggestions
that come from each of these three sources. In other words, these
three sources supplement and complement each other. The fact
that the instructional ideas from three different sources supple-
ment and complement each other gives us faith in the validity of
these findings.
Education involves helping a novice develop strong, readily
accessible background knowledge. It’s important that background
knowledge be readily accessible, and this occurs when knowledge
is well rehearsed and tied to other knowledge. The most effective
teachers ensured that their students efficiently acquired,
rehearsed, and connected background knowledge by providing
a good deal of instructional support. They provided this support
by teaching new material in manageable amounts, modeling,
guiding student practice, helping students when they made errors,
and providing for sufficient practice and review. Many of these
teachers also went on to experiential, hands-on activities, but they
always did the experiential activities after, not before, the basic
material was learned.
The following is a list of some of the instructional principles
that have come from these three sources. These ideas will be
described and discussed in this article:
• Begin a lesson with a sh ...
This document discusses techniques for teachers to improve their creativity and effectiveness in the classroom. It describes several methods teachers can use for self-assessment and development, including action research, problem-solving teaching approaches, paying attention to students, keeping a teacher's journal, making creative use of resources, self-assessment, follow-up actions after lessons, and reflective teaching. Regularly using these techniques helps teachers enhance their skills and guide students to better manage information.
Expository teaching is a direct instruction strategy where the teacher presents academic content to students through lecture. Key aspects of expository teaching include the teacher presenting clear and concise information in a logical progression, using examples to illustrate concepts, and checking for student understanding through questions. The structure of expository lessons helps students focus on the topic and determine what information is most important.
Twelve principles of effective teaching and learningpaulinemoooo
The document outlines twelve principles of effective teaching and learning that are supported by empirical research. The principles were derived from studies conducted by prominent educators on teaching practices in higher education. Some of the key principles include that teachers' knowledge of their subject matter is essential, active involvement of learners enhances learning, interaction between teachers and students motivates students, and providing feedback to students and teachers improves the learning process.
12 AMERICAN EDUCATOR FALL 2013John Dunlosky is a prBenitoSumpter862
12 AMERICAN EDUCATOR | FALL 2013
John Dunlosky is a professor of psychology and the director of experimental
training at Kent State University. His research focuses on self-regulated
learning and how it can be used to improve student achievement across
the lifespan.
Strengthening
the Student Toolbox
study strategies to Boost learning
By John Dunlosky
I
t’s the night before her biology exam, and the high school
student has just begun to study. she takes out her highlighter
and reads her textbook, marking it up as she goes along. she
rereads sentences that seem most important and stays up
most of the night, just hoping to get a good enough grasp of the
material to do well on the exam. These are study strategies that
she may have learned from her friends or her teachers or that she
simply took to on her own. she is not unusual in this regard; many
students rely on strategies such as highlighting, rereading, and
cramming the night before an exam.
Quite often, students believe these relatively ineffective strate-
gies are actually the most effective,1 and at least on the surface
they do seem sound, perhaps because, even after pulling an all-
nighter, students manage to squeak by on exams. Unfortunately,
in a recent review of the research, my colleagues and I found that
these strategies are not that effective,2 especially if students want
to retain their learning and understanding of content well after
the exam is over—obviously, an important educational goal.
so, why aren’t students learning about the best strategies? I
can only speculate, but several reasons seem likely. curricula are
developed to highlight the content that teachers should teach, so
the focus is on providing content and not on training students
how to effectively acquire it. Put differently, the emphasis is on
what students need to learn, whereas little emphasis—if any—is
placed on training students how they should go about learning
the content and what skills will promote efficient studying to
support robust learning. Nevertheless, teaching students how to
learn is as important as teaching them content, because acquir-
IL
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R
A
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S
B
y
D
A
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AMERICAN EDUCATOR | FALL 2013 13
ing both the right learning strategies and background knowledge
is important—if not essential—for promoting lifelong learning.
Another reason many students may not be learning about
effective strategies concerns teacher preparation. learning strat-
egies are discussed in almost every textbook on educational
psychology, so many teachers likely have been introduced to at
least some of them. even so, my colleagues and I found that, in
large part, the current textbooks do not adequately cover the
strategies; some omit discussion of the most effective ones, and
most do not provide guidelines on how to use them in the class-
room or on how to teach students to use them. In some cases, the
strategies discussed have lim ...
12 AMERICAN EDUCATOR FALL 2013John Dunlosky is a prAnastaciaShadelb
12 AMERICAN EDUCATOR | FALL 2013
John Dunlosky is a professor of psychology and the director of experimental
training at Kent State University. His research focuses on self-regulated
learning and how it can be used to improve student achievement across
the lifespan.
Strengthening
the Student Toolbox
study strategies to Boost learning
By John Dunlosky
I
t’s the night before her biology exam, and the high school
student has just begun to study. she takes out her highlighter
and reads her textbook, marking it up as she goes along. she
rereads sentences that seem most important and stays up
most of the night, just hoping to get a good enough grasp of the
material to do well on the exam. These are study strategies that
she may have learned from her friends or her teachers or that she
simply took to on her own. she is not unusual in this regard; many
students rely on strategies such as highlighting, rereading, and
cramming the night before an exam.
Quite often, students believe these relatively ineffective strate-
gies are actually the most effective,1 and at least on the surface
they do seem sound, perhaps because, even after pulling an all-
nighter, students manage to squeak by on exams. Unfortunately,
in a recent review of the research, my colleagues and I found that
these strategies are not that effective,2 especially if students want
to retain their learning and understanding of content well after
the exam is over—obviously, an important educational goal.
so, why aren’t students learning about the best strategies? I
can only speculate, but several reasons seem likely. curricula are
developed to highlight the content that teachers should teach, so
the focus is on providing content and not on training students
how to effectively acquire it. Put differently, the emphasis is on
what students need to learn, whereas little emphasis—if any—is
placed on training students how they should go about learning
the content and what skills will promote efficient studying to
support robust learning. Nevertheless, teaching students how to
learn is as important as teaching them content, because acquir-
IL
LU
ST
R
A
T
IO
N
S
B
y
D
A
N
IE
L
B
A
X
T
E
R
AMERICAN EDUCATOR | FALL 2013 13
ing both the right learning strategies and background knowledge
is important—if not essential—for promoting lifelong learning.
Another reason many students may not be learning about
effective strategies concerns teacher preparation. learning strat-
egies are discussed in almost every textbook on educational
psychology, so many teachers likely have been introduced to at
least some of them. even so, my colleagues and I found that, in
large part, the current textbooks do not adequately cover the
strategies; some omit discussion of the most effective ones, and
most do not provide guidelines on how to use them in the class-
room or on how to teach students to use them. In some cases, the
strategies discussed have lim ...
This document discusses reflective teaching and how teachers can develop a reflective approach to improve their practice. It defines reflection as recalling and evaluating past experiences to inform future decisions. Teachers can engage in reflection through various methods like peer observation, writing accounts of lessons, and recording lessons. These reflective practices help teachers develop awareness of their teaching style and make informed changes to improve student outcomes. The document provides examples of how teachers in one department used peer observation and collaborative journaling to reflect on their practice. Overall, reflective teaching is presented as a valuable tool for teacher self-evaluation and professional growth.
Action research is a method for teachers to study practical problems in education to improve school practices. It involves identifying an issue, analyzing causes, designing interventions, and drawing conclusions. Benefits include a focus on real school problems, teacher professional development, and improved collegiality. Key characteristics are that it studies practical problems scientifically, focuses on improving current practices, and involves teachers directly in research on their own classrooms.
Action research is a method for teachers to study practical problems in education to improve school practices. It involves identifying an issue, analyzing causes, designing interventions, and drawing conclusions. Benefits include a focus on real school problems, teacher professional development, and improved collegiality. Key characteristics are that it studies practical problems scientifically, focuses on improving current practices, and involves teachers directly in research on their own classrooms.
This document discusses techniques for teachers to improve their creativity and effectiveness in the classroom. It describes several methods teachers can use for self-assessment and development, including action research, problem-solving teaching approaches, paying attention to students, keeping a teacher's journal, making creative use of resources, self-assessment, follow-up actions after lessons, and reflective teaching. Regularly using these techniques helps teachers enhance their skills and guide students to better manage information.
Expository teaching is a direct instruction strategy where the teacher presents academic content to students through lecture. Key aspects of expository teaching include the teacher presenting clear and concise information in a logical progression, using examples to illustrate concepts, and checking for student understanding through questions. The structure of expository lessons helps students focus on the topic and determine what information is most important.
Twelve principles of effective teaching and learningpaulinemoooo
The document outlines twelve principles of effective teaching and learning that are supported by empirical research. The principles were derived from studies conducted by prominent educators on teaching practices in higher education. Some of the key principles include that teachers' knowledge of their subject matter is essential, active involvement of learners enhances learning, interaction between teachers and students motivates students, and providing feedback to students and teachers improves the learning process.
12 AMERICAN EDUCATOR FALL 2013John Dunlosky is a prBenitoSumpter862
12 AMERICAN EDUCATOR | FALL 2013
John Dunlosky is a professor of psychology and the director of experimental
training at Kent State University. His research focuses on self-regulated
learning and how it can be used to improve student achievement across
the lifespan.
Strengthening
the Student Toolbox
study strategies to Boost learning
By John Dunlosky
I
t’s the night before her biology exam, and the high school
student has just begun to study. she takes out her highlighter
and reads her textbook, marking it up as she goes along. she
rereads sentences that seem most important and stays up
most of the night, just hoping to get a good enough grasp of the
material to do well on the exam. These are study strategies that
she may have learned from her friends or her teachers or that she
simply took to on her own. she is not unusual in this regard; many
students rely on strategies such as highlighting, rereading, and
cramming the night before an exam.
Quite often, students believe these relatively ineffective strate-
gies are actually the most effective,1 and at least on the surface
they do seem sound, perhaps because, even after pulling an all-
nighter, students manage to squeak by on exams. Unfortunately,
in a recent review of the research, my colleagues and I found that
these strategies are not that effective,2 especially if students want
to retain their learning and understanding of content well after
the exam is over—obviously, an important educational goal.
so, why aren’t students learning about the best strategies? I
can only speculate, but several reasons seem likely. curricula are
developed to highlight the content that teachers should teach, so
the focus is on providing content and not on training students
how to effectively acquire it. Put differently, the emphasis is on
what students need to learn, whereas little emphasis—if any—is
placed on training students how they should go about learning
the content and what skills will promote efficient studying to
support robust learning. Nevertheless, teaching students how to
learn is as important as teaching them content, because acquir-
IL
LU
ST
R
A
T
IO
N
S
B
y
D
A
N
IE
L
B
A
X
T
E
R
AMERICAN EDUCATOR | FALL 2013 13
ing both the right learning strategies and background knowledge
is important—if not essential—for promoting lifelong learning.
Another reason many students may not be learning about
effective strategies concerns teacher preparation. learning strat-
egies are discussed in almost every textbook on educational
psychology, so many teachers likely have been introduced to at
least some of them. even so, my colleagues and I found that, in
large part, the current textbooks do not adequately cover the
strategies; some omit discussion of the most effective ones, and
most do not provide guidelines on how to use them in the class-
room or on how to teach students to use them. In some cases, the
strategies discussed have lim ...
12 AMERICAN EDUCATOR FALL 2013John Dunlosky is a prAnastaciaShadelb
12 AMERICAN EDUCATOR | FALL 2013
John Dunlosky is a professor of psychology and the director of experimental
training at Kent State University. His research focuses on self-regulated
learning and how it can be used to improve student achievement across
the lifespan.
Strengthening
the Student Toolbox
study strategies to Boost learning
By John Dunlosky
I
t’s the night before her biology exam, and the high school
student has just begun to study. she takes out her highlighter
and reads her textbook, marking it up as she goes along. she
rereads sentences that seem most important and stays up
most of the night, just hoping to get a good enough grasp of the
material to do well on the exam. These are study strategies that
she may have learned from her friends or her teachers or that she
simply took to on her own. she is not unusual in this regard; many
students rely on strategies such as highlighting, rereading, and
cramming the night before an exam.
Quite often, students believe these relatively ineffective strate-
gies are actually the most effective,1 and at least on the surface
they do seem sound, perhaps because, even after pulling an all-
nighter, students manage to squeak by on exams. Unfortunately,
in a recent review of the research, my colleagues and I found that
these strategies are not that effective,2 especially if students want
to retain their learning and understanding of content well after
the exam is over—obviously, an important educational goal.
so, why aren’t students learning about the best strategies? I
can only speculate, but several reasons seem likely. curricula are
developed to highlight the content that teachers should teach, so
the focus is on providing content and not on training students
how to effectively acquire it. Put differently, the emphasis is on
what students need to learn, whereas little emphasis—if any—is
placed on training students how they should go about learning
the content and what skills will promote efficient studying to
support robust learning. Nevertheless, teaching students how to
learn is as important as teaching them content, because acquir-
IL
LU
ST
R
A
T
IO
N
S
B
y
D
A
N
IE
L
B
A
X
T
E
R
AMERICAN EDUCATOR | FALL 2013 13
ing both the right learning strategies and background knowledge
is important—if not essential—for promoting lifelong learning.
Another reason many students may not be learning about
effective strategies concerns teacher preparation. learning strat-
egies are discussed in almost every textbook on educational
psychology, so many teachers likely have been introduced to at
least some of them. even so, my colleagues and I found that, in
large part, the current textbooks do not adequately cover the
strategies; some omit discussion of the most effective ones, and
most do not provide guidelines on how to use them in the class-
room or on how to teach students to use them. In some cases, the
strategies discussed have lim ...
This document discusses reflective teaching and how teachers can develop a reflective approach to improve their practice. It defines reflection as recalling and evaluating past experiences to inform future decisions. Teachers can engage in reflection through various methods like peer observation, writing accounts of lessons, and recording lessons. These reflective practices help teachers develop awareness of their teaching style and make informed changes to improve student outcomes. The document provides examples of how teachers in one department used peer observation and collaborative journaling to reflect on their practice. Overall, reflective teaching is presented as a valuable tool for teacher self-evaluation and professional growth.
Action research is a method for teachers to study practical problems in education to improve school practices. It involves identifying an issue, analyzing causes, designing interventions, and drawing conclusions. Benefits include a focus on real school problems, teacher professional development, and improved collegiality. Key characteristics are that it studies practical problems scientifically, focuses on improving current practices, and involves teachers directly in research on their own classrooms.
Action research is a method for teachers to study practical problems in education to improve school practices. It involves identifying an issue, analyzing causes, designing interventions, and drawing conclusions. Benefits include a focus on real school problems, teacher professional development, and improved collegiality. Key characteristics are that it studies practical problems scientifically, focuses on improving current practices, and involves teachers directly in research on their own classrooms.
CURRICULUM-DESIGN - Micro and macro.pptxGopiMecheri1
This document provides an overview of curriculum design concepts from a presentation by Dr. Sheila Marie N. Bugayong. It discusses how teachers serve as curriculum designers and should involve learners in a planned sequence of learning experiences. The document outlines Peter Oliva's 10 axioms for effective curriculum design, including that curriculum changes with the times and involves stakeholder input. It also describes the key elements of curriculum design, such as specifying intended learning outcomes, determining appropriate content and references, selecting teaching methods, and planning assessment of learning.
Theory of Teacher Education Behavioral Perspectivemarina ilyas
The document discusses teacher education from a behavioral perspective, specifically operant conditioning. It covers several topics:
1. The objectives of pre-service teacher training programs, which include imparting subject matter knowledge, developing pedagogical skills, understanding child psychology, and developing proper teaching attitudes.
2. The role of teacher educators is to transmit knowledge to prospective teachers and train them in research-backed pedagogical behaviors. Prospective teachers receive extensive practice and repetition to reinforce learning.
3. Behaviorist principles like Thorndike's law of exercise are applied, with a focus on rote learning, drills, repetition to prevent extinction of behaviors, and assessing mental states for optimal learning. The goal
Resource teachers were observed using methods like deductive, inductive, demonstration, problem solving, and discovery to teach subjects like English, science, and math to grades 7 and 9; their lessons incorporated explaining concepts, student examples and practice, showing processes, and giving discovery activities.
Students come into our courses with knowledge, beliefs, and attitudes gained in other courses and through daily life. As students bring this knowledge to bear in our classrooms, it influences how they filter and interpret what they are learning. If students’ prior knowledge is robust and accurate and activated at the appropriate time, it provides a strong foundation for building new knowledge. However, when knowledge is inert, insufficient for the task, activated inappropriately, or inaccurate, it can interfere with or impede new learning. To apply this principle, consider the following teaching techniques:
Administer a diagnostic assessment or have students assess their own prior knowledge (See “Selected Classroom Assessment Techniques (CATs) for Getting Feedback on Student Learning”).
Use brainstorming to reveal prior knowledge.
Identify discipline-specific conventions explicitly.
Ask students to make and test predictions (See “Teaching for Retention in Science, Engineering & Mathematics”).
Administer a diagnostic assessment or have students assess their own prior knowledge (See “Selected Classroom Assessment Techniques (CATs) for Getting Feedback on Student Learning”).
Use brainstorming to reveal prior knowledge.
Identify discipline-specific conventions explicitly.
Ask students to make and test predictions (See “Teaching for Retention in Science, Engineering & Mathematics”).
The document discusses various aspects of teaching including:
1. It defines teaching as a process that prepares students for learning and provides structure to enable productive learning.
2. It outlines the key roles of teachers as subject matter experts, pedagogical experts, excellent communicators, student-centered mentors, and assessors.
3. It discusses characteristics of quality teaching including a focus on student achievement, effective links between school and context, and pedagogy that promotes self-regulation and discourse.
This document discusses strategies for facilitating learner-centered teaching. It explores equipping pre-service teachers with fundamental principles of learner-centered education and differentiated instruction to meet students' diverse needs and backgrounds. The objectives are to train teachers to implement responsive teaching strategies and demonstrate knowledge of differentiating instruction. Various tactics for learner-centered classrooms are presented, such as asking questions instead of telling, focusing on students' experiences, promoting active learning, and giving students choices in their learning.
The document discusses different approaches for accommodating children's interests in the classroom and presents a cyclical teaching model based on listening to children. It proposes letting children explore their interests within lessons instead of just completing assignments. The teaching model involves teachers and students collaboratively selecting topics, planning inquiry-based activities, carrying out investigations, and evaluating outcomes. Benefits are meaningful learning through student-driven questions, while drawbacks are its demands on teacher experience and resources. The document suggests working towards using this model, perhaps later in the school year.
The document discusses effective teaching strategies and lesson planning. It states that traditional lecture-style teaching limits student learning and engagement. It recommends using interactive activities, discussions, demonstrations, role-plays, cooperative learning, and inquiry-based teaching to enhance student participation and allow them to construct their own knowledge. The document also provides guidance on developing lesson plans, including identifying learning outcomes, allocating time, selecting materials, and incorporating introductory, developmental, concluding, and assessment activities.
1. Effective teaching requires teachers to play multiple roles including subject matter expert, pedagogical expert, excellent communicator, student-centered mentor, and systematic assessor.
2. There are various characteristics, qualities, and factors that define effective teaching, such as fairness, preparedness, building success, holding high expectations, and creating an engaging learning environment.
3. Effective teachers employ diverse teaching methods, strategies and techniques including lecture, discussion, cooperative learning, integrating technology, questioning, explaining and modeling to facilitate student learning.
Memory and creating patterns of meaning 2nikkisue72
Here are some recommendations based on the research study and Reading A-Z suggestions:
- Incorporate multisensory activities to engage multiple learning styles and strengthen memory formation. Using visuals, movement, sounds, etc. can boost retention.
- Provide scaffolding and build on students' prior knowledge. Introduce new concepts by connecting them to what students already understand. This helps make lessons more accessible.
- Use formative assessments throughout the learning process to evaluate understanding and adjust instruction as needed. Tests should measure higher-order thinking in addition to basic facts. Getting feedback aids both teaching and learning.
- Present material in an organized, step-by-step manner with clear examples. The beginning, middle and
The document provides guidance on writing an effective lesson plan, outlining six key steps: 1) Focus and Review to engage students and review prior knowledge, 2) Statement of Objective to clearly state the learning goal, 3) Teacher Input where teaching and checking for understanding occurs, 4) Guided Practice for students to practice with support, 5) Independent Practice for students to apply their learning independently, and 6) Closure to summarize key concepts and check final understanding. It also discusses evaluating the lesson plan through reflecting on student and teacher performance and determining what could be improved.
Recall your favorite teacher and think about the way she or he man.docxsodhi3
Recall your favorite teacher and think about the way she or he managed the class to make it a positive learning experience for you. Now, read Chapter 5 of your text to explore the various strategies for effectively managing a classroom and see if you can make a connection between what the text says and your favorite classroom experience. Keeping that comparison in mind, answer the following questions:
· When you think about managing a classroom, what do you feel most confident about?
· What are your biggest concerns? State carefully one possible way to deal with your greatest concern and relate it to Kounin’s preventive approaches to managing a classroom.
· Why do you think your solution will work? What challenges or obstacles could impede its success? Explain.
Refer to Chapter 5 of your text, additional resources and your own insights/experiences.
CHAPTER 5 BELOW
The classic study of what effective teachers do when it comes to managing the classroom was published in 1970 by Jacob Kounin. Kounin's research involved the analysis of numerous hours of videotaped segments from classrooms at various grade levels. Kounin observed that teachers who prepared and proactively managed their classrooms were far more effective in teaching and engaging students. Because of the impact of his work, some have called Kounin the "father of classroom management." In this section, we will learn some of Kounin's concepts that emphasize preventive approaches to managing the classroom.
Managing by Being "Withit"
Photo of students in a classroom using cellphones.
Blend Images/Blend Images/Superstock
There are so many things to consider when teachers begin their teaching careers that crafting a classroom management system often falls low on the priority list, when in fact it should be one of the first topics addressed.
Jacob Kounin (1970) is known for introducing several helpful management concepts. Perhaps the best known is withitness. This term signifies a teacher's awareness of what is going on in his classroom and the communication of this awareness to his students. Teachers most often communicate their withitness in nonverbal ways, anticipating potential difficulties and warding off problems very quickly. Withit teachers act as if they have eyes in the back of their heads. For example, a withit teacher might go right on teaching when two students are chatting with each other, simply laying a hand on each desk as he walks by. In most instances in a well-managed classroom, this is the only action necessary to nip things in the bud.
Withit teachers also possess the ability to overlap, that is, to do more than one thing at a time. By "overlapping," Kounin meant the teacher's ability to handle two or more simultaneous events, or in today's terminology, to multitask. For example, a teacher who can overlap can answer a student's question and hand another student a hall pass without neglecting the first student. Situations continually arise in the classroom ...
1. History of Science aApproach based learning
2. The principles of sciencetific approach based learning
3. Activities
4. procedures of Scientific approach based learning
5. Strengths and weakness of Scientific approach based learning
6. Conclusion
This presentation shared what neuroscience, cognitive science, and biology have to tell us about developing a learner centered approach to teaching. Originally presented at the Upper Peninsula of Michigan Conference on Teaching and Learning, May 11, 2018.
The document discusses action research in education. It defines action research as research used by teachers and administrators to improve the quality of their decisions and actions. The key steps of action research are: 1) identifying a problem, 2) analyzing probable causes, 3) developing action hypotheses, 4) implementing an action program, 5) evaluating the program, and 6) following up and communicating findings. An example is provided of a math teacher who identified that some students could not solve problems independently. The teacher analyzed possible causes, developed an action plan to give original problems, and evaluated the results to test if the students abandoned copying habits.
This document discusses case analysis and role plays in teaching and learning. It defines case analysis as using real-life documented situations to solve problems and determine solutions, while role plays allow students to experience different perspectives by assuming roles. The document recommends using a variety of activities like concept mapping, questioning, debates and role plays in the teaching-learning process. It also provides recommendations for an effective process, like setting goals and reviewing performance. Case analysis and role plays can improve students' understanding by allowing them to apply knowledge and reflect on different situations.
CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT for Multigrade Class.pptxAnneCa1
The document discusses effective classroom management strategies for multigrade classrooms, including establishing consistent routines, balancing variety in activities while maintaining challenge, resolving minor issues before they escalate, and reinforcing positive behavior. It also emphasizes the importance of individualized instruction, independent study, and teaching students to become self-directed learners. A multigrade teacher must meet diverse student needs through organized, well-planned lessons that develop independent study skills.
This document discusses using action research as an instructional supervision approach to improve teaching practices in Ipil District. It found that some teachers were not engaging students or checking their understanding, resulting in low test scores. The research had teachers and school heads implement action research projects to address issues in their classrooms. It identified problems they encountered like time constraints and lack of support. To solve these challenges, teachers sought instructional support and applied lessons from supervisors. The research concluded that instructional supervision and collaboration on action research can strengthen teaching practices, especially for new teachers and school heads. It recommends continuing to use these approaches to promote best practices.
What is Special Education 1iStockphotoThinkstockPre-.docxhelzerpatrina
What is Special Education? 1
iStockphoto/Thinkstock
Pre-Test
1. You can use the terms disability and handicap interchangeably. T/F
2. The history of special education began in Europe. T/F
3. The first American legislation that protected students with disabilities was passed in the 1950s. T/F
4. All students with disabilities should be educated in special education classrooms. T/F
5. Special education law is constantly reinterpreted. T/F
Answers can be found at the end of the chapter.
6Curriculum and
Assessment
Socialstock/Socialstock/Superstock
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to
• Describe the various forms a curriculum can assume in the classroom.
• Identify and describe forces that shape curriculum development.
• Analyze key aspects of both formative and summative assessments, including validity, reliability, and
transparency.
• Define, compare, and contrast traditional quantitative measures with assessment for learning and
alternative/authentic assessment.
Section 6.1Defining Curriculum
The aim of education should be to teach us rather how to think, than what
to think—rather how to improve our minds, so as to enable us to think for
ourselves, than to load the memory with the thoughts of other men.
—John Dewey
Teachers make important decisions about what students should learn on a daily basis. How-
ever, they do not do so in a vacuum. In this chapter, you will examine the meaning of curricu-
lum, the process of curriculum development, and the forces that shape it. You will discover
that deciding what students should learn is not an easy task. It is further complicated by the
influence and expectations of several groups in addition to teachers. Expectations range from
standards set by state legislatures to national programs to recommendations espoused by
professional organizations. In the midst of all these influences, the teacher is expected to be a
pivotal player in making curricular decisions.
Teachers also determine what their students know or have learned, and this chapter also
introduces the role of assessment in the classroom. We have all taken assessments. In fact, a
good portion of the time you spent in school likely involved preparing for an exam or waiting
for its results. School is typically about defined stages: pre-assessment, teaching, learning,
and then post-assessment or evaluation. Assessments are meant as a guide to planning for
additional teaching and learning. Thus, it is important that they provide information that will
help teachers improve instruction. And yet, if teachers lack understanding of assessment’s
purposes, they may focus solely on determining what students have or have not learned, with
no plans for future learning. If teachers are to prepare students for the changing world they
will inherit, they must help them become resourceful, creative, lifelong learners who own
their learning by taking responsibility for it. Assessment ca ...
Assignment 2 Community Prevention ProgramAfter hearing that a n.docxBenitoSumpter862
Assignment 2: Community Prevention Program
After hearing that a neighbor’s child, Jeremy, age seven, was sexually assaulted in the local park, the parents of Cherry Hill township decide that their community needs a program to prevent sexual abuse of their children in the future.
Prepare a presentation for the parents, providing pertinent information they might like to include in a Sexual Assault Prevention program aimed at the children in their community. Suggest the psychoeducational and supportive approaches that can be effectively used at the community level, such as in community centers, schools, and social service agencies, to provide this information to the children. Address issues of gender, diversity, and ethics in your presentation.
Submit your PowerPoint presentation to the
W2: Assignment 2 Dropbox
by
Wednesday, July 19, 2017
. Your response should be at least 5 - 6 slides and include speaker notes for each slide. In addition, make sure you have included a title slide and a reference slide.
Assignment 2 Grading Criteria
Maximum Points
Analyzed pertinent information they deem relevant to the development of a Sexual Assault Prevention program
25
Described the psychoeducational information and supportive approaches that the community can effectively use to deal with the issue of sexual abuse of children
30
Addressed the issues of gender, diversity, and ethics in the context of intervention approaches
25
Wrote in a clear, concise, and organized manner; demonstrated ethical scholarship in accurate representation and attribution of sources, displayed accurate spelling, grammar, and punctuation.
20
Total:
100
.
Assignment 2 Analyzing World CulturesMedia play a very large role.docxBenitoSumpter862
Assignment 2: Analyzing World Cultures
Media play a very large role in both the development and the perpetuation of cultural elements. You may never have watched a foreign movie or even clips evaluating other cultures. In this assignment, you will explore online videos or movies from a culture of your choice and analyze how cultural elements are presented, compared to your own culture.
Complete the following:
Choose a world culture you are not familiar with.
Identify two–three online videos or movies representative of this culture. These could be examples of cultural expressions such as a Bollywood movie from India or Anime videos from Japan.
Evaluate two hours of such a video. Using the readings for this module, the Argosy University online library resources, and the Internet, research articles about your selected culture.
Select a scholarly article that analyzes the same culture presented in the videos you have observed.
Write a paper describing the cultural differences you have observed in the video. How are these observations supported by the research article?
Be sure to include the following:
Describe the videos you have watched.
Explain the main points of the videos.
Examine what stood out about the culture.
Compare and contrast the similarities and differences of this culture with your own.
Examine the ways of this culture. Is it one you would want to visit or live in?
Would you experience culture shock if you immersed yourself in this culture? Why or why not?
Support your statements with examples and scholarly references.
Write a 2–3-page paper in Word format. Apply APA standards to citation of sources. Use the following file naming convention: LastnameFirstInitial_M2_A2.doc.
.
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What is Special Education? 1
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Pre-Test
1. You can use the terms disability and handicap interchangeably. T/F
2. The history of special education began in Europe. T/F
3. The first American legislation that protected students with disabilities was passed in the 1950s. T/F
4. All students with disabilities should be educated in special education classrooms. T/F
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transparency.
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Similar to 12 AmERIcAN EdUcATOR SPRING 2012Principles of Instr (20)
Assignment 2 Community Prevention ProgramAfter hearing that a n.docxBenitoSumpter862
Assignment 2: Community Prevention Program
After hearing that a neighbor’s child, Jeremy, age seven, was sexually assaulted in the local park, the parents of Cherry Hill township decide that their community needs a program to prevent sexual abuse of their children in the future.
Prepare a presentation for the parents, providing pertinent information they might like to include in a Sexual Assault Prevention program aimed at the children in their community. Suggest the psychoeducational and supportive approaches that can be effectively used at the community level, such as in community centers, schools, and social service agencies, to provide this information to the children. Address issues of gender, diversity, and ethics in your presentation.
Submit your PowerPoint presentation to the
W2: Assignment 2 Dropbox
by
Wednesday, July 19, 2017
. Your response should be at least 5 - 6 slides and include speaker notes for each slide. In addition, make sure you have included a title slide and a reference slide.
Assignment 2 Grading Criteria
Maximum Points
Analyzed pertinent information they deem relevant to the development of a Sexual Assault Prevention program
25
Described the psychoeducational information and supportive approaches that the community can effectively use to deal with the issue of sexual abuse of children
30
Addressed the issues of gender, diversity, and ethics in the context of intervention approaches
25
Wrote in a clear, concise, and organized manner; demonstrated ethical scholarship in accurate representation and attribution of sources, displayed accurate spelling, grammar, and punctuation.
20
Total:
100
.
Assignment 2 Analyzing World CulturesMedia play a very large role.docxBenitoSumpter862
Assignment 2: Analyzing World Cultures
Media play a very large role in both the development and the perpetuation of cultural elements. You may never have watched a foreign movie or even clips evaluating other cultures. In this assignment, you will explore online videos or movies from a culture of your choice and analyze how cultural elements are presented, compared to your own culture.
Complete the following:
Choose a world culture you are not familiar with.
Identify two–three online videos or movies representative of this culture. These could be examples of cultural expressions such as a Bollywood movie from India or Anime videos from Japan.
Evaluate two hours of such a video. Using the readings for this module, the Argosy University online library resources, and the Internet, research articles about your selected culture.
Select a scholarly article that analyzes the same culture presented in the videos you have observed.
Write a paper describing the cultural differences you have observed in the video. How are these observations supported by the research article?
Be sure to include the following:
Describe the videos you have watched.
Explain the main points of the videos.
Examine what stood out about the culture.
Compare and contrast the similarities and differences of this culture with your own.
Examine the ways of this culture. Is it one you would want to visit or live in?
Would you experience culture shock if you immersed yourself in this culture? Why or why not?
Support your statements with examples and scholarly references.
Write a 2–3-page paper in Word format. Apply APA standards to citation of sources. Use the following file naming convention: LastnameFirstInitial_M2_A2.doc.
.
Assignment 2 Communicating Bad News Leaders and managers often ha.docxBenitoSumpter862
Assignment 2: Communicating Bad News
Leaders and managers often have to deliver unpleasant or difficult information to other employees or other internal or external stakeholders. How well this news is delivered can affect employee relations as well as public perceptions.
Review the following scenario:
A new company claims it manufactures the best dog food in the market. It employs around 250 people worldwide. After six months in business, one of the company’s brands is found to contain harmful bacteria. Overnight, reports start pouring in from all over the country about pets falling sick, some critically. The company wants to communicate with its stakeholders through a memo before major news channels start to cover the disease.
Assume that you are an assistant to the company’s chairperson. Based on your analysis of the scenario and using the reading material covered in this module, draft two memos for the chairperson. One memo should address the board of directors and the other the company’s employees.
Make assumptions about whether it is the food product that has bacteria or if there is another explanation for the pets’ sickness.
Write a 1–2-page paper in Word format. Apply APA standards to citation of sources. Use the following file naming convention: LastnameFirstInitial_M2_A2.doc.
.
Assignment 2 Communicating Bad NewsLeaders and managers often hav.docxBenitoSumpter862
Assignment 2: Communicating Bad News
Leaders and managers often have to deliver unpleasant or difficult information to other employees or other internal or external stakeholders. How well this news is delivered can affect employee relations as well as public perceptions.
Review the following scenario:
A new company claims it manufactures the best dog food in the market. It employs around 250 people worldwide. After six months in business, one of the company’s brands is found to contain harmful bacteria. Overnight, reports start pouring in from all over the country about pets falling sick, some critically. The company wants to communicate with its stakeholders through a memo before major news channels start to cover the disease.
Assume that you are an assistant to the company’s chairperson. Based on your analysis of the scenario and using the reading material covered in this module, draft two memos for the chairperson. One memo should address the board of directors and the other the company’s employees.
Make assumptions about whether it is the food product that has bacteria or if there is another explanation for the pets’ sickness.
Write a 1–2-page paper in Word format. Apply APA standards to citation of sources. Use the following file naming convention: LastnameFirstInitial_M2_A2.doc.
By
Wednesday, July 19, 2017
, submit your assignment to the
M2: Assignment 2 Dropbox
.
Assignment 2 Grading Criteria
Maximum Points
Effectively utilized the tips covered in the module, to write an appropriate memo addressing the board of directors to convey the bad news.
40
Effectively utilized the tips covered in the module, to write a suitable memo addressing the company’s employees to convey the bad news.
40
Wrote in a clear, concise, and organized manner; demonstrated ethical scholarship in accurate representation and attribution of sources; and displayed accurate spelling, grammar, and punctuation.
20
Total:
100
.
Assignment 2 Case of Anna OOne of the very first cases that c.docxBenitoSumpter862
Assignment 2: Case of Anna O
One of the very first cases that caught Freud’s attention when he was starting to develop his psychoanalytic theory was that of Anna O, a patient of fellow psychiatrist Josef Breuer. Although Freud did not directly treat her, he did thoroughly analyze her case as he was fascinated by the fact that her hysteria was “cured” by Breuer. It is her case that he believes was the beginning of the psychoanalytic approach.
Through your analysis of this case, you will not only look deeper into Freud’s psychoanalytic theory but also see how Jung’s neo-psychoanalytic theory compares and contrasts with Freud’s theory.
Review the following:
The Case of Anna O.
One of the first cases that inspired Freud in the development of what would eventually become the Psychoanalytic Theory was the case of Anna O. Anna O. was actually a patient of one of Freud’s colleagues Josef Breuer. Using Breuer’s case notes, Freud was able to analyze the key facts of Anna O’s case.
Anna O. first developed her symptoms while she was taking care of her very ill father with whom she was extremely close. Some of her initial symptoms were loss of appetite to the extent of not eating, weakness, anemia, and development a severe nervous cough. Eventually she developed a severe optic headache and lost the ability to move her head, which then progressed into paralysis of both arms. Her symptoms were not solely physical as she would vacillate between a normal, mental state and a manic-type state in which she would become extremely agitated. There was even a notation of a time for which she hallucinated that the ribbons in her hair were snakes.
Toward the end of her father’s life she stopped speaking her native language of German and instead only spoke in English. A little over a year after she began taking care of her father he passed away. After his passing her symptoms grew to affect her vision, a loss of ability to focus her attention, more extreme hallucinations, and a number of suicidal attempts (Hurst, 1982).
Both Freud and Jung would acknowledge that unconscious processes are at work in this woman's problems. However, they would come to different conclusions about the origin of these problems and the method by which she should be treated.
Research Freud’s and Jung’s theories of personality using your textbook, the Internet, and the Argosy University online library resources. Based on your research, respond to the following:
•Compare and contrast Freud's view of the unconscious with Jung's view and apply this case example in your explanations.
•On what specific points would they agree and disagree regarding the purpose and manifestation of the unconscious in the case of Anna?
•How might they each approach the treatment of Anna? What might be those specific interventions? How might Anna experience these interventions considering her history?
Write a 2–3-page paper in Word format. Apply APA standards to citation of sources. Use .
Assignment 2 Bioterrorism Due Week 6 and worth 300 pointsAcco.docxBenitoSumpter862
Assignment 2: Bioterrorism
Due Week 6 and worth 300 points
According to the Department of Health and Human Services (2002), the nation's capacity to respond to bioterrorism depends largely on the ability of clinicians and public health officials to detect, manage, and effectively communicate in advance of and during a bioterrorism event.
Prepare a narrated presentation, using PowerPoint or other similar software, detailing a bioterrorism-related issue, analyzing the threat(s) that the bioterrorism-related issue poses.
In preparation for your presentation, research and review at least one (1) healthcare facility’s preparedness plan.
Note
: A video to help students record narration for the PowerPoint presentation is available in the course shell.
Prepare a twenty (20) slide presentation in which you:
Specify the key steps that healthcare managers should follow in preparing their organizations for a potential bioterrorism attack.
Outline at least two (2) possible early detection and surveillance strategies, and investigate the main ways those strategies may prompt timely interventions to effectively treat and diminish the impact of a bioterrorism threat.
Evaluate the specific preparation steps in the preparedness plan of a healthcare facility of your choosing.
Suggest at least one (1) possible improvement to promote early detection and enhanced surveillance.
Use at least four (4) recent (within the last five [5] years), quality academic resources in this assignment. Note: Wikipedia and other Websites do not qualify as academic resources.
Your assignment must follow these formatting requirements:
Include a cover page containing the title of the assignment, the student’s name, the professor’s name, the course title, and the date. The cover page and the reference page are not included in the required assignment page length.
The specific course learning outcomes associated with this assignment are:
Apply decision making models to address difficult management situations.
Develop policies that ensure compliance of healthcare delivery systems with current legislation.
Use technology and information resources to research issues in Health Care Operations Management
.
Assignment 2 Affirmative ActionAffirmative Action is a controvers.docxBenitoSumpter862
Assignment 2: Affirmative Action
Affirmative Action is a controversial topic in American society. People of all races, genders, and classes are divided on where they stand on Affirmative Action. However, the media has oversimplified Affirmative Action and many do not truly understand the policy and what it means for schools and employers. For this assignment, you will examine Executive Order 10925 and determine where you stand on this topic.
Review Executive Order 10925. A copy can be found at:
http://www.thecre.com/fedlaw/legal6/eo10925.htm
.
Then, write an organized short response (3 paragraphs) where you explain:
What is Affirmative Action as a social policy?
What were the goals of Affirmative Action? Has it been successful?
What are the basic arguments for Affirmative Action and what are those against it? Which side do you find the most convincing and why?
Be sure to support your answer with references to the textbook, appropriate outside resources, and your own personal experiences.
Create a response in 3 paragraphs to the discussion question. Cite sources and include references in your response. Submit your response to the
Discussion Area
by
Saturday, August 26, 2017
. Through
Wednesday, August 30, 2017
, review and comment on at least two peers’ responses.
.
Assignment 2 Audit Planning and Control It is common industry kno.docxBenitoSumpter862
Assignment 2: Audit Planning and Control
It is common industry knowledge that an audit plan provides the specific guidelines auditors must follow when conducting an external audit. External public accounting firms conduct external audits to ensure outside stakeholders that the company’s financial statements are prepared in accordance with generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP) or International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) standards.
Use the Internet to select a public company that appeals to you. Imagine that you are a senior partner in a public accounting firm hired to complete an audit for the chosen public company.
Write a four to six (4-6) page paper in which you:
Outline the critical steps inherent in planning an audit and designing an effective audit program. Based upon the type of company selected, provide specific details of the actions that the company should undertake during planning and designing the audit program.
Examine at least two (2) performance ratios that you would use in order to determine which analytical tests to perform. Identify the accounts that you would test, and select at least three (3) analytical procedures that you would use in your audit.
Analyze the balance sheet and income statement of the company that you have selected, and outline your method for evidence collection which should include, but not be limited to, the type of evidence to collect and the manner in which you would determine the sufficiency of the evidence.
Discuss the audit risk model, and ascertain which sampling or non-sampling techniques you would use in order to establish your preliminary judgment about materiality. Justify your response.
Assuming that the end result is an unqualified audit report, outline the primary responsibilities of the audit firm after it issues the report in question.
Use at least two (2) quality academic resources in this assignment.
Note:
Wikipedia and other Websites do not qualify as academic resources.
Your assignment must follow these formatting requirements:
Be typed, double spaced, using Times New Roman font (size 12), with one-inch margins on all sides; citations and references must follow APA or school-specific format. Check with your professor for any additional instructions.
Include a cover page containing the title of the assignment, the student’s name, the professor’s name, the course title, and the date. The cover page and the reference page are not included in the required assignment page length.
The specific course learning outcomes associated with this assignment are:
Plan and design a generalized audit program.
Determine the nature and extent of evidence accumulated to conduct an audit after considering the unique circumstances of an engagement.
Evaluate a company’s various risk factors and the related impact to the audit process.
Evaluate effective internal controls that minimize audit risk and potentially reduce the risk of fraud.
Use technology and information resources to r.
Assignment 2 American ConstitutionFollowing the Revolutionary War.docxBenitoSumpter862
Assignment 2: American Constitution
Following the Revolutionary War and separation from England, the need for a new government was clear. A group of men, who became known as the “nation’s founders” or Founding Fathers, developed a new government based on principles and beliefs they knew through their experiences, readings, and study. The Founding Fathers had a great deal in common with each other, including property interests, education, and extensive political experience. These common experiences and birthrights created a strong consensus about what should be incorporated into the government that would replace England’s.
Troubles developed immediately upon establishment of the United States of America with the 1781 Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union. Economic difficulties and means of dividing power between leaders and competing interests caused conflict. The conflicts had to be resolved, and some of the Founding Fathers and others, who would come to be known as the Framers went to Philadelphia to revise the Articles of Confederation. However, it became apparent immediately that the Articles could not be revised, and therefore, they were abandoned, and the Framers set about to create a new form of government. Though the effort was eventually successful and resulted in the Constitution, there was a great deal of conflict during its development in the summer of 1787. The form of government established incorporated the ideas of diverse groups, as well as the Framers’ recognition of the need for compromise.
Research the history of the American Constitution using the Argosy University online library resources. Respond to
one
question from each of the question sets A and B.
A. Creating the Constitution
Consider the three constitutional proposals: the Virginia Plan, the New Jersey Plan, and the Great Compromise, also known as the Connecticut Compromise. If you were a delegate and without the experience of the past 200 years, which constitutional proposal would you have supported? Why?
Why do you think the framers were silent on the issue of slavery in the wording of the Constitution? What were the strengths and weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation?
What were the issues in the Constitutional Convention? Who were the Federalists and Anti-Federalists?
B. Living with the Constitution
What are the formal and informal methods of constitutional change?
How do checks and balances work in the lawmaking process today? Which current and important events do you think are examples of the success of checks and balances?
Do you think the Constitution is a relevant political document for the twenty-first century? What new amendments might be appropriate today?
Write your response to each in 150–200 words.
By
Saturday, February 4, 2017
, post your response to the appropriate
Discussion Area
. Through
Wednesday, February 8, 2017
, review and comment on at least three peers’ responses.
.
Assignment 2 A Crime in CentervaleWhile patrolling during his shi.docxBenitoSumpter862
Assignment 2: A Crime in Centervale
While patrolling during his shift, a Centervale police officer, Detective Johnson, saw two men standing on a street corner. Johnson observed the two proceed alternately back and forth between the street ahead and the corner, pausing and returning to conference. Detective Johnson found this strange as the Love's Jeweler shop was down the street. The two men repeated this ritual alternately three to four times, which appeared as if they were looking out for someone or were about to steal something. Detective Johnson saw a third man approach and handing something to one of the two men, which he stuffed into his pocket.
Detective Johnson approached the three men and identified himself as a policeman. He saw the man that stuffed the item in his pocket place his hand in his pocket again. Detective Johnson kept his eyes on the man and asked their names. Before they could answer, the detective turned the man around, patted down his outside clothing, and felt a hard object. The man objected saying, "Hey man, you can't do that. I have rights. I want my lawyer." Detective Johnson sneered, "Oh! you'll get your lawyer." Upon feeling the object, the officer removed his gun and asked the three to raise their hands and place them on the wall. The officer patted each man down and found a gun in the pocket of one man. He removed the jacket of another man and found a diamond ring in the inside pocket. The third man did not have anything in his pockets.
The three were taken to the police station and charged with grand theft and burglary. One of the men was also charged for carrying a concealed weapon. Detective Johnson ran the information concerning the gun and found that it matched the gun related to an aggravated battery and rape case from a year ago. The detective questioned Danny, the man who had the gun. At first, Danny did not want to say anything, but the detective continued questioning him. After three hours, Danny confessed to the aggravated battery and rape case. He denied being involved in the grand theft and burglary.
Danny had a first appearance in the court within three days, whereupon he is appointed an attorney but denied bail. Danny does not see his attorney until the next court appearance. The attorney asks what he wants to do and Danny said, "I want to fight it man." The attorney tells Danny, "That's not going to work; the DA is offering you a good deal if you plea." Over the objection of the victim in the court, the DA offers Danny probation if he testifies against the other two in the burglary case. The DA wants the other two to be sentenced to ten years in that case. While shaking his head, Danny pleads guilty above the cries of the victim. The DA asks the judge to hold off on sentencing until after he testifies in the other trial.
After Danny testifies against the other two defendants and they are sentenced to ten years, Danny goes back to the court. The judge, not agreeing with the deal, decides to sent.
Assignment 2 (RA 1) Analysis of Self-ImageIn this assignment, yo.docxBenitoSumpter862
Assignment 2: (RA 1): Analysis of Self-Image
In this assignment, you will identify and discuss factors that contribute to self-image during middle childhood and adolescence.
Write a 6-page research paper on factors influencing self-image during middle childhood and adolescence.
Tasks:
Conduct a review from professional literature—articles from peer-reviewed journals and relevant textbooks—on the factors influencing self-image during middle childhood and adolescence. Topics to consider include:
Family constellation
Risk and protective factors
Various aspects of cultural identity
Physical characteristics
Social interactions with peers
.
Assignment 1Write a 2-3 page outline describing the health to.docxBenitoSumpter862
Assignment
1:
Write a 2-3 page outline describing the health topic you’ve been assigned and develop a justification/rationale for an educational intervention.
Assignment
2:
Develop a graphic organizer for their topic.
The Graphic Organizer is intended to provide visual cues to enhance learning.
The graphic organizers should be included with your unit plan.
.
assignment 1The idea of living in a country where all policy sh.docxBenitoSumpter862
assignment 1
The idea of living in a country where “all policy shall be based on the weight of evidence” seems unreal for me. However this idea does not seems so crazy for Neil deGrasse Tyson, who believes this idea could work in a country. But could it really work?
The ‘Rationalia’ proposal is about that every idea need to be based on something. It means everything has to follow a process which is gathering data, observation, experimenting and having a conclusion. For a policy to get approved it needs to have the weight of evidence to support it, if it does not have it, then it will not get approve. I found it very interesting how white supremacy supported African slavery and how there was an effort to restricted the reproduction of other races. I feel like this would turn into a chaotic country because there are so many things that science cannot explain, scientist have theories only. Like most of the ancient civilization that had big constructions, ex: The Incas in Peru, there is no explanation for how the Machu Picchu ruins were constructed, or like the Pyramids in Egypt. As the scientist keep researching, new theories originate and no conclusion is made.
I do not think religion has all the answers also. Why were women not able to touch their husbands or feed their animals while menstruating? Why a women would be considered contaminated or not pure base on something as normal as menstruation. Or the idea of it is okay for men to have multiple wives but it was not okay for women to get married twice? I do believe that there is a God, but the idea of the men been superior in both science and religion makes me feel frustrated as a woman. It would be very difficult for a country to be ruled by science or by God only. I feel that there should always be a balance between science and religion, even though both want to compete with each other and have the ultimate opinion. There are somethings that I disagree with both of them. There is no need to keep fighting against each other, even the pope supported the scientific view of evolution, and as the article “Nonoverlapping Magisteria” by Stephen Jay Gould said “The Catholic Church had never opposed evolution and had no reason to do so”. For some people like me, science and religion go together.
assigment 2
In the first reading “Reflections on Rationalia” by Neil deGrasse Tyson, Tyson discusses an idea of developing a virtual world in which all its policies have to be founded based on evidence, meaning that the state would be undergoing constant research, forming a foundation for its government and how its citizens should think. Within the proposal for the new state, Tyson says that a great amount of funding will be given to the continued study of the human sciences, along with extensive training for the young to learn how to obtain, analyze and gather conclusions on data, and citizens would have the freedom to be irrational, simply no policies will be made with.
Assignment 1Recognizing the Role of Adhering to the Standar.docxBenitoSumpter862
Assignment 1:
Recognizing the Role of Adhering to the Standard of Care
When providing health care, there are standards of care which a reasonably prudent provider should follow. Providers at all levels are held to these standards of care. Failure to provide competent care to your patients will put you at risk for malpractice. Remaining current with the evidenced-based guidelines and providing optimal care will minimize the risk of liability.
For this Assignment, you will create a PowerPoint presentation that explains any legal implications that exist for failure to adhere to a standard of care, the key elements of malpractice, and compare the differences in malpractice policy options.
To prepare:
Consider the importance of using professional resources such as the National Guideline Clearinghouse to guide care delivered
Create a PowerPoint presentation no more than 15 slides in length that addresses the following:
Identify and explain any legal implications that exist for failure to adhere to a standard of care
Identify and explain the key elements of malpractice
Compare the differences in malpractice policy options
.
Assignment 1Argument MappingWrite a four to five (4-5.docxBenitoSumpter862
Assignment 1:
Argument Mapping
Write a four to five (4-5) page paper in which you:
(
Note:
Refer to Demonstration Exercise 3 located at the end of Chapter 1 for criteria 1-3.)
1.
Create an argument map based on the influence diagram presented in Case 1.3 and complete all the criteria provided in the exercise, beginning with this claim: “The U.S. should return to the 55- mph speed limit in order to conserve fuel and save lives.”
2.
Include in the map as many warrants, backings, objections, and rebuttals as possible.
3.
Assume that the original qualifier was
certainly;
indicate whether the qualifier changes as we move from a simple, static, uncontested argument to a complex, dynamic and contested argument.
(
Note:
Refer to Demonstration Exercise 3 located at the end of Chapter 8 for criterion 4.)
4.
Apply the argument mapping procedures presented in Chapter 8 to analyze the pros and cons (or strengths and weaknesses) of the recommendations that the United States should
not
intervene in the Balkans.
(
Note:
Refer to Demonstration Exercise 4 located at the end of Chapter 8 for criteria 5-7.)
Demonstration exercise 3 chapter 1
Create an argument map based on the influence diagram presented in Case 1.3. Begin with the following claim: “The United States should return to the 55 mph speed limit in order to conserve fuel and save lives.” Include in your map as many warrants, backings, objections, and rebuttals as you can. Assuming that the original qualifier was certainly, indicate whether the qualifier changes as we move from a simple, static, uncontested argument to a complex, dynamic, and contested argument
Influence diagram presented in case 1.3
CASE 1.3 THE INFLUENCE DIAGRAM AND DECISION TREE—STRUCTURING PROBLEMS OF ENERGY POLICY AND INTERNATIONAL SECURIY
Along with other policy-analytic methods discussed earlier in this chapter (Figure 1.1), the influence diagram and decision tree are useful tools for structuring policy problems.52 The influence diagram (Figure C1.3) displays the policy, the National Maximum Speed Limit, as a rectangle. A rectangle always refers to a policy choice or decision node, which in this case is the choice between adopting and not adopting the national maximum speed limit of 55 mph. To the right and above the decision node are uncertain events, represented as ovals, which are connected to the decision node with arrows showing how the speed limit affects or is affected by them. The rectangles with shaved corners represent valued policy outcomes or objectives. The objectives are to lower fuel consumption, reduce travel time, reduce injuries, and avert traffic fatalities. To the right of the objectives is another shaved rectangle, which designates the net benefits (benefits less costs) of the four objectives. The surprising result of using the influence diagram for problem structuring is the discovery of causally relevant economic events, such as the recession and unemployment, .
Assignment 121. Create a GUI application that contains textboxes.docxBenitoSumpter862
Assignment 12
1. Create a GUI application that contains
textboxes
for first name, last name and title. The app should also contain one button (with the text "Format!"). Once a user filles in textboxes and clicks the button the user-entered info should be displayed in a
label
formatted with one space between the title, first name, and last name.
2. Create a GUI higher/lower guessing game that lets a user guess a number between 1 and 111 (you can either randomly assign the secret number or hardcode it). Let the user enter his/her guess in a
textbox
then click a Submit button to submit his/her guess. If the guess is too low change the form color to YELLOW. If the guess is too high change the form color to BLUE. If the guess is correct change the form color to GREEN and display the number of guesses it took.
.
Assignment 1.3 Assignment 1.3 Article Review Read the article .docxBenitoSumpter862
Assignment 1.3
Assignment 1.3 Article Review
Read the article Social Service or Social Change, available in attachments. Review this article, using the Article Review format provided. Please note there are three sections of an article review.
The first is a brief summary of the article. The second, the Critique, is
about
your opinion of the information presented in the article, and the third, the Application, is about how you might use this information in the future. The Article Review template is located in attachments.
.
Assignment 1Answer the following questions concisely (no.docxBenitoSumpter862
Assignment 1
Answer the following questions concisely (no more than half a page per question)
1.
What is the National Prevention Strategy and who is responsible for it?
2. What are the differences among community health, population health, and global health?
3. Which federal department in the United States is the government’s principal agency for protecting the health of all Americans and for providing essential human services, especially to those who are least able to help themselves? What major services does this department provide?
4. How do state and local health departments interface?
5. What significance do you think Healthy People 2020 will have in the years ahead?
.
Assignment 1 Victims’ RightsThe death penalty is one of the mos.docxBenitoSumpter862
Assignment 1: Victims’ Rights
The death penalty is one of the most controversial topics in the criminal justice system. In the US criminal justice system, the government represents the victim. At the time of sentencing, many states allow victim impact statements. There are additional issues to consider in the application of the death penalty. Some of these issues are race, age, and cost.
Use the Argosy University Online Library resources to research the role of the victims in sentencing a defendant.
Submission Details:
By
June 28
, 2017
, post your responses to the following topics to this
Discussion Area
.
Discuss what you learned, focusing on such topics as racial disparity, juveniles, and victim impact statements. Be sure to cite your sources of information in the APA style.
Describe a specific case you learned about in the news where victims' rights figured prominently (either in a positive or in a negative way).
.
Assignment 1 Unreasonable Searches and SeizuresThe Fourth Amend.docxBenitoSumpter862
Assignment 1: Unreasonable Searches and Seizures
The Fourth Amendment to the US Constitution protects citizens' rights to be free from unreasonable governmental intrusion. The text of the amendment reads: "The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized."
There are many legal safeguards in place to ensure that police officers interfere with citizens' Fourth Amendment rights under limited circumstances. In Centervale, there have been several citizen complaints about Fourth Amendment violations by the local police department. The Centervale chief of police, Charles Draper, has determined that the behavior of some police officers reveals a lack of consistent understanding of the criminal justice concepts dealing with the Fourth Amendment prohibition against unreasonable searches and unreasonable seizures.
Submission Details:
By
Monday
, post to the
Discussion Area
your response to the following:
Explain what constitutes an unreasonable search or seizure.
Use examples to support your response.
Explain how the exclusionary rule and fruit of the poisonous tree apply.
.
How to Add Chatter in the odoo 17 ERP ModuleCeline George
In Odoo, the chatter is like a chat tool that helps you work together on records. You can leave notes and track things, making it easier to talk with your team and partners. Inside chatter, all communication history, activity, and changes will be displayed.
A review of the growth of the Israel Genealogy Research Association Database Collection for the last 12 months. Our collection is now passed the 3 million mark and still growing. See which archives have contributed the most. See the different types of records we have, and which years have had records added. You can also see what we have for the future.
How to Setup Warehouse & Location in Odoo 17 InventoryCeline George
In this slide, we'll explore how to set up warehouses and locations in Odoo 17 Inventory. This will help us manage our stock effectively, track inventory levels, and streamline warehouse operations.
it describes the bony anatomy including the femoral head , acetabulum, labrum . also discusses the capsule , ligaments . muscle that act on the hip joint and the range of motion are outlined. factors affecting hip joint stability and weight transmission through the joint are summarized.
This slide is special for master students (MIBS & MIFB) in UUM. Also useful for readers who are interested in the topic of contemporary Islamic banking.
ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, and GDPR: Best Practices for Implementation and...PECB
Denis is a dynamic and results-driven Chief Information Officer (CIO) with a distinguished career spanning information systems analysis and technical project management. With a proven track record of spearheading the design and delivery of cutting-edge Information Management solutions, he has consistently elevated business operations, streamlined reporting functions, and maximized process efficiency.
Certified as an ISO/IEC 27001: Information Security Management Systems (ISMS) Lead Implementer, Data Protection Officer, and Cyber Risks Analyst, Denis brings a heightened focus on data security, privacy, and cyber resilience to every endeavor.
His expertise extends across a diverse spectrum of reporting, database, and web development applications, underpinned by an exceptional grasp of data storage and virtualization technologies. His proficiency in application testing, database administration, and data cleansing ensures seamless execution of complex projects.
What sets Denis apart is his comprehensive understanding of Business and Systems Analysis technologies, honed through involvement in all phases of the Software Development Lifecycle (SDLC). From meticulous requirements gathering to precise analysis, innovative design, rigorous development, thorough testing, and successful implementation, he has consistently delivered exceptional results.
Throughout his career, he has taken on multifaceted roles, from leading technical project management teams to owning solutions that drive operational excellence. His conscientious and proactive approach is unwavering, whether he is working independently or collaboratively within a team. His ability to connect with colleagues on a personal level underscores his commitment to fostering a harmonious and productive workplace environment.
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LAND USE LAND COVER AND NDVI OF MIRZAPUR DISTRICT, UPRAHUL
This Dissertation explores the particular circumstances of Mirzapur, a region located in the
core of India. Mirzapur, with its varied terrains and abundant biodiversity, offers an optimal
environment for investigating the changes in vegetation cover dynamics. Our study utilizes
advanced technologies such as GIS (Geographic Information Systems) and Remote sensing to
analyze the transformations that have taken place over the course of a decade.
The complex relationship between human activities and the environment has been the focus
of extensive research and worry. As the global community grapples with swift urbanization,
population expansion, and economic progress, the effects on natural ecosystems are becoming
more evident. A crucial element of this impact is the alteration of vegetation cover, which plays a
significant role in maintaining the ecological equilibrium of our planet.Land serves as the foundation for all human activities and provides the necessary materials for
these activities. As the most crucial natural resource, its utilization by humans results in different
'Land uses,' which are determined by both human activities and the physical characteristics of the
land.
The utilization of land is impacted by human needs and environmental factors. In countries
like India, rapid population growth and the emphasis on extensive resource exploitation can lead
to significant land degradation, adversely affecting the region's land cover.
Therefore, human intervention has significantly influenced land use patterns over many
centuries, evolving its structure over time and space. In the present era, these changes have
accelerated due to factors such as agriculture and urbanization. Information regarding land use and
cover is essential for various planning and management tasks related to the Earth's surface,
providing crucial environmental data for scientific, resource management, policy purposes, and
diverse human activities.
Accurate understanding of land use and cover is imperative for the development planning
of any area. Consequently, a wide range of professionals, including earth system scientists, land
and water managers, and urban planners, are interested in obtaining data on land use and cover
changes, conversion trends, and other related patterns. The spatial dimensions of land use and
cover support policymakers and scientists in making well-informed decisions, as alterations in
these patterns indicate shifts in economic and social conditions. Monitoring such changes with the
help of Advanced technologies like Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems is
crucial for coordinated efforts across different administrative levels. Advanced technologies like
Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems
9
Changes in vegetation cover refer to variations in the distribution, composition, and overall
structure of plant communities across different temporal and spatial scales. These changes can
occur natural.
বাংলাদেশের অর্থনৈতিক সমীক্ষা ২০২৪ [Bangladesh Economic Review 2024 Bangla.pdf] কম্পিউটার , ট্যাব ও স্মার্ট ফোন ভার্সন সহ সম্পূর্ণ বাংলা ই-বুক বা pdf বই " সুচিপত্র ...বুকমার্ক মেনু 🔖 ও হাইপার লিংক মেনু 📝👆 যুক্ত ..
আমাদের সবার জন্য খুব খুব গুরুত্বপূর্ণ একটি বই ..বিসিএস, ব্যাংক, ইউনিভার্সিটি ভর্তি ও যে কোন প্রতিযোগিতা মূলক পরীক্ষার জন্য এর খুব ইম্পরট্যান্ট একটি বিষয় ...তাছাড়া বাংলাদেশের সাম্প্রতিক যে কোন ডাটা বা তথ্য এই বইতে পাবেন ...
তাই একজন নাগরিক হিসাবে এই তথ্য গুলো আপনার জানা প্রয়োজন ...।
বিসিএস ও ব্যাংক এর লিখিত পরীক্ষা ...+এছাড়া মাধ্যমিক ও উচ্চমাধ্যমিকের স্টুডেন্টদের জন্য অনেক কাজে আসবে ...
Main Java[All of the Base Concepts}.docxadhitya5119
This is part 1 of my Java Learning Journey. This Contains Custom methods, classes, constructors, packages, multithreading , try- catch block, finally block and more.
How to Build a Module in Odoo 17 Using the Scaffold MethodCeline George
Odoo provides an option for creating a module by using a single line command. By using this command the user can make a whole structure of a module. It is very easy for a beginner to make a module. There is no need to make each file manually. This slide will show how to create a module using the scaffold method.
12 AmERIcAN EdUcATOR SPRING 2012Principles of Instr
1. 12 AmERIcAN EdUcATOR | SPRING 2012
Principles of Instruction
Research-Based Strategies That All Teachers Should Know
By Barak Rosenshine
T
his article presents 10 research-based principles of
instruction, along with suggestions for classroom prac-
tice. These principles come from three sources: (a)
research in cognitive science, (b) research on master
teachers, and (c) research on cognitive supports. Each is briefly
explained below.
A: Research in cognitive science: This research focuses on how
our brains acquire and use information. This cognitive research
also provides suggestions on how we might overcome the
limita-
tions of our working memory (i.e., the mental “space” in which
thinking occurs) when learning new material.
B: Research on the classroom practices of master teachers: Mas-
ter teachers are those teachers whose classrooms made the high-
est gains on achievement tests. In a series of studies, a wide
range
of teachers were observed as they taught, and the investigators
coded how they presented new material, how and whether they
checked for student understanding, the types of support they
provided to their students, and a number of other instructional
activities. By also gathering student achievement data, research-
2. ers were able to identify the ways in which the more and less
effec-
tive teachers differed.
C: Research on cognitive supports to help students learn
complex
tasks: Effective instructional procedures—such as thinking
aloud,
providing students with scaffolds, and providing students with
models—come from this research.
Even though these are three very different bodies of research,
there is no conflict at all between the instructional suggestions
that come from each of these three sources. In other words,
these
three sources supplement and complement each other. The fact
that the instructional ideas from three different sources supple -
ment and complement each other gives us faith in the validity of
these findings.
Education involves helping a novice develop strong, readily
accessible background knowledge. It’s important that
background
knowledge be readily accessible, and this occurs when
knowledge
is well rehearsed and tied to other knowledge. The most
effective
teachers ensured that their students efficiently acquired,
rehearsed, and connected background knowledge by providing
a good deal of instructional support. They provided this support
by teaching new material in manageable amounts, modeling,
guiding student practice, helping students when they made
errors,
and providing for sufficient practice and review. Many of these
teachers also went on to experiential, hands-on activities, but
they
3. always did the experiential activities after, not before, the basic
material was learned.
The following is a list of some of the instructional principles
that have come from these three sources. These ideas will be
described and discussed in this article:
• Begin a lesson with a short review of previous learning.1
• Present new material in small steps with student practice after
each step.2
• Ask a large number of questions and check the responses of all
students.3
• Provide models.4
• Guide student practice.5
• Check for student understanding.6
• Obtain a high success rate.7
• Provide scaffolds for difficult tasks.8
• Require and monitor independent practice.9
• Engage students in weekly and monthly review.10
Barak Rosenshine is an emeritus professor of educational
psychology in the
College of Education at the University of Illinois at Urbana-
Champaign.
A distinguished researcher, he has spent much of the past four
decades
identifying the hallmarks of effective teaching. He began his
4. career as a
high school history teacher in the Chicago public schools. This
article is
adapted with permission from Principles of Instruction by Barak
Rosen-
shine. Published by the International Academy of Education in
2010, the
original report is available at
www.ibe.unesco.org/fileadmin/user_upload/
Publications/Educational_Practices/EdPractices_21.pdf.I LL
U
ST
R
A
T
IO
N
S
B
Y
J
A
m
E
S
Y
A
5. N
G
www.ibe.unesco.org/fileadmin/user_upload/Publications/Educat
ional_Practices/EdPractices_21.pdf
AmERIcAN EdUcATOR | SPRING 2012 13
1. Begin a lesson with a short review of previous
learning: Daily review can strengthen previous
learning and can lead to fluent recall.
Research findings
Daily review is an important component of instruction. Review
can help us strengthen the connections among the material we
have learned. The review of previous learning can help us recall
words, concepts, and procedures effortlessly and automatically
when we need this material to solve problems or to understand
new material. The development of expertise requires thousands
of hours of practice, and daily review is one component of this
practice.
For example, daily review was part of a successful experiment
in elementary school mathematics. Teachers in the experiment
were taught to spend eight minutes every day on review.
Teachers
used this time to check the homework, go over problems where
there were errors, and practice the concepts and skills that
needed
to become automatic. As a result, students in these classrooms
had higher achievement scores than did students in other
classrooms.
Daily practice of vocabulary can lead to seeing each practiced
word as a unit (i.e., seeing the whole word automatically rather
6. than as individual letters that have to be sounded out and
blended). When students see words as units, they have more
space available in their working memory, and this space can
now
be used for comprehension. Mathematical problem solving is
also
improved when the basic skills (addition, multiplication, etc.)
are
overlearned and become automatic, thus freeing working-mem-
ory capacity.
In the classroom
The most effective teachers in the studies of classroom
instruction
understood the importance of practice, and they began their les -
sons with a five- to eight-minute review of previously covered
material. Some teachers reviewed vocabulary, formulae, events,
or previously learned concepts. These teachers provided addi -
tional practice on facts and skills that were needed for recall to
become automatic.
Effective teacher activities also included reviewing the con-
cepts and skills that were necessary to do the homework, having
students correct each others’ papers, and asking about points on
which the students had difficulty or made errors. These reviews
ensured that the students had a firm grasp of the skills and con-
cepts that would be needed for the day’s lesson.
Effective teachers also reviewed the knowledge and concepts
that were relevant for that day’s lesson. It is important for a
teacher
to help students recall the concepts and vocabulary that will be
relevant for the day’s lesson because our working memory is
very
limited. If we do not review previous learning, then we will
7. have
to make a special effort to recall old material while learning
new
material, and this makes it difficult for us to learn the new
material.
Daily review is particularly important for teaching material that
will be used in subsequent learning. Examples include reading
sight words (i.e., any word that is known by a reader automati -
cally), grammar, math facts, math computation, math factoring,
and chemical equations.
When planning for review, teachers might want to consider
which words, math facts, procedures, and concepts need to
become automatic, and which words, vocabulary, or ideas need
to be reviewed before the lesson begins.
In addition, teachers might consider doing the following dur-
ing their daily review:
• Correct homework.
• Review the concepts and skills that were practiced as part of
the homework.
• Ask students about points where they had difficulties or made
errors.
• Review material where errors were made.
• Review material that needs overlearning (i.e., newly acquired
skills should be practiced well beyond the point of initial mas -
tery, leading to automaticity).
2. Present new material in small steps with student
practice after each step: Only present small amounts
8. of new material at any time, and then assist students
as they practice this material.
Research findings
Our working memory, the place where we process information,
is small. It can only handle a few bits of information at once—
too
much information swamps our working memory. Presenting too
much material at once may confuse students because their work-
ing memory will be unable to process it.
Therefore, the more effective teachers do not overwhelm their
students by presenting too much new material at once. Rather,
The most effective teachers ensured
that students efficiently acquired,
rehearsed, and connected knowledge.
many went on to hands-on activities,
but always after, not before, the basic
material was learned.
14 AmERIcAN EdUcATOR | SPRING 2012
these teachers only present small amounts of new material at
any
time, and then assist the students as they practice this material.
Only after the students have mastered the first step do teachers
proceed to the next step.
The procedure of first teaching in small steps and then guiding
student practice represents an appropriate way of dealing with
the limitation of our working memory.
In the classroom
9. The more successful teachers did not overwhelm their students
by presenting too much new material at once. Rather, they pre-
sented only small amounts of new material at one time, and they
taught in such a way that each point was mastered before the
next
point was introduced. They checked their students’ understand-
ing on each point and retaught material when necessary.
Some successful teachers taught by giving a series of short
presentations using many examples. The examples provided
concrete learning and elaboration that were useful for
processing
new material.
Teaching in small steps requires time, and the more effective
teachers spent more time presenting new material and guiding
student practice than did the less effective teachers. In a study
of
mathematics instruction, for instance, the most effective math-
ematics teachers spent about 23 minutes of a 40-minute period
in lecture, demonstration, questioning, and working examples.
In contrast, the least effective teachers spent only 11 minutes
presenting new material. The more effective teachers used this
extra time to provide additional explanations, give many exam-
ples, check for student understanding, and provide sufficient
instruction so that the students could learn to work
independently
without difficulty. In one study, the least effective teachers
asked
only nine questions in a 40-minute period. Compared with the
successful teachers, the less effective teachers gave much
shorter
presentations and explanations, and then passed out worksheets
and told students to solve the problems. The less successful
teach-
10. ers were then observed going from student to student and having
to explain the material again.
Similarly, when students were taught a strategy for summariz-
ing a paragraph, an effective teacher taught the strategy using
small steps. First, the teacher modeled and thought aloud as she
identified the topic of a paragraph. Then, she led practice on
iden-
tifying the topics of new paragraphs. Then, she taught students
to
identify the main idea of a paragraph. The teacher modeled this
step and then supervised the students as they practiced both
find-
ing the topic and locating the main idea. Following this, the
teacher taught the students to identify the supporting details in a
paragraph. The teacher modeled and thought aloud, and then the
students practiced. Finally, the students practiced carrying out
all
three steps of this strategy. Thus, the strategy of summarizing a
paragraph was divided into smaller steps, and there was
modeling
and practice at each step.
3. Ask a large number of questions and check the
responses of all students: Questions help students
practice new information and connect new material
to their prior learning.
Research findings
Students need to practice new material. The teacher’s questions
and student discussion are a major way of providing this neces -
sary practice. The most successful teachers in these studies
spent
more than half of the class time lecturing, demonstrating, and
asking questions.
11. Questions allow a teacher to determine how well the material
has been learned and whether there is a need for additional
instruction. The most effective teachers also ask students to
explain the process they used to answer the question, to explain
how the answer was found. Less successful teachers ask fewer
questions and almost no process questions.
In the classroom
In one classroom-based experimental study, one group of teach-
ers was taught to follow the presentation of new material with
lots
of questions.11 They were taught to increase the number of
factual
questions and process questions they asked during this guided
practice. Test results showed that their students achieved higher
scores than did students whose teachers did not receive the
training.
Imaginative teachers have found ways to involve all students
in answering questions. Examples include having all students:
• Tell the answer to a neighbor.
• Summarize the main idea in one or two sentences, writing the
summary on a piece of paper and sharing this with a neighbor,
or repeating the procedures to a neighbor.
• Write the answer on a card and then hold it up.
• Raise their hands if they know the answer (thereby allowing
the teacher to check the entire class).
• Raise their hands if they agree with the answer that someone
else has given.
12. Across the classrooms that researchers observed, the purpose
of all these procedures was to provide active participation for
the
students and also to allow the teacher to see how many students
were correct and confident. The teacher may then reteach some
material when it was considered necessary. An alternative was
for
students to write their answers and then trade papers with each
other.
Other teachers used choral responses to provide sufficient
practice when teaching new vocabulary or lists of items. This
made the practice seem more like a game. To be effective, how -
AmERIcAN EdUcATOR | SPRING 2012 15
ever, all students needed to start together, on a signal. When
students did not start together, only the faster students
answered.
In addition to asking questions, the more effective teachers
facilitated their students’ rehearsal by providing explanations,
giving more examples, and supervising students as they
practiced
the new material.
The following is a series of stems12 for questions that teachers
might ask when teaching literature, social science content, or
sci-
ence content to their students. Sometimes, students may also
develop questions from these stems to ask questions of each
other.
How are __________ and __________ alike?
13. What is the main idea of __________?
What are the strengths and weaknesses of __________?
In what way is __________ related to __________?
Compare __________ and __________ with regard to
__________.
What do you think causes __________?
How does __________ tie in with what we have learned before?
Which one is the best __________, and why?
What are some possible solutions for the problem of
__________?
Do you agree or disagree with this statement: __________?
What do you still not understand about __________?
4. Provide models: Providing students with
models and worked examples can help them
learn to solve problems faster.
Research findings
Students need cognitive support to help them learn to solve
prob-
lems. The teacher modeling and thinking aloud while
demonstrat-
ing how to solve a problem are examples of effective cognitive
support. Worked examples (such as a math problem for which
the
teacher not only has provided the solution but has clearly lai d
out
each step) are another form of modeling that has been developed
by researchers. Worked examples allow students to focus on the
specific steps to solve problems and thus reduce the cognitive
load on their working memory. Modeling and worked examples
have been used successfully in mathematics, science, writing,
and
reading comprehension.
In the classroom
14. Many of the skills that are taught in classrooms can be
conveyed
by providing prompts, modeling use of the prompt, and then
guid-
ing students as they develop independence. When teaching read-
ing comprehension strategies, for example, effective teachers
provided students with prompts that the students could use to
ask
themselves questions about a short passage. In one class,
students
were given words such as “who,” “where,” “why,” and “how” to
help them begin a question. Then, everyone read a passage and
the teacher modeled how to use these words to ask questions.
Many examples were given.
Next, during guided practice, the teacher helped the students
practice asking questions by helping them select a prompt and
develop a question that began with that prompt. The students
practiced this step many times with lots of support from the
teacher.
Then, the students read new passages and practiced asking
questions on their own, with support from the teacher when
needed. Finally, students were given short passages followed by
questions, and the teacher expressed an opinion about the
quality
of the students’ questions.
This same procedure—providing a prompt, modeling, guiding
practice, and supervising independent practice—can be used for
many tasks. When teaching students to write an essay, for exam-
ple, an effective teacher first modeled how to write each para-
graph, then the students and teacher worked together on two or
more new essays, and finally students worked on their own with
15. supervision from the teacher.
Worked examples are another form of modeling that has been
used to help students learn how to solve problems in
mathematics
and science. A worked example is a step-by-step demonstration
of how to perform a task or how to solve a problem. The
presenta-
tion of worked examples begins with the teacher modeling and
explaining the steps that can be taken to solve a specific
problem.
The teacher also identifies and explains the underlying
principles
for these steps.
Usually, students are then given a series of problems to com-
plete at their desks as independent practice. But, in research
car-
ried out in Australia, students were given a mixture of problems
to solve and worked examples. So, during independent practice,
students first studied a worked example, then they solved a
prob-
lem ; then they studied another worked example and solved
another problem. In this way, the worked examples showed stu-
dents how to focus on the essential parts of the problems. Of
course, not all students studied the worked examples. To correct
many of the skills taught in classrooms
can be conveyed by providing prompts,
modeling use of the prompt, and then
guiding students as they develop
independence.
16 AmERIcAN EdUcATOR | SPRING 2012
16. this problem, the Australian researchers also presented partially
completed problems in which students had to complete the miss-
ing steps and thus pay more attention to the worked example.
5. Guide student practice: Successful teachers
spend more time guiding students’ practice
of new material.
Research findings
It is not enough simply to present students with new material,
because the material will be forgotten unless there is sufficient
rehearsal. An important finding from information-processing
research is that students need to spend additional time rephras -
ing, elaborating, and summarizing new material in order to store
this material in their long-term memory. When there has been
sufficient rehearsal, the students are able to retrieve this
material
easily and thus are able to make use of this material to foster
new
learning and aid in problem solving. But when the rehearsal
time
is too short, students are less able to store, remember, or use the
material. As we know, it is relatively easy to place something in
a
filing cabinet, but it can be very difficult to recall where exactly
we
filed it. Rehearsal helps us remember where we filed it so we
can
access it with ease when needed.
A teacher can facilitate this rehearsal process by asking ques -
tions; good questions require students to process and rehearse
the
material. Rehearsal is also enhanced when students are asked to
17. summarize the main points, and when they are supervised as
they
practice new steps in a skill. The quality of storage in long-term
memory will be weak if students only skim the material and do
not
engage in it. It is also important that all students process the
new
material and receive feedback, so they do not inadvertently
store
partial information or a misconception in long-term memory.
In the classroom
In one study, the more successful teachers of mathematics spent
more time presenting new material and guiding practice. The
more successful teachers used this extra time to provide addi -
tional explanations, give many examples, check for student
under-
standing, and provide sufficient instruction so that the students
could learn to work independently without difficulty. In
contrast,
the less successful teachers gave much shorter presentations and
explanations, and then they passed out worksheets and told stu-
dents to work on the problems. Under these conditions, the stu-
dents made too many errors and had to be retaught the lesson.
The most successful teachers presented only small amounts of
material at a time. After this short presentation, these teachers
then guided student practice. This guidance often consisted of
the
teacher working the first problems at the blackboard and
explain-
ing the reason for each step, which served as a model for the
students. The guidance also included asking students to come to
the blackboard to work out problems and discuss their proce-
dures. Through this process, the students seated in the
18. classroom
saw additional models.
Although most teachers provided some guided practice, the
most successful teachers spent more time in guided practice,
more time asking questions, more time checking for understand-
ing, more time correcting errors, and more time having students
work out problems with teacher guidance.
Teachers who spent more time in guided practice and had
higher success rates also had students who were more engaged
during individual work at their desks. This finding suggests
that,
when teachers provided sufficient instruction during guided
practice, the students were better prepared for the independent
practice (e.g., seatwork and homework activities), but when the
guided practice was too short, the students were not prepared
for
the seatwork and made more errors during independent
practice.
6. Check for student understanding: Checking
for student understanding at each point can help
students learn the material with fewer errors.
Research findings
The more effective teachers frequently checked to see if all the
students were learning the new material. These checks provided
some of the processing needed to move new learning into long-
term memory. These checks also let teachers know if students
were developing misconceptions.
In the classroom
Effective teachers also stopped to check for student understand-
ing. They checked for understanding by asking questions, by
ask-
19. ing students to summarize the presentation up to that point or to
repeat directions or procedures, or by asking students whether
they agreed or disagreed with other students’ answers. This
check-
ing has two purposes: (a) answering the questions might cause
the students to elaborate on the material they have learned and
augment connections to other learning in their long-term mem-
ory, and (b) alerting the teacher to when parts of the material
need
to be retaught.
In contrast, the less effective teachers simply asked, “Are there
any questions?” and, if there were no questions, they assumed
the
students had learned the material and proceeded to pass out
worksheets for students to complete on their own.
Another way to check for understanding is to ask students to
think aloud as they work to solve mathematical problems, plan
an essay, or identify the main idea in a paragraph. Yet another
check is to ask students to explain or defend their position to
oth-
ers. Having to explain a position may help students integrate
and
elaborate their knowledge in new ways, or may help identify
gaps
in their understanding.
AmERIcAN EdUcATOR | SPRING 2012 17
Another reason for the importance of teaching in small steps,
guiding practice, and checking for understanding (as well as
obtaining a high success rate, which we’ll explore in principle
7)
20. comes from the fact that we all construct and reconstruct knowl -
edge as we learn and use what we have learned. We cannot
simply
repeat what we hear word for word. Rather, we connect our
under-
standing of the new information to our existing concepts or
“schema,” and we then construct a mental summary (i.e., the
gist
of what we have heard). However, when left on their own, many
students make errors in the process of constructing this mental
summary. These errors occur, particularly, when the information
is new and the student does not have adequate or well -formed
background knowledge. These constructions are not errors so
much as attempts by the students to be logical in an area where
their background knowledge is weak. These errors are so
common
that there is a research literature on the development and
correc-
tion of student misconceptions in science. Providing guided
practice after teaching small amounts of new material, and
check-
ing for student understanding, can help limit the development of
misconceptions.
7. Obtain a high success rate: It is important
for students to achieve a high success rate
during classroom instruction.
Research findings
In two of the major studies on the impact of teachers, the
investi-
gators found that students in classrooms with more effective
teachers had a higher success rate, as judged by the quality of
their
oral responses during guided practice and their individual work.
21. In a study of fourth-grade mathematics, it was found that 82
per-
cent of students’ answers were correct in the classrooms of the
most successful teachers, but the least successful teachers had a
success rate of only 73 percent. A high success rate during
guided
practice also leads to a higher success rate when students are
working on problems on their own.
The research also suggests that the optimal success rate for
fostering student achievement appears to be about 80 percent. A
success rate of 80 percent shows that students are learning the
material, and it also shows that the students are challenged.
In the classroom
The most effective teachers obtained this success level by
teaching
in small steps (i.e., by combining short presentations with
super-
vised student practice), and by giving sufficient practice on
each
part before proceeding to the next step. These teachers
frequently
checked for understanding and required responses from all
students.
It is important that students achieve a high success rate during
instruction and on their practice activities. Practice, we are told,
makes perfect, but practice can be a disaster if students are
prac-
ticing errors! If the practice does not have a high success level,
there is a chance that students are practicing and learning
errors.
Once errors have been learned, they are ver y difficult to
overcome.
22. As discussed in the previous section, when we learn new mate-
rial, we construct a gist of this material in our long-term
memory.
However, many students make errors in the process of
construct-
ing this mental summary. These errors can occur when the
infor-
mation is new and the student did not have adequate or
well-formed background knowledge. These constructions are not
errors so much as attempts by the students to be logical in an
area
where their background knowledge is weak. But students are
more
likely to develop misconceptions if too much material is
presented
at once, and if teachers do not check for student understanding.
Providing guided practice after teaching small amounts of new
material, and checking for student understanding, can help limit
the development of misconceptions.
I once observed a class where an effective teacher was going
from desk to desk during independent practice and suddenly
realized that the students were having difficulty. She stopped
the
work, told the students not to do the problems for homework,
and
said she would reteach this material the next day. She stopped
the
work because she did not want the students to practice errors.
Unless all students have mastered the first set of lessons, there
is a danger that the slower students will fall further behind
when
the next set of lessons is taught. So there is a need for a high
23. suc-
cess rate for all students. “Mastery learning” is a form of
instruc-
tion where lessons are organized into short units and all
students
are required to master one set of lessons before they proceed to
the next set. In mastery learning, tutoring by other students or
by
teachers is provided to help students master each unit.
variations
of this approach, particularly the tutoring, might be useful in
many classroom settings.
The most successful teachers spent
more time in guided practice, more
time asking questions, more time
checking for understanding, and more
time correcting errors.
18 AmERIcAN EdUcATOR | SPRING 2012
8. Provide scaffolds for difficult tasks: The teacher
provides students with temporary supports and
scaffolds to assist them when they learn difficult tasks.
Research findings
Investigators have successfully provided students with
scaffolds,
or instructional supports, to help them learn difficult tasks. A
scaf-
fold is a temporary support that is used to assist a learner.
These
scaffolds are gradually withdrawn as learners become more
com-
24. petent, although students may continue to rely on scaffolds
when
they encounter particularly difficult problems. Providing
scaffolds
is a form of guided practice.
Scaffolds include modeling the steps by the teacher, or thinking
aloud by the teacher as he or she solves the problem. Scaffolds
also may be tools, such as cue cards or checklists, that complete
part of the task for the students, or a model of the completed
task
against which students can compare their own work.
The process of helping students solve difficult problems by
modeling and providing scaffolds has been called “cognitive
apprenticeship.” Students learn strategies and content during
this
apprenticeship that enable them to become competent readers,
writers, and problem solvers. They are aided by a master who
models, coaches, provides supports, and scaffolds them as they
become independent.
In the classroom
One form of scaffolding is to give students prompts for steps
they
might use. Prompts such as “who,” “why,” and “how” have
helped
students learn to ask questions while they read. Teaching
students
to ask questions has been shown to help students’ reading
comprehension.
Similarly, one researcher developed the following prompt to
help students organize material.13
1. Draw a central box and write the title of the article in it.
25. 2. Skim the article to find four to six main ideas.
3. Write each main idea in a box below the central box.
4. Find and write two to four important details to list under each
main idea.
Another form of scaffolding is thinking aloud by the teacher.
For example, teachers might think aloud as they try to
summarize
a paragraph. They would show the thought processes they go
through as they determine the topic of the paragraph and then
use the topic to generate a summary sentence. Teachers might
think aloud while solving a scientific equation or writing an
essay,
and at the same time provide labels for their mental processes.
Such thinking aloud provides novice learners with a way to
observe “expert thinking” that is usually hidden from the
student.
Teachers also can study their students’ thought processes by
ask-
ing them to think aloud during problem solving.
One characteristic of effective teachers is their ability to antici -
pate students’ errors and warn them about possible errors some
of them are likely to make. For example, a teacher might have
students read a passage and then give them a poorly written
topic
sentence to correct. In teaching division or subtraction, the
teacher may show and discuss with students the mistakes other
students have frequently made.
In some of the studies, students were given a checklist to evalu-
ate their work. Checklist items included “Have I found the most
important information that tells me more about the main idea?”
and “Does every sentence start with a capital letter?” The
26. teacher
then modeled use of the checklist.
In some studies, students were provided with expert models
with which they could compare their work. For example, when
students were taught to generate questions, they could compare
their questions with those generated by the teacher. Similarly,
when learning to write summaries, students could compare their
summaries on a passage with those generated by an expert.
9. Require and monitor independent practice: Students
need extensive, successful, independent practice in
order for skills and knowledge to become automatic.
Research findings
In a typical teacher-led classroom, guided practice is followed
by
independent practice—by students working alone and practicing
the new material. This independent practice is necessary
because
a good deal of practice (overlearning) is needed in order to
become fluent and automatic in a skill. When material is over -
learned, it can be recalled automatically and doesn’t take up any
space in working memory. When students become automatic in
an area, they can then devote more of their attention to compre-
hension and application.
Independent practice provides students with the additional
review and elaboration they need to become fluent. This need
for
fluency applies to facts, concepts, and discriminations that must
be used in subsequent learning. Fluency is also needed in opera -
tions, such as dividing decimals, conjugating a regular verb in a
foreign language, or completing and balancing a chemical
equation.
27. One characteristic of effective
teachers is their ability to anticipate
students’ errors and warn them
about possible errors some of them
are likely to make.
AmERIcAN EdUcATOR | SPRING 2012 19
In the classroom
The more successful teachers provided for extensive and
success-
ful practice, both in the classroom and after class. Independent
practice should involve the same material as the guided
practice.
If guided practice deals with identifying types of sentences, for
example, then independent practice should deal with the same
topic or, perhaps, with a slight variation, like creating
individual
compound and complex sentences. It would be inappropriate if
the independent practice asked the students to do an activity
such
as “Write a paragraph using two compound and two complex
sentences,” however, because the students have not been ade-
quately prepared for such an activity.
Students need to be fully prepared for their independent prac-
tice. Sometimes, it may be appropriate for a teacher to practice
some of the seatwork problems with the entire class before stu-
dents begin independent practice.
Research has found that students were more engaged when
their teacher circulated around the room, and monitored and
supervised their seatwork. The optimal time for these contacts
28. was 30 seconds or less. Classrooms where the teachers had to
stop
at students’ desks and provide a great deal of explanation
during
seatwork were the classrooms where students were making
errors.
These errors occurred because the guided practice was not suf-
ficient for students to engage productively in independent prac -
tice. This reiterates the importance of adequately preparing
students before they begin their independent practice.
Some investigators14 have developed procedures, such as
cooperative learning, during which students help each other as
they study. Research has shown that all students tend to achieve
more in these settings than do students in regular settings. Pre-
sumably, some of the advantage comes from having to explain
the
material to someone else and/or having someone else (other
than
the teacher) explain the material to the student. Cooperative
learning offers an opportunity for students to get feedback from
their peers about correct as well as incorrect responses, which
promotes both engagement and learning. These cooperative/
competitive settings are also valuable for helping slower
students
in a class by providing extra instruction for them.
10. Engage students in weekly and monthly
review: Students need to be involved in extensive
practice in order to develop well-connected and
automatic knowledge.
Research findings
Students need extensive and broad reading, and extensive prac-
tice in order to develop well-connected networks of ideas (sche-
mas) in their long-term memory. When one’s knowledge on a
29. particular topic is large and well connected, it is easier to learn
new information and prior knowledge is more readily available
for use. The more one rehearses and reviews information, the
stronger these interconnections become. It is also easier to solve
new problems when one has a rich, well-connected body of
knowledge and strong ties among the connections. One of the
goals of education is to help students develop extensive and
avail-
able background knowledge.
Knowledge (even very extensive knowledge) stored in long-
term memory that is organized into patterns only occupies a tiny
amount of space in our limited working memory. So having
larger
and better-connected patterns of knowledge frees up space in
our
working memory. This available space can be used for
reflecting
on new information and for problem solving. The development
of well-connected patterns (also called “unitization” and
“chunk-
ing”) and the freeing of space in the working memory is one of
the
hallmarks of an expert in a field.
Thus, research on cognitive processing supports the need for
a teacher to assist students by providing for extensive reading
of
a variety of materials, frequent review, and discussion and
appli-
cation activities. The research on cognitive processing suggests
that these classroom activities help students increase the
number
of pieces of information in their long-term memory and
organize
30. this information into patterns and chunks.
The more one rehearses and reviews information, the stronger
the interconnections between the materials become. Review also
helps students develop their new knowledge into patterns, and it
The best way to become an expert
is through practice—thousands of
hours of practice. The more the
practice, the better the
performance.
The following list of 17 principles emerges from the research
discussed in the main article. It overlaps with, and offers
slightly more detail than, the 10 principles used to organize
that article.
• Begin a lesson with a short review of previous learning.
• Present new material in small steps with student practice
after each step.
• Limit the amount of material students receive at one
time.
• Give clear and detailed instructions and explanations.
• Ask a large number of questions and check for
understanding.
• Provide a high level of active practice for all students.
• Guide students as they begin to practice.
• Think aloud and model steps.
• Provide models of worked-out problems.
• Ask students to explain what they have learned.
• check the responses of all students.
• Provide systematic feedback and corrections.
• Use more time to provide explanations.
31. • Provide many examples.
• Reteach material when necessary.
• Prepare students for independent practice.
• monitor students when they begin independent practice.
–B.R.
17 Principles of
Effective Instruction
(Continued on page 39)
AMERICAN EDUCATOR | SPRING 2012 39
helps them acquire the ability to recall past
learning automatically.
The best way to become an expert is
through practice—thousands of hours of
practice. The more the practice, the better
the performance.
In the classroom
Many successful programs, especially in
the elementary grades, provided for exten-
sive review. One way of achieving this goal
is to review the previous week’s work every
Monday and the previous month’s work
ever y fourth Monday. Some effective
teachers also gave tests after their reviews.
Research has found that even at the sec-
ondary level, classes that had weekly quiz-
zes scored better on final exams than did
classes with only one or two quizzes during
32. the term. These reviews and tests provided
the additional practice students needed to
become skilled, successful performers who
could apply their knowledge and skills in
new areas.
Teachers face a difficult problem when
they need to cover a lot of material and
don’t feel they have the time for sufficient
review. But the research states (and we all
know from personal experience) that
material that is not adequately practiced
and reviewed is easily forgotten.
T
he 10 principles in this article
c o m e f r o m t h r e e d i f f e r e n t
sources : research on how the
mind acquires and uses informa-
tion, the instructional procedures that are
used by the most successful teachers, and
the procedures invented by researchers to
help students learn difficult tasks. The
research from each of these three sources
has implications for classroom instruction,
and these implications are described in
each of these 10 principles.
Even though these principles come
from three different sources, the instruc-
tional procedures that are taken from one
source do not conflict with the instruc-
tional procedures that are taken from
another source. Instead, the ideas from
each of the sources overlap and add to each
33. other. This overlap gives us faith that we are
developing a valid and research-based
understanding of the art of teaching. ☐
Endnotes
1. Suggested readings: George A. Miller, “The Magical
Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on Our
Capacity for Processing Information,” Psychological Review
63, no. 2 (1956): 81–97; and David LaBerge and S. Jay
Samuels, “Toward a Theory of Automatic Information
Processing in Reading,” Cognitive Psychology 6, no. 2
(1974): 293–323.
2. Suggested readings: Carolyn M. Evertson, Charles W.
Anderson, Linda M. Anderson, and Jere E. Brophy,
“Relationships between Classroom Behaviors and Student
Outcomes in Junior High Mathematics and English Classes,”
American Educational Research Journal 17, no. 1 (1980):
43–60; and Thomas L. Good and Jere E. Brophy, Educational
Psychology: A Realistic Approach, 4th ed. (New York:
Longman, 1990).
3. Suggested readings: Thomas L. Good and Douglas A.
Grouws, “The Missouri Mathematics Effectiveness Project,”
Journal of Educational Psychology 71, no. 3 (1979):
355–362; and Alison King, “Guiding Knowledge
Construction in the Classroom: Effects of Teaching Children
How to Question and How to Explain,” American
Educational Research Journal 31, no. 2 (1994): 338–368.
4. Suggested readings: John Sweller, “Cognitive Load
Theory, Learning Difficulty, and Instructional Design,”
Learning and Instruction 4, no. 4 (1994): 295–312; Barak
Rosenshine, Carla Meister, and Saul Chapman, “Teaching
Students to Generate Questions: A Review of the
Intervention Studies,” Review of Educational Research 66,
34. no. 2 (1996): 181–221; and Alan H. Schoenfeld,
Mathematical Problem Solving (New York: Academic Press,
1985).
5. Suggested readings: Evertson et al., “Relationships
between Classroom Behaviors and Student Outcomes”; and
Paul A. Kirschner, John Sweller, and Richard E. Clark, “Why
Minimal Guidance during Instruction Does Not Work: An
Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery,
Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching,”
Educational Psychologist 41, no. 2 (2006): 75–86.
6. Suggested readings: Douglas Fisher and Nancy Frey,
Checking for Understanding: Formative Assessment
Techniques for Your Classroom (Alexandria, VA: Association
for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 2007); and
Michael J. Dunkin, “Student Characteristics, Classroom
Processes, and Student Achievement,” Journal of
Educational Psychology 70, no. 6 (1978): 998–1009.
7. Suggested readings: Lorin W. Anderson and Robert B.
Burns, “Values, Evidence, and Mastery Learning,” Review of
Educational Research 57, no. 2 (1987): 215–223; and
Norman Frederiksen, “Implications of Cognitive Theory for
Instruction in Problem Solving,” Review of Educational
Research 54, no. 3 (1984): 363–407.
8. Suggested readings: Michael Pressley and Vera Woloshyn,
Cognitive Strategy Instruction that Really Improves Children’s
Academic Performance, 2nd ed. (Cambridge, MA: Brookline
Books, 1995); and Barak Rosenshine and Carla Meister, “The
Use of Scaffolds for Teaching Higher-Level Cognitive
Strategies,” Educational Leadership 49, no. 7 (April 1992):
26–33.
9. Suggested readings: Barak Rosenshine, “The Empirical
35. Support for Direct Instruction,” in Constructivist Instruction:
Success or Failure? ed. Sigmund Tobias and Thomas M.
Duffy (New York: Routledge, 2009), 201–220; and Robert E.
Slavin, Education for All (Exton, PA: Swets and Zeitlinger,
1996).
10. Suggested readings: Good and Grouws, “The Missouri
Mathematics Effectiveness Project”; and James A. Kulik and
Chen-Lin C. Kulik, “College Teaching,” in Research on
Teaching: Concepts, Findings, and Implications, ed. Penelope
L. Peterson and Herbert J. Walberg (Berkeley, CA:
McCutchan, 1979).
11. Good and Grouws, “The Missouri Mathematics
Effectiveness Project.”
12. These stems were developed by King, “Guiding
Knowledge Construction in the Classroom.”
13. Sandra J. Berkowitz, “Effects of Instruction in Text
Organization on Sixth-Grade Students’ Memory for
Expository Reading,” Reading Research Quarterly 21, no. 2
(1986): 161–178. For additional strategies to help students
organize material, see Wisconsin Department of Public
Instruction, Strategic Learning in the Content Areas
(Madison, WI: Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction,
2005).
14. Slavin, Education for All.
Principles
(Continued from page 19)
INTENTIONALLY
LEFT BLANK
36. 2
2
Personal Philosophy and Theoretical Concepts Draft
Your Name
South University
NSG5002 Advanced Theorical Perspective for Nursing
Week 2 Project
Your Professor’s Name
MMDDYYYY
Personal Philosophy and Theoretical Concepts
2-3 sentences about your paper (introduce the paper in general).
Autobiography
Describe your professional background with personal history
that is pertinent to you as a professional. It should not include
future goals. It should be about a page long.
The Four Metaparadigms
This is where you discuss what metaparadigms are (in general)
37. and introduce the topics. It needs to be about three to four
sentences long. Do not relate these to your theory.
Patient.
Here you write three to four sentences on what a patient is –
according to your textbook or in general. Do not make this part
theory-specific.
Environment.
Here you write three to four sentences on what environment
means – according to your textbook or in general. Do not make
this part theory-specific.
Nursing.
Here you write three to four sentences on what nursing means –
according to your textbook or in general. Do not make this part
theory-specific.
Health.
Here you write three to four sentences on what health is –
according to your textbook or in general. Do not make this part
theory-specific.
Two Practice-Specific Concepts
Three or four sentences to introduce your theory (including the
concepts the theorist lists). Then mention the two concepts you
chose from the theory that are relevant to your practice.
Name of First Concept
Discuss the meaning of the first concept from other sources.
Then discuss how the theorist defines the concept. Then a few
sentences on how the concept applies to your clinical practice.
Name of Second Concept
Discuss the meaning of the second concept from other sources.
Then discuss how the theorist defines the concept. Then a few
sentences on how the concept applies to your clinical practice.
Conclusion
Three to four sentences to summarize your paper.
38. References
Bredow, T. S., Peterson, S.J. (2017). Middle range theories:
Application to nursing research and practice (4th ed.). Wolters
Kluwer.
Butts, J. B., & Rich, K. L. (2017). Philosophies and theories for
advanced nursing practice (3rd ed.). Jones & Bartlett Learning.
Choi, E., & Moore, G. (2020). A case for cultural
awareness. The Journal for Nurse Practitioners, 16(2), 163–164.
https://doi-org.su.idm.oclc.org/10.1016/j.nurpra. 2019.11.012
Peterson, S. J., & Bredow, T. S. (2016). Middle range theories:
Application to nursing research (4th ed.). Lippincott Williams
& Wilkins.
V013121
12 AmERIcAN EdUcATOR | SPRING 2012
Principles of Instruction
Research-Based Strategies That All Teachers Should Know
By Barak Rosenshine
39. T
his article presents 10 research-based principles of
instruction, along with suggestions for classroom prac-
tice. These principles come from three sources: (a)
research in cognitive science, (b) research on master
teachers, and (c) research on cognitive supports. Each is briefly
explained below.
A: Research in cognitive science: This research focuses on how
our brains acquire and use information. This cognitive research
also provides suggestions on how we might overcome the
limita-
tions of our working memory (i.e., the mental “space” in which
thinking occurs) when learning new material.
B: Research on the classroom practices of master teachers: Mas -
ter teachers are those teachers whose classrooms made the high-
est gains on achievement tests. In a series of studies, a wide
range
of teachers were observed as they taught, and the investigators
coded how they presented new material, how and whether they
checked for student understanding, the types of support they
provided to their students, and a number of other instructional
activities. By also gathering student achievement data, research-
ers were able to identify the ways in which the more and less
effec-
tive teachers differed.
C: Research on cognitive supports to help students learn
complex
tasks: Effective instructional procedures—such as thinking
aloud,
providing students with scaffolds, and providing students with
models—come from this research.
40. Even though these are three very different bodies of research,
there is no conflict at all between the instructional suggestions
that come from each of these three sources. In other words,
these
three sources supplement and complement each other. The fact
that the instructional ideas from three different sources supple -
ment and complement each other gives us faith in the validity of
these findings.
Education involves helping a novice develop strong, readily
accessible background knowledge. It’s important that
background
knowledge be readily accessible, and this occurs when
knowledge
is well rehearsed and tied to other knowledge. The most
effective
teachers ensured that their students efficiently acquired,
rehearsed, and connected background knowledge by providing
a good deal of instructional support. They provided this support
by teaching new material in manageable amounts, modeling,
guiding student practice, helping students when they made
errors,
and providing for sufficient practice and review. Many of these
teachers also went on to experiential, hands-on activities, but
they
always did the experiential activities after, not before, the basic
material was learned.
The following is a list of some of the instructional principles
that have come from these three sources. These ideas will be
described and discussed in this article:
• Begin a lesson with a short review of previous learning.1
• Present new material in small steps with student practice after
41. each step.2
• Ask a large number of questions and check the responses of all
students.3
• Provide models.4
• Guide student practice.5
• Check for student understanding.6
• Obtain a high success rate.7
• Provide scaffolds for difficult tasks.8
• Require and monitor independent practice.9
• Engage students in weekly and monthly review.10
Barak Rosenshine is an emeritus professor of educational
psychology in the
College of Education at the University of Illinois at Urbana-
Champaign.
A distinguished researcher, he has spent much of the past four
decades
identifying the hallmarks of effective teaching. He began his
career as a
high school history teacher in the Chicago public schools. This
article is
adapted with permission from Principles of Instruction by Barak
Rosen-
shine. Published by the International Academy of Education in
2010, the
original report is available at
www.ibe.unesco.org/fileadmin/user_upload/
Publications/Educational_Practices/EdPractices_21.pdf.ILL
43. learning: Daily review can strengthen previous
learning and can lead to fluent recall.
Research findings
Daily review is an important component of instruction. Revi ew
can help us strengthen the connections among the material we
have learned. The review of previous learning can help us recall
words, concepts, and procedures effortlessly and automatically
when we need this material to solve problems or to understand
new material. The development of expertise requires thousands
of hours of practice, and daily review is one component of this
practice.
For example, daily review was part of a successful experiment
in elementary school mathematics. Teachers in the experiment
were taught to spend eight minutes every day on review.
Teachers
used this time to check the homework, go over problems where
there were errors, and practice the concepts and skills that
needed
to become automatic. As a result, students in these classrooms
had higher achievement scores than did students in other
classrooms.
Daily practice of vocabulary can lead to seeing each practiced
word as a unit (i.e., seeing the whole word automatically rather
than as individual letters that have to be sounded out and
blended). When students see words as units, they have more
space available in their working memory, and this space can
now
be used for comprehension. Mathematical problem solving is
also
improved when the basic skills (addition, multiplication, etc.)
are
overlearned and become automatic, thus freeing working-mem-
ory capacity.
44. In the classroom
The most effective teachers in the studies of classroom
instruction
understood the importance of practice, and they began their les -
sons with a five- to eight-minute review of previously covered
material. Some teachers reviewed vocabulary, formulae, events,
or previously learned concepts. These teachers provided addi -
tional practice on facts and skills that were needed for recall to
become automatic.
Effective teacher activities also included reviewing the con-
cepts and skills that were necessary to do the homework, having
students correct each others’ papers, and asking about points on
which the students had difficulty or made errors. These reviews
ensured that the students had a firm grasp of the skills and con-
cepts that would be needed for the day’s lesson.
Effective teachers also reviewed the knowledge and concepts
that were relevant for that day’s lesson. It is important for a
teacher
to help students recall the concepts and vocabulary that will be
relevant for the day’s lesson because our working memory is
very
limited. If we do not review previous learning, then we will
have
to make a special effort to recall old material while learning
new
material, and this makes it difficult for us to learn the new
material.
Daily review is particularly important for teaching material that
will be used in subsequent learning. Examples include reading
sight words (i.e., any word that is known by a reader automati-
cally), grammar, math facts, math computation, math factoring,
45. and chemical equations.
When planning for review, teachers might want to consider
which words, math facts, procedures, and concepts need to
become automatic, and which words, vocabulary, or ideas need
to be reviewed before the lesson begins.
In addition, teachers might consider doing the following dur -
ing their daily review:
• Correct homework.
• Review the concepts and skills that were practiced as part of
the homework.
• Ask students about points where they had difficulties or made
errors.
• Review material where errors were made.
• Review material that needs overlearning (i.e., newly acquired
skills should be practiced well beyond the point of initial mas-
tery, leading to automaticity).
2. Present new material in small steps with student
practice after each step: Only present small amounts
of new material at any time, and then assist students
as they practice this material.
Research findings
Our working memory, the place where we process information,
is small. It can only handle a few bits of information at once—
too
much information swamps our working memory. Presenting too
much material at once may confuse students because their work-
ing memory will be unable to process it.
46. Therefore, the more effective teachers do not overwhelm their
students by presenting too much new material at once. Rather,
The most effective teachers ensured
that students efficiently acquired,
rehearsed, and connected knowledge.
many went on to hands-on activities,
but always after, not before, the basic
material was learned.
14 AmERIcAN EdUcATOR | SPRING 2012
these teachers only present small amounts of new material at
any
time, and then assist the students as they practice this material.
Only after the students have mastered the first step do teachers
proceed to the next step.
The procedure of first teaching in small steps and then guiding
student practice represents an appropriate way of dealing with
the limitation of our working memory.
In the classroom
The more successful teachers did not overwhelm their students
by presenting too much new material at once. Rather, they pre-
sented only small amounts of new material at one time, and they
taught in such a way that each point was mastered before the
next
point was introduced. They checked their students’ understand-
ing on each point and retaught material when necessary.
Some successful teachers taught by giving a series of short
47. presentations using many examples. The examples provided
concrete learning and elaboration that were useful for
processing
new material.
Teaching in small steps requires time, and the more effective
teachers spent more time presenting new material and guiding
student practice than did the less effective teachers. In a study
of
mathematics instruction, for instance, the most effective math-
ematics teachers spent about 23 minutes of a 40-minute period
in lecture, demonstration, questioning, and working examples.
In contrast, the least effective teachers spent only 11 minutes
presenting new material. The more effective teachers used this
extra time to provide additional explanations, give many exam-
ples, check for student understanding, and provide sufficient
instruction so that the students could learn to work
independently
without difficulty. In one study, the least effective teachers
asked
only nine questions in a 40-minute period. Compared with the
successful teachers, the less effective teachers gave much
shorter
presentations and explanations, and then passed out worksheets
and told students to solve the problems. The less successful
teach-
ers were then observed going from student to student and having
to explain the material again.
Similarly, when students were taught a strategy for summariz-
ing a paragraph, an effective teacher taught the strategy using
small steps. First, the teacher modeled and thought aloud as she
identified the topic of a paragraph. Then, she led practice on
iden-
tifying the topics of new paragraphs. Then, she taught students
48. to
identify the main idea of a paragraph. The teacher modeled this
step and then supervised the students as they practiced both
find-
ing the topic and locating the main idea. Following this, the
teacher taught the students to identify the supporting details in a
paragraph. The teacher modeled and thought aloud, and then the
students practiced. Finally, the students practiced carrying out
all
three steps of this strategy. Thus, the strategy of summarizing a
paragraph was divided into smaller steps, and there was
modeling
and practice at each step.
3. Ask a large number of questions and check the
responses of all students: Questions help students
practice new information and connect new material
to their prior learning.
Research findings
Students need to practice new material. The teacher’s questions
and student discussion are a major way of providing this neces -
sary practice. The most successful teachers in these studies
spent
more than half of the class time lecturing, demonstrating, and
asking questions.
Questions allow a teacher to determine how well the material
has been learned and whether there is a need for additional
instruction. The most effective teachers also ask students to
explain the process they used to answer the question, to explain
how the answer was found. Less successful teachers ask fewer
questions and almost no process questions.
In the classroom
In one classroom-based experimental study, one group of teach-
49. ers was taught to follow the presentation of new material with
lots
of questions.11 They were taught to increase the number of
factual
questions and process questions they asked during this guided
practice. Test results showed that their students achieved higher
scores than did students whose teachers did not receive the
training.
Imaginative teachers have found ways to involve all students
in answering questions. Examples include having all students:
• Tell the answer to a neighbor.
• Summarize the main idea in one or two sentences, writing the
summary on a piece of paper and sharing this with a neighbor,
or repeating the procedures to a neighbor.
• Write the answer on a card and then hold it up.
• Raise their hands if they know the answer (thereby allowing
the teacher to check the entire class).
• Raise their hands if they agree with the answer that someone
else has given.
Across the classrooms that researchers observed, the purpose
of all these procedures was to provide active participation for
the
students and also to allow the teacher to see how many students
were correct and confident. The teacher may then reteach some
material when it was considered necessary. An alternative was
for
students to write their answers and then trade papers with each
other.
50. Other teachers used choral responses to provide sufficient
practice when teaching new vocabulary or lists of items. This
made the practice seem more like a game. To be effective, how -
AmERIcAN EdUcATOR | SPRING 2012 15
ever, all students needed to start together, on a signal. When
students did not start together, only the faster students
answered.
In addition to asking questions, the more effective teachers
facilitated their students’ rehearsal by providing explanations,
giving more examples, and supervising students as they
practiced
the new material.
The following is a series of stems12 for questions that teachers
might ask when teaching literature, social science content, or
sci-
ence content to their students. Sometimes, students may also
develop questions from these stems to ask questions of each
other.
How are __________ and __________ alike?
What is the main idea of __________?
What are the strengths and weaknesses of __________?
In what way is __________ related to __________?
Compare __________ and __________ with regard to
__________.
What do you think causes __________?
How does __________ tie in with what we have learned before?
Which one is the best __________, and why?
What are some possible solutions for the problem of
__________?
51. Do you agree or disagree with this statement: __________?
What do you still not understand about __________?
4. Provide models: Providing students with
models and worked examples can help them
learn to solve problems faster.
Research findings
Students need cognitive support to help them learn to solve
prob-
lems. The teacher modeling and thinking aloud while
demonstrat-
ing how to solve a problem are examples of effective cognitive
support. Worked examples (such as a math problem for which
the
teacher not only has provided the solution but has clearly laid
out
each step) are another form of modeling that has been developed
by researchers. Worked examples allow students to focus on the
specific steps to solve problems and thus reduce the cognitive
load on their working memory. Modeling and worked examples
have been used successfully in mathematics, science, writing,
and
reading comprehension.
In the classroom
Many of the skills that are taught in classrooms can be
conveyed
by providing prompts, modeling use of the prompt, and then
guid-
ing students as they develop independence. When teaching read-
ing comprehension strategies, for example, effective teachers
provided students with prompts that the students could use to
ask
themselves questions about a short passage. In one class,
52. students
were given words such as “who,” “where,” “why,” and “how” to
help them begin a question. Then, everyone read a passage and
the teacher modeled how to use these words to ask questions.
Many examples were given.
Next, during guided practice, the teacher helped the students
practice asking questions by helping them select a prompt and
develop a question that began with that prompt. The students
practiced this step many times with lots of support from the
teacher.
Then, the students read new passages and practiced asking
questions on their own, with support from the teacher when
needed. Finally, students were given short passages followed by
questions, and the teacher expressed an opinion about the
quality
of the students’ questions.
This same procedure—providing a prompt, modeling, guiding
practice, and supervising independent practice—can be used for
many tasks. When teaching students to write an essay, for exam-
ple, an effective teacher first modeled how to write each para-
graph, then the students and teacher worked together on two or
more new essays, and finally students worked on their own with
supervision from the teacher.
Worked examples are another form of modeling that has been
used to help students learn how to solve problems in
mathematics
and science. A worked example is a step-by-step demonstration
of how to perform a task or how to solve a problem. The
presenta-
tion of worked examples begins with the teacher modeling and
explaining the steps that can be taken to solve a specific
53. problem.
The teacher also identifies and explains the underlying
principles
for these steps.
Usually, students are then given a series of problems to com-
plete at their desks as independent practice. But, in research
car-
ried out in Australia, students were given a mixture of problems
to solve and worked examples. So, during independent practice,
students first studied a worked example, then they solved a
prob-
lem ; then they studied another worked example and solved
another problem. In this way, the worked examples showed stu-
dents how to focus on the essential parts of the problems. Of
course, not all students studied the worked examples. To correct
many of the skills taught in classrooms
can be conveyed by providing prompts,
modeling use of the prompt, and then
guiding students as they develop
independence.
16 AmERIcAN EdUcATOR | SPRING 2012
this problem, the Australian researchers also presented partially
completed problems in which students had to complete the miss-
ing steps and thus pay more attention to the worked example.
5. Guide student practice: Successful teachers
spend more time guiding students’ practice
of new material.
Research findings
54. It is not enough simply to present students with new material,
because the material will be forgotten unless there is sufficient
rehearsal. An important finding from information-processing
research is that students need to spend additional time rephras-
ing, elaborating, and summarizing new material in order to store
this material in their long-term memory. When there has been
sufficient rehearsal, the students are able to retrieve this
material
easily and thus are able to make use of this material to foster
new
learning and aid in problem solving. But when the rehearsal
time
is too short, students are less able to store, remember, or use the
material. As we know, it is relatively easy to place something in
a
filing cabinet, but it can be very difficult to recall where exactly
we
filed it. Rehearsal helps us remember where we filed it so we
can
access it with ease when needed.
A teacher can facilitate this rehearsal process by asking ques -
tions; good questions require students to process and rehearse
the
material. Rehearsal is also enhanced when students are asked to
summarize the main points, and when they are supervised as
they
practice new steps in a skill. The quality of storage in long-term
memory will be weak if students only skim the material and do
not
engage in it. It is also important that all students process the
new
material and receive feedback, so they do not inadvertently
store
partial information or a misconception in long-term memory.
55. In the classroom
In one study, the more successful teachers of mathematics spent
more time presenting new material and guiding practice. The
more successful teachers used this extra time to provide addi -
tional explanations, give many examples, check for student
under-
standing, and provide sufficient instruction so that the students
could learn to work independently without difficulty. In
contrast,
the less successful teachers gave much shorter presentations and
explanations, and then they passed out worksheets and told stu-
dents to work on the problems. Under these conditions, the stu-
dents made too many errors and had to be retaught the lesson.
The most successful teachers presented only small amounts of
material at a time. After this short presentation, these teachers
then guided student practice. This guidance often consisted of
the
teacher working the first problems at the blackboard and
explain-
ing the reason for each step, which served as a model for the
students. The guidance also included asking students to come to
the blackboard to work out problems and discuss their proce-
dures. Through this process, the students seated in the
classroom
saw additional models.
Although most teachers provided some guided practice, the
most successful teachers spent more time in guided practice,
more time asking questions, more time checking for understand-
ing, more time correcting errors, and more time having students
work out problems with teacher guidance.
Teachers who spent more time in guided practice and had
56. higher success rates also had students who were more engaged
during individual work at their desks. This finding suggests
that,
when teachers provided sufficient instruction during guided
practice, the students were better prepared for the independent
practice (e.g., seatwork and homework activities), but when the
guided practice was too short, the students were not prepared
for
the seatwork and made more errors during independent
practice.
6. Check for student understanding: Checking
for student understanding at each point can help
students learn the material with fewer errors.
Research findings
The more effective teachers frequently checked to see if all the
students were learning the new material. These checks provided
some of the processing needed to move new learning into long-
term memory. These checks also let teachers know if students
were developing misconceptions.
In the classroom
Effective teachers also stopped to check for student understand-
ing. They checked for understanding by asking questions, by
ask-
ing students to summarize the presentation up to that point or to
repeat directions or procedures, or by asking students whether
they agreed or disagreed with other students’ answers. This
check-
ing has two purposes: (a) answering the questions might cause
the students to elaborate on the material they have learned and
augment connections to other learning in their long-term mem-
ory, and (b) alerting the teacher to when parts of the material
need
to be retaught.
57. In contrast, the less effective teachers simply asked, “Are there
any questions?” and, if there were no questions, they assumed
the
students had learned the material and proceeded to pass out
worksheets for students to complete on their own.
Another way to check for understanding is to ask students to
think aloud as they work to solve mathematical problems, plan
an essay, or identify the main idea in a paragraph. Yet another
check is to ask students to explain or defend their position to
oth-
ers. Having to explain a position may help students integrate
and
elaborate their knowledge in new ways, or may help identify
gaps
in their understanding.
AmERIcAN EdUcATOR | SPRING 2012 17
Another reason for the importance of teaching in small steps,
guiding practice, and checking for understanding (as well as
obtaining a high success rate, which we’ll explore in principle
7)
comes from the fact that we all construct and reconstruct knowl -
edge as we learn and use what we have learned. We cannot
simply
repeat what we hear word for word. Rather, we connect our
under-
standing of the new information to our existing concepts or
“schema,” and we then construct a mental summary (i.e., the
gist
of what we have heard). However, when left on their own, many
students make errors in the process of constructing this mental
58. summary. These errors occur, particularly, when the information
is new and the student does not have adequate or well -formed
background knowledge. These constructions are not errors so
much as attempts by the students to be logical in an area where
their background knowledge is weak. These errors are so
common
that there is a research literature on the development and
correc-
tion of student misconceptions in science. Providing guided
practice after teaching small amounts of new material, and
check-
ing for student understanding, can help limit the development of
misconceptions.
7. Obtain a high success rate: It is important
for students to achieve a high success rate
during classroom instruction.
Research findings
In two of the major studies on the impact of teachers, the
investi-
gators found that students in classrooms with more effective
teachers had a higher success rate, as judged by the quality of
their
oral responses during guided practice and their individual work.
In a study of fourth-grade mathematics, it was found that 82
per-
cent of students’ answers were correct in the classrooms of the
most successful teachers, but the least successful teachers had a
success rate of only 73 percent. A high success rate during
guided
practice also leads to a higher success rate when students are
working on problems on their own.
The research also suggests that the optimal success rate for
59. fostering student achievement appears to be about 80 percent. A
success rate of 80 percent shows that students are learning the
material, and it also shows that the students are challenged.
In the classroom
The most effective teachers obtained this success level by
teaching
in small steps (i.e., by combining short presentations with
super-
vised student practice), and by giving sufficient practice on
each
part before proceeding to the next step. These teachers
frequently
checked for understanding and required responses from all
students.
It is important that students achieve a high success rate during
instruction and on their practice activities. Practice, we are told,
makes perfect, but practice can be a disaster if students are
prac-
ticing errors! If the practice does not have a high success level,
there is a chance that students are practicing and learning
errors.
Once errors have been learned, they are ver y difficult to
overcome.
As discussed in the previous section, when we learn new mate-
rial, we construct a gist of this material in our long-term
memory.
However, many students make errors in the process of
construct-
ing this mental summary. These errors can occur when the
infor-
mation is new and the student did not have adequate or
60. well-formed background knowledge. These constructions are not
errors so much as attempts by the students to be logical in an
area
where their background knowledge is weak. But students are
more
likely to develop misconceptions if too much material is
presented
at once, and if teachers do not check for student understanding.
Providing guided practice after teaching small amounts of new
material, and checking for student understanding, can help limit
the development of misconceptions.
I once observed a class where an effective teacher was going
from desk to desk during independent practice and suddenly
realized that the students were having difficulty. She stopped
the
work, told the students not to do the problems for homework,
and
said she would reteach this material the next day. She stopped
the
work because she did not want the students to practice errors.
Unless all students have mastered the first set of lessons, there
is a danger that the slower students will fall further behind
when
the next set of lessons is taught. So there is a need for a high
suc-
cess rate for all students. “Mastery learning” is a form of
instruc-
tion where lessons are organized into short units and all
students
are required to master one set of lessons before they proceed to
the next set. In mastery learning, tutoring by other students or
by
teachers is provided to help students master each unit.
variations
61. of this approach, particularly the tutoring, might be useful in
many classroom settings.
The most successful teachers spent
more time in guided practice, more
time asking questions, more time
checking for understanding, and more
time correcting errors.
18 AmERIcAN EdUcATOR | SPRING 2012
8. Provide scaffolds for difficult tasks: The teacher
provides students with temporary supports and
scaffolds to assist them when they learn difficult tasks.
Research findings
Investigators have successfully provided students with
scaffolds,
or instructional supports, to help them learn difficult tasks. A
scaf-
fold is a temporary support that is used to assist a learner.
These
scaffolds are gradually withdrawn as learners become more
com-
petent, although students may continue to rely on scaffolds
when
they encounter particularly difficult problems. Providing
scaffolds
is a form of guided practice.
Scaffolds include modeling the steps by the teacher, or thinking
aloud by the teacher as he or she solves the problem. Scaffolds
also may be tools, such as cue cards or checklists, that complete
part of the task for the students, or a model of the completed
62. task
against which students can compare their own work.
The process of helping students solve difficult problems by
modeling and providing scaffolds has been called “cognitive
apprenticeship.” Students learn strategies and content during
this
apprenticeship that enable them to become competent readers,
writers, and problem solvers. They are aided by a master who
models, coaches, provides supports, and scaffolds them as they
become independent.
In the classroom
One form of scaffolding is to give students prompts for steps
they
might use. Prompts such as “who,” “why,” and “how” have
helped
students learn to ask questions while they read. Teaching
students
to ask questions has been shown to help students’ reading
comprehension.
Similarly, one researcher developed the following prompt to
help students organize material.13
1. Draw a central box and write the title of the article in it.
2. Skim the article to find four to six main ideas.
3. Write each main idea in a box below the central box.
4. Find and write two to four important details to list under each
main idea.
Another form of scaffolding is thinking aloud by the teacher.
For example, teachers might think aloud as they try to
summarize
a paragraph. They would show the thought processes they go
63. through as they determine the topic of the paragraph and then
use the topic to generate a summary sentence. Teachers might
think aloud while solving a scientific equation or writing an
essay,
and at the same time provide labels for their mental processes.
Such thinking aloud provides novice learners with a way to
observe “expert thinking” that is usually hidden from the
student.
Teachers also can study their students’ thought processes by
ask-
ing them to think aloud during problem solving.
One characteristic of effective teachers is their ability to antici -
pate students’ errors and warn them about possible errors some
of them are likely to make. For example, a teacher might have
students read a passage and then give them a poorly written
topic
sentence to correct. In teaching division or subtraction, the
teacher may show and discuss with students the mistakes other
students have frequently made.
In some of the studies, students were given a checklist to evalu-
ate their work. Checklist items included “Have I found the most
important information that tells me more about the main idea?”
and “Does every sentence start with a capital letter?” The
teacher
then modeled use of the checklist.
In some studies, students were provided with expert models
with which they could compare their work. For example, when
students were taught to generate questions, they could compare
their questions with those generated by the teacher. Similarly,
when learning to write summaries, students could compare their
summaries on a passage with those generated by an expert.
64. 9. Require and monitor independent practice: Students
need extensive, successful, independent practice in
order for skills and knowledge to become automatic.
Research findings
In a typical teacher-led classroom, guided practice is followed
by
independent practice—by students working alone and practicing
the new material. This independent practice is necessary
because
a good deal of practice (overlearning) is needed in order to
become fluent and automatic in a skill. When material is over -
learned, it can be recalled automatically and doesn’t take up any
space in working memory. When students become automatic in
an area, they can then devote more of their attention to compre-
hension and application.
Independent practice provides students with the additional
review and elaboration they need to become fluent. This need
for
fluency applies to facts, concepts, and discriminations that must
be used in subsequent learning. Fluency is also needed in opera-
tions, such as dividing decimals, conjugating a regular verb in a
foreign language, or completing and balancing a chemical
equation.
One characteristic of effective
teachers is their ability to anticipate
students’ errors and warn them
about possible errors some of them
are likely to make.
AmERIcAN EdUcATOR | SPRING 2012 19
65. In the classroom
The more successful teachers provided for extensive and
success-
ful practice, both in the classroom and after class. Independent
practice should involve the same material as the guided
practice.
If guided practice deals with identifying types of sentences, for
example, then independent practice should deal with the same
topic or, perhaps, with a slight variation, like creating
individual
compound and complex sentences. It would be inappropriate if
the independent practice asked the students to do an activity
such
as “Write a paragraph using two compound and two complex
sentences,” however, because the students have not been ade-
quately prepared for such an activity.
Students need to be fully prepared for their independent prac-
tice. Sometimes, it may be appropriate for a teacher to practice
some of the seatwork problems with the entire class before stu-
dents begin independent practice.
Research has found that students were more engaged when
their teacher circulated around the room, and monitored and
supervised their seatwork. The optimal time for these contacts
was 30 seconds or less. Classrooms where the teachers had to
stop
at students’ desks and provide a great deal of explanation
during
seatwork were the classrooms where students were making
errors.
These errors occurred because the guided practice was not suf-
ficient for students to engage productively in independent prac-
tice. This reiterates the importance of adequately preparing
students before they begin their independent practice.
66. Some investigators14 have developed procedures, such as
cooperative learning, during which students help each other as
they study. Research has shown that all students tend to achieve
more in these settings than do students in regular settings. Pre-
sumably, some of the advantage comes from having to explain
the
material to someone else and/or having someone else (other
than
the teacher) explain the material to the student. Cooperative
learning offers an opportunity for students to get feedback from
their peers about correct as well as incorrect responses, which
promotes both engagement and learning. These cooperative/
competitive settings are also valuable for helping slower
students
in a class by providing extra instruction for them.
10. Engage students in weekly and monthly
review: Students need to be involved in extensive
practice in order to develop well-connected and
automatic knowledge.
Research findings
Students need extensive and broad reading, and extensive prac-
tice in order to develop well-connected networks of ideas (sche-
mas) in their long-term memory. When one’s knowledge on a
particular topic is large and well connected, it is easier to learn
new information and prior knowledge is more readily available
for use. The more one rehearses and reviews information, the
stronger these interconnections become. It is also easier to solve
new problems when one has a rich, well-connected body of
knowledge and strong ties among the connections. One of the
goals of education is to help students develop extensive and
avail-
able background knowledge.
67. Knowledge (even very extensive knowledge) stored in long-
term memory that is organized into patterns only occupies a tiny
amount of space in our limited working memory. So having
larger
and better-connected patterns of knowledge frees up space in
our
working memory. This available space can be used for
reflecting
on new information and for problem solving. The development
of well-connected patterns (also called “unitization” and
“chunk-
ing”) and the freeing of space in the working memory is one of
the
hallmarks of an expert in a field.
Thus, research on cognitive processing supports the need for
a teacher to assist students by providing for extensive reading
of
a variety of materials, frequent review, and discussion and
appli-
cation activities. The research on cognitive processing suggests
that these classroom activities help students increase the
number
of pieces of information in their long-term memory and
organize
this information into patterns and chunks.
The more one rehearses and reviews information, the stronger
the interconnections between the materials become. Review also
helps students develop their new knowledge into patterns, and it
The best way to become an expert
is through practice—thousands of
hours of practice. The more the
practice, the better the
68. performance.
The following list of 17 principles emerges from the research
discussed in the main article. It overlaps with, and offers
slightly more detail than, the 10 principles used to organize
that article.
• Begin a lesson with a short review of previous learning.
• Present new material in small steps with student practice
after each step.
• Limit the amount of material students receive at one
time.
• Give clear and detailed instructions and explanations.
• Ask a large number of questions and check for
understanding.
• Provide a high level of active practice for all students.
• Guide students as they begin to practice.
• Think aloud and model steps.
• Provide models of worked-out problems.
• Ask students to explain what they have learned.
• check the responses of all students.
• Provide systematic feedback and corrections.
• Use more time to provide explanations.
• Provide many examples.
• Reteach material when necessary.
• Prepare students for independent practice.
• monitor students when they begin independent practice.
–B.R.
17 Principles of
Effective Instruction
69. (Continued on page 39)
AMERICAN EDUCATOR | SPRING 2012 39
helps them acquire the ability to recall past
learning automatically.
The best way to become an expert is
through practice—thousands of hours of
practice. The more the practice, the better
the performance.
In the classroom
Many successful programs, especially in
the elementary grades, provided for exten-
sive review. One way of achieving this goal
is to review the previous week’s work every
Monday and the previous month’s work
ever y fourth Monday. Some effective
teachers also gave tests after their reviews.
Research has found that even at the sec-
ondary level, classes that had weekly quiz-
zes scored better on final exams than did
classes with only one or two quizzes during
the term. These reviews and tests provided
the additional practice students needed to
become skilled, successful performers who
could apply their knowledge and skills in
new areas.
Teachers face a difficult problem when
they need to cover a lot of material and
don’t feel they have the time for sufficient
review. But the research states (and we all
70. know from personal experience) that
material that is not adequately practiced
and reviewed is easily forgotten.
T
he 10 principles in this article
c o m e f r o m t h r e e d i f f e r e n t
sources : research on how the
mind acquires and uses informa-
tion, the instructional procedures that are
used by the most successful teachers, and
the procedures invented by researchers to
help students learn difficult tasks. The
research from each of these three sources
has implications for classroom instruction,
and these implications are described in
each of these 10 principles.
Even though these principles come
from three different sources, the instruc-
tional procedures that are taken from one
source do not conflict with the instruc-
tional procedures that are taken from
another source. Instead, the ideas from
each of the sources overlap and add to each
other. This overlap gives us faith that we are
developing a valid and research-based
understanding of the art of teaching. ☐
Endnotes
1. Suggested readings: George A. Miller, “The Magical
Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on Our
Capacity for Processing Information,” Psychological Review
63, no. 2 (1956): 81–97; and David LaBerge and S. Jay
Samuels, “Toward a Theory of Automatic Information
71. Processing in Reading,” Cognitive Psychology 6, no. 2
(1974): 293–323.
2. Suggested readings: Carolyn M. Evertson, Charles W.
Anderson, Linda M. Anderson, and Jere E. Brophy,
“Relationships between Classroom Behaviors and Student
Outcomes in Junior High Mathematics and English Classes,”
American Educational Research Journal 17, no. 1 (1980):
43–60; and Thomas L. Good and Jere E. Brophy, Educational
Psychology: A Realistic Approach, 4th ed. (New York:
Longman, 1990).
3. Suggested readings: Thomas L. Good and Douglas A.
Grouws, “The Missouri Mathematics Effectiveness Project,”
Journal of Educational Psychology 71, no. 3 (1979):
355–362; and Alison King, “Guiding Knowledge
Construction in the Classroom: Effects of Teaching Children
How to Question and How to Explain,” American
Educational Research Journal 31, no. 2 (1994): 338–368.
4. Suggested readings: John Sweller, “Cognitive Load
Theory, Learning Difficulty, and Instructional Design,”
Learning and Instruction 4, no. 4 (1994): 295–312; Barak
Rosenshine, Carla Meister, and Saul Chapman, “Teaching
Students to Generate Questions: A Review of the
Intervention Studies,” Review of Educational Research 66,
no. 2 (1996): 181–221; and Alan H. Schoenfeld,
Mathematical Problem Solving (New York: Academic Press,
1985).
5. Suggested readings: Evertson et al., “Relationships
between Classroom Behaviors and Student Outcomes”; and
Paul A. Kirschner, John Sweller, and Richard E. Clark, “Why
Minimal Guidance during Instruction Does Not Work: An
Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery,
Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching,”
72. Educational Psychologist 41, no. 2 (2006): 75–86.
6. Suggested readings: Douglas Fisher and Nancy Frey,
Checking for Understanding: Formative Assessment
Techniques for Your Classroom (Alexandria, VA: Association
for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 2007); and
Michael J. Dunkin, “Student Characteristics, Classroom
Processes, and Student Achievement,” Journal of
Educational Psychology 70, no. 6 (1978): 998–1009.
7. Suggested readings: Lorin W. Anderson and Robert B.
Burns, “Values, Evidence, and Mastery Learning,” Review of
Educational Research 57, no. 2 (1987): 215–223; and
Norman Frederiksen, “Implications of Cognitive Theory for
Instruction in Problem Solving,” Review of Educational
Research 54, no. 3 (1984): 363–407.
8. Suggested readings: Michael Pressley and Vera Woloshyn,
Cognitive Strategy Instruction that Really Improves Children’s
Academic Performance, 2nd ed. (Cambridge, MA: Brookline
Books, 1995); and Barak Rosenshine and Carla Meister, “The
Use of Scaffolds for Teaching Higher-Level Cognitive
Strategies,” Educational Leadership 49, no. 7 (April 1992):
26–33.
9. Suggested readings: Barak Rosenshine, “The Empirical
Support for Direct Instruction,” in Constructivist Instruction:
Success or Failure? ed. Sigmund Tobias and Thomas M.
Duffy (New York: Routledge, 2009), 201–220; and Robert E.
Slavin, Education for All (Exton, PA: Swets and Zeitlinger,
1996).
10. Suggested readings: Good and Grouws, “The Missouri
Mathematics Effectiveness Project”; and James A. Kulik and
Chen-Lin C. Kulik, “College Teaching,” in Research on
Teaching: Concepts, Findings, and Implications, ed. Penelope
73. L. Peterson and Herbert J. Walberg (Berkeley, CA:
McCutchan, 1979).
11. Good and Grouws, “The Missouri Mathematics
Effectiveness Project.”
12. These stems were developed by King, “Guiding
Knowledge Construction in the Classroom.”
13. Sandra J. Berkowitz, “Effects of Instruction in Text
Organization on Sixth-Grade Students’ Memory for
Expository Reading,” Reading Research Quarterly 21, no. 2
(1986): 161–178. For additional strategies to help students
organize material, see Wisconsin Department of Public
Instruction, Strategic Learning in the Content Areas
(Madison, WI: Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction,
2005).
14. Slavin, Education for All.
Principles
(Continued from page 19)
INTENTIONALLY
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