12 AmERIcAN EdUcATOR | SPRING 2012
Principles of Instruction
Research-Based Strategies That All Teachers Should Know
By Barak Rosenshine
T
his article presents 10 research-based principles of
instruction, along with suggestions for classroom prac-
tice. These principles come from three sources: (a)
research in cognitive science, (b) research on master
teachers, and (c) research on cognitive supports. Each is briefly
explained below.
A: Research in cognitive science: This research focuses on how
our brains acquire and use information. This cognitive research
also provides suggestions on how we might overcome the limita-
tions of our working memory (i.e., the mental “space” in which
thinking occurs) when learning new material.
B: Research on the classroom practices of master teachers: Mas-
ter teachers are those teachers whose classrooms made the high-
est gains on achievement tests. In a series of studies, a wide range
of teachers were observed as they taught, and the investigators
coded how they presented new material, how and whether they
checked for student understanding, the types of support they
provided to their students, and a number of other instructional
activities. By also gathering student achievement data, research-
ers were able to identify the ways in which the more and less effec-
tive teachers differed.
C: Research on cognitive supports to help students learn complex
tasks: Effective instructional procedures—such as thinking aloud,
providing students with scaffolds, and providing students with
models—come from this research.
Even though these are three very different bodies of research,
there is no conflict at all between the instructional suggestions
that come from each of these three sources. In other words, these
three sources supplement and complement each other. The fact
that the instructional ideas from three different sources supple-
ment and complement each other gives us faith in the validity of
these findings.
Education involves helping a novice develop strong, readily
accessible background knowledge. It’s important that background
knowledge be readily accessible, and this occurs when knowledge
is well rehearsed and tied to other knowledge. The most effective
teachers ensured that their students efficiently acquired,
rehearsed, and connected background knowledge by providing
a good deal of instructional support. They provided this support
by teaching new material in manageable amounts, modeling,
guiding student practice, helping students when they made errors,
and providing for sufficient practice and review. Many of these
teachers also went on to experiential, hands-on activities, but they
always did the experiential activities after, not before, the basic
material was learned.
The following is a list of some of the instructional principles
that have come from these three sources. These ideas will be
described and discussed in this article:
• Begin a lesson with a sh ...
This document discusses techniques for teachers to improve their creativity and effectiveness in the classroom. It describes several methods teachers can use for self-assessment and development, including action research, problem-solving teaching approaches, paying attention to students, keeping a teacher's journal, making creative use of resources, self-assessment, follow-up actions after lessons, and reflective teaching. Regularly using these techniques helps teachers enhance their skills and guide students to better manage information.
Expository teaching is a direct instruction strategy where the teacher presents academic content to students through lecture. Key aspects of expository teaching include the teacher presenting clear and concise information in a logical progression, using examples to illustrate concepts, and checking for student understanding through questions. The structure of expository lessons helps students focus on the topic and determine what information is most important.
Twelve principles of effective teaching and learningpaulinemoooo
The document outlines twelve principles of effective teaching and learning that are supported by empirical research. The principles were derived from studies conducted by prominent educators on teaching practices in higher education. Some of the key principles include that teachers' knowledge of their subject matter is essential, active involvement of learners enhances learning, interaction between teachers and students motivates students, and providing feedback to students and teachers improves the learning process.
12 AMERICAN EDUCATOR FALL 2013John Dunlosky is a prBenitoSumpter862
12 AMERICAN EDUCATOR | FALL 2013
John Dunlosky is a professor of psychology and the director of experimental
training at Kent State University. His research focuses on self-regulated
learning and how it can be used to improve student achievement across
the lifespan.
Strengthening
the Student Toolbox
study strategies to Boost learning
By John Dunlosky
I
t’s the night before her biology exam, and the high school
student has just begun to study. she takes out her highlighter
and reads her textbook, marking it up as she goes along. she
rereads sentences that seem most important and stays up
most of the night, just hoping to get a good enough grasp of the
material to do well on the exam. These are study strategies that
she may have learned from her friends or her teachers or that she
simply took to on her own. she is not unusual in this regard; many
students rely on strategies such as highlighting, rereading, and
cramming the night before an exam.
Quite often, students believe these relatively ineffective strate-
gies are actually the most effective,1 and at least on the surface
they do seem sound, perhaps because, even after pulling an all-
nighter, students manage to squeak by on exams. Unfortunately,
in a recent review of the research, my colleagues and I found that
these strategies are not that effective,2 especially if students want
to retain their learning and understanding of content well after
the exam is over—obviously, an important educational goal.
so, why aren’t students learning about the best strategies? I
can only speculate, but several reasons seem likely. curricula are
developed to highlight the content that teachers should teach, so
the focus is on providing content and not on training students
how to effectively acquire it. Put differently, the emphasis is on
what students need to learn, whereas little emphasis—if any—is
placed on training students how they should go about learning
the content and what skills will promote efficient studying to
support robust learning. Nevertheless, teaching students how to
learn is as important as teaching them content, because acquir-
IL
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R
A
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S
B
y
D
A
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AMERICAN EDUCATOR | FALL 2013 13
ing both the right learning strategies and background knowledge
is important—if not essential—for promoting lifelong learning.
Another reason many students may not be learning about
effective strategies concerns teacher preparation. learning strat-
egies are discussed in almost every textbook on educational
psychology, so many teachers likely have been introduced to at
least some of them. even so, my colleagues and I found that, in
large part, the current textbooks do not adequately cover the
strategies; some omit discussion of the most effective ones, and
most do not provide guidelines on how to use them in the class-
room or on how to teach students to use them. In some cases, the
strategies discussed have lim ...
12 AMERICAN EDUCATOR FALL 2013John Dunlosky is a prAnastaciaShadelb
12 AMERICAN EDUCATOR | FALL 2013
John Dunlosky is a professor of psychology and the director of experimental
training at Kent State University. His research focuses on self-regulated
learning and how it can be used to improve student achievement across
the lifespan.
Strengthening
the Student Toolbox
study strategies to Boost learning
By John Dunlosky
I
t’s the night before her biology exam, and the high school
student has just begun to study. she takes out her highlighter
and reads her textbook, marking it up as she goes along. she
rereads sentences that seem most important and stays up
most of the night, just hoping to get a good enough grasp of the
material to do well on the exam. These are study strategies that
she may have learned from her friends or her teachers or that she
simply took to on her own. she is not unusual in this regard; many
students rely on strategies such as highlighting, rereading, and
cramming the night before an exam.
Quite often, students believe these relatively ineffective strate-
gies are actually the most effective,1 and at least on the surface
they do seem sound, perhaps because, even after pulling an all-
nighter, students manage to squeak by on exams. Unfortunately,
in a recent review of the research, my colleagues and I found that
these strategies are not that effective,2 especially if students want
to retain their learning and understanding of content well after
the exam is over—obviously, an important educational goal.
so, why aren’t students learning about the best strategies? I
can only speculate, but several reasons seem likely. curricula are
developed to highlight the content that teachers should teach, so
the focus is on providing content and not on training students
how to effectively acquire it. Put differently, the emphasis is on
what students need to learn, whereas little emphasis—if any—is
placed on training students how they should go about learning
the content and what skills will promote efficient studying to
support robust learning. Nevertheless, teaching students how to
learn is as important as teaching them content, because acquir-
IL
LU
ST
R
A
T
IO
N
S
B
y
D
A
N
IE
L
B
A
X
T
E
R
AMERICAN EDUCATOR | FALL 2013 13
ing both the right learning strategies and background knowledge
is important—if not essential—for promoting lifelong learning.
Another reason many students may not be learning about
effective strategies concerns teacher preparation. learning strat-
egies are discussed in almost every textbook on educational
psychology, so many teachers likely have been introduced to at
least some of them. even so, my colleagues and I found that, in
large part, the current textbooks do not adequately cover the
strategies; some omit discussion of the most effective ones, and
most do not provide guidelines on how to use them in the class-
room or on how to teach students to use them. In some cases, the
strategies discussed have lim ...
This document discusses reflective teaching and how teachers can develop a reflective approach to improve their practice. It defines reflection as recalling and evaluating past experiences to inform future decisions. Teachers can engage in reflection through various methods like peer observation, writing accounts of lessons, and recording lessons. These reflective practices help teachers develop awareness of their teaching style and make informed changes to improve student outcomes. The document provides examples of how teachers in one department used peer observation and collaborative journaling to reflect on their practice. Overall, reflective teaching is presented as a valuable tool for teacher self-evaluation and professional growth.
Action research is a method for teachers to study practical problems in education to improve school practices. It involves identifying an issue, analyzing causes, designing interventions, and drawing conclusions. Benefits include a focus on real school problems, teacher professional development, and improved collegiality. Key characteristics are that it studies practical problems scientifically, focuses on improving current practices, and involves teachers directly in research on their own classrooms.
Action research is a method for teachers to study practical problems in education to improve school practices. It involves identifying an issue, analyzing causes, designing interventions, and drawing conclusions. Benefits include a focus on real school problems, teacher professional development, and improved collegiality. Key characteristics are that it studies practical problems scientifically, focuses on improving current practices, and involves teachers directly in research on their own classrooms.
This document discusses techniques for teachers to improve their creativity and effectiveness in the classroom. It describes several methods teachers can use for self-assessment and development, including action research, problem-solving teaching approaches, paying attention to students, keeping a teacher's journal, making creative use of resources, self-assessment, follow-up actions after lessons, and reflective teaching. Regularly using these techniques helps teachers enhance their skills and guide students to better manage information.
Expository teaching is a direct instruction strategy where the teacher presents academic content to students through lecture. Key aspects of expository teaching include the teacher presenting clear and concise information in a logical progression, using examples to illustrate concepts, and checking for student understanding through questions. The structure of expository lessons helps students focus on the topic and determine what information is most important.
Twelve principles of effective teaching and learningpaulinemoooo
The document outlines twelve principles of effective teaching and learning that are supported by empirical research. The principles were derived from studies conducted by prominent educators on teaching practices in higher education. Some of the key principles include that teachers' knowledge of their subject matter is essential, active involvement of learners enhances learning, interaction between teachers and students motivates students, and providing feedback to students and teachers improves the learning process.
12 AMERICAN EDUCATOR FALL 2013John Dunlosky is a prBenitoSumpter862
12 AMERICAN EDUCATOR | FALL 2013
John Dunlosky is a professor of psychology and the director of experimental
training at Kent State University. His research focuses on self-regulated
learning and how it can be used to improve student achievement across
the lifespan.
Strengthening
the Student Toolbox
study strategies to Boost learning
By John Dunlosky
I
t’s the night before her biology exam, and the high school
student has just begun to study. she takes out her highlighter
and reads her textbook, marking it up as she goes along. she
rereads sentences that seem most important and stays up
most of the night, just hoping to get a good enough grasp of the
material to do well on the exam. These are study strategies that
she may have learned from her friends or her teachers or that she
simply took to on her own. she is not unusual in this regard; many
students rely on strategies such as highlighting, rereading, and
cramming the night before an exam.
Quite often, students believe these relatively ineffective strate-
gies are actually the most effective,1 and at least on the surface
they do seem sound, perhaps because, even after pulling an all-
nighter, students manage to squeak by on exams. Unfortunately,
in a recent review of the research, my colleagues and I found that
these strategies are not that effective,2 especially if students want
to retain their learning and understanding of content well after
the exam is over—obviously, an important educational goal.
so, why aren’t students learning about the best strategies? I
can only speculate, but several reasons seem likely. curricula are
developed to highlight the content that teachers should teach, so
the focus is on providing content and not on training students
how to effectively acquire it. Put differently, the emphasis is on
what students need to learn, whereas little emphasis—if any—is
placed on training students how they should go about learning
the content and what skills will promote efficient studying to
support robust learning. Nevertheless, teaching students how to
learn is as important as teaching them content, because acquir-
IL
LU
ST
R
A
T
IO
N
S
B
y
D
A
N
IE
L
B
A
X
T
E
R
AMERICAN EDUCATOR | FALL 2013 13
ing both the right learning strategies and background knowledge
is important—if not essential—for promoting lifelong learning.
Another reason many students may not be learning about
effective strategies concerns teacher preparation. learning strat-
egies are discussed in almost every textbook on educational
psychology, so many teachers likely have been introduced to at
least some of them. even so, my colleagues and I found that, in
large part, the current textbooks do not adequately cover the
strategies; some omit discussion of the most effective ones, and
most do not provide guidelines on how to use them in the class-
room or on how to teach students to use them. In some cases, the
strategies discussed have lim ...
12 AMERICAN EDUCATOR FALL 2013John Dunlosky is a prAnastaciaShadelb
12 AMERICAN EDUCATOR | FALL 2013
John Dunlosky is a professor of psychology and the director of experimental
training at Kent State University. His research focuses on self-regulated
learning and how it can be used to improve student achievement across
the lifespan.
Strengthening
the Student Toolbox
study strategies to Boost learning
By John Dunlosky
I
t’s the night before her biology exam, and the high school
student has just begun to study. she takes out her highlighter
and reads her textbook, marking it up as she goes along. she
rereads sentences that seem most important and stays up
most of the night, just hoping to get a good enough grasp of the
material to do well on the exam. These are study strategies that
she may have learned from her friends or her teachers or that she
simply took to on her own. she is not unusual in this regard; many
students rely on strategies such as highlighting, rereading, and
cramming the night before an exam.
Quite often, students believe these relatively ineffective strate-
gies are actually the most effective,1 and at least on the surface
they do seem sound, perhaps because, even after pulling an all-
nighter, students manage to squeak by on exams. Unfortunately,
in a recent review of the research, my colleagues and I found that
these strategies are not that effective,2 especially if students want
to retain their learning and understanding of content well after
the exam is over—obviously, an important educational goal.
so, why aren’t students learning about the best strategies? I
can only speculate, but several reasons seem likely. curricula are
developed to highlight the content that teachers should teach, so
the focus is on providing content and not on training students
how to effectively acquire it. Put differently, the emphasis is on
what students need to learn, whereas little emphasis—if any—is
placed on training students how they should go about learning
the content and what skills will promote efficient studying to
support robust learning. Nevertheless, teaching students how to
learn is as important as teaching them content, because acquir-
IL
LU
ST
R
A
T
IO
N
S
B
y
D
A
N
IE
L
B
A
X
T
E
R
AMERICAN EDUCATOR | FALL 2013 13
ing both the right learning strategies and background knowledge
is important—if not essential—for promoting lifelong learning.
Another reason many students may not be learning about
effective strategies concerns teacher preparation. learning strat-
egies are discussed in almost every textbook on educational
psychology, so many teachers likely have been introduced to at
least some of them. even so, my colleagues and I found that, in
large part, the current textbooks do not adequately cover the
strategies; some omit discussion of the most effective ones, and
most do not provide guidelines on how to use them in the class-
room or on how to teach students to use them. In some cases, the
strategies discussed have lim ...
This document discusses reflective teaching and how teachers can develop a reflective approach to improve their practice. It defines reflection as recalling and evaluating past experiences to inform future decisions. Teachers can engage in reflection through various methods like peer observation, writing accounts of lessons, and recording lessons. These reflective practices help teachers develop awareness of their teaching style and make informed changes to improve student outcomes. The document provides examples of how teachers in one department used peer observation and collaborative journaling to reflect on their practice. Overall, reflective teaching is presented as a valuable tool for teacher self-evaluation and professional growth.
Action research is a method for teachers to study practical problems in education to improve school practices. It involves identifying an issue, analyzing causes, designing interventions, and drawing conclusions. Benefits include a focus on real school problems, teacher professional development, and improved collegiality. Key characteristics are that it studies practical problems scientifically, focuses on improving current practices, and involves teachers directly in research on their own classrooms.
Action research is a method for teachers to study practical problems in education to improve school practices. It involves identifying an issue, analyzing causes, designing interventions, and drawing conclusions. Benefits include a focus on real school problems, teacher professional development, and improved collegiality. Key characteristics are that it studies practical problems scientifically, focuses on improving current practices, and involves teachers directly in research on their own classrooms.
CURRICULUM-DESIGN - Micro and macro.pptxGopiMecheri1
This document provides an overview of curriculum design concepts from a presentation by Dr. Sheila Marie N. Bugayong. It discusses how teachers serve as curriculum designers and should involve learners in a planned sequence of learning experiences. The document outlines Peter Oliva's 10 axioms for effective curriculum design, including that curriculum changes with the times and involves stakeholder input. It also describes the key elements of curriculum design, such as specifying intended learning outcomes, determining appropriate content and references, selecting teaching methods, and planning assessment of learning.
Theory of Teacher Education Behavioral Perspectivemarina ilyas
The document discusses teacher education from a behavioral perspective, specifically operant conditioning. It covers several topics:
1. The objectives of pre-service teacher training programs, which include imparting subject matter knowledge, developing pedagogical skills, understanding child psychology, and developing proper teaching attitudes.
2. The role of teacher educators is to transmit knowledge to prospective teachers and train them in research-backed pedagogical behaviors. Prospective teachers receive extensive practice and repetition to reinforce learning.
3. Behaviorist principles like Thorndike's law of exercise are applied, with a focus on rote learning, drills, repetition to prevent extinction of behaviors, and assessing mental states for optimal learning. The goal
Resource teachers were observed using methods like deductive, inductive, demonstration, problem solving, and discovery to teach subjects like English, science, and math to grades 7 and 9; their lessons incorporated explaining concepts, student examples and practice, showing processes, and giving discovery activities.
Students come into our courses with knowledge, beliefs, and attitudes gained in other courses and through daily life. As students bring this knowledge to bear in our classrooms, it influences how they filter and interpret what they are learning. If students’ prior knowledge is robust and accurate and activated at the appropriate time, it provides a strong foundation for building new knowledge. However, when knowledge is inert, insufficient for the task, activated inappropriately, or inaccurate, it can interfere with or impede new learning. To apply this principle, consider the following teaching techniques:
Administer a diagnostic assessment or have students assess their own prior knowledge (See “Selected Classroom Assessment Techniques (CATs) for Getting Feedback on Student Learning”).
Use brainstorming to reveal prior knowledge.
Identify discipline-specific conventions explicitly.
Ask students to make and test predictions (See “Teaching for Retention in Science, Engineering & Mathematics”).
Administer a diagnostic assessment or have students assess their own prior knowledge (See “Selected Classroom Assessment Techniques (CATs) for Getting Feedback on Student Learning”).
Use brainstorming to reveal prior knowledge.
Identify discipline-specific conventions explicitly.
Ask students to make and test predictions (See “Teaching for Retention in Science, Engineering & Mathematics”).
The document discusses various aspects of teaching including:
1. It defines teaching as a process that prepares students for learning and provides structure to enable productive learning.
2. It outlines the key roles of teachers as subject matter experts, pedagogical experts, excellent communicators, student-centered mentors, and assessors.
3. It discusses characteristics of quality teaching including a focus on student achievement, effective links between school and context, and pedagogy that promotes self-regulation and discourse.
This document discusses strategies for facilitating learner-centered teaching. It explores equipping pre-service teachers with fundamental principles of learner-centered education and differentiated instruction to meet students' diverse needs and backgrounds. The objectives are to train teachers to implement responsive teaching strategies and demonstrate knowledge of differentiating instruction. Various tactics for learner-centered classrooms are presented, such as asking questions instead of telling, focusing on students' experiences, promoting active learning, and giving students choices in their learning.
The document discusses different approaches for accommodating children's interests in the classroom and presents a cyclical teaching model based on listening to children. It proposes letting children explore their interests within lessons instead of just completing assignments. The teaching model involves teachers and students collaboratively selecting topics, planning inquiry-based activities, carrying out investigations, and evaluating outcomes. Benefits are meaningful learning through student-driven questions, while drawbacks are its demands on teacher experience and resources. The document suggests working towards using this model, perhaps later in the school year.
The document discusses effective teaching strategies and lesson planning. It states that traditional lecture-style teaching limits student learning and engagement. It recommends using interactive activities, discussions, demonstrations, role-plays, cooperative learning, and inquiry-based teaching to enhance student participation and allow them to construct their own knowledge. The document also provides guidance on developing lesson plans, including identifying learning outcomes, allocating time, selecting materials, and incorporating introductory, developmental, concluding, and assessment activities.
1. Effective teaching requires teachers to play multiple roles including subject matter expert, pedagogical expert, excellent communicator, student-centered mentor, and systematic assessor.
2. There are various characteristics, qualities, and factors that define effective teaching, such as fairness, preparedness, building success, holding high expectations, and creating an engaging learning environment.
3. Effective teachers employ diverse teaching methods, strategies and techniques including lecture, discussion, cooperative learning, integrating technology, questioning, explaining and modeling to facilitate student learning.
Memory and creating patterns of meaning 2nikkisue72
Here are some recommendations based on the research study and Reading A-Z suggestions:
- Incorporate multisensory activities to engage multiple learning styles and strengthen memory formation. Using visuals, movement, sounds, etc. can boost retention.
- Provide scaffolding and build on students' prior knowledge. Introduce new concepts by connecting them to what students already understand. This helps make lessons more accessible.
- Use formative assessments throughout the learning process to evaluate understanding and adjust instruction as needed. Tests should measure higher-order thinking in addition to basic facts. Getting feedback aids both teaching and learning.
- Present material in an organized, step-by-step manner with clear examples. The beginning, middle and
The document provides guidance on writing an effective lesson plan, outlining six key steps: 1) Focus and Review to engage students and review prior knowledge, 2) Statement of Objective to clearly state the learning goal, 3) Teacher Input where teaching and checking for understanding occurs, 4) Guided Practice for students to practice with support, 5) Independent Practice for students to apply their learning independently, and 6) Closure to summarize key concepts and check final understanding. It also discusses evaluating the lesson plan through reflecting on student and teacher performance and determining what could be improved.
Recall your favorite teacher and think about the way she or he man.docxsodhi3
Recall your favorite teacher and think about the way she or he managed the class to make it a positive learning experience for you. Now, read Chapter 5 of your text to explore the various strategies for effectively managing a classroom and see if you can make a connection between what the text says and your favorite classroom experience. Keeping that comparison in mind, answer the following questions:
· When you think about managing a classroom, what do you feel most confident about?
· What are your biggest concerns? State carefully one possible way to deal with your greatest concern and relate it to Kounin’s preventive approaches to managing a classroom.
· Why do you think your solution will work? What challenges or obstacles could impede its success? Explain.
Refer to Chapter 5 of your text, additional resources and your own insights/experiences.
CHAPTER 5 BELOW
The classic study of what effective teachers do when it comes to managing the classroom was published in 1970 by Jacob Kounin. Kounin's research involved the analysis of numerous hours of videotaped segments from classrooms at various grade levels. Kounin observed that teachers who prepared and proactively managed their classrooms were far more effective in teaching and engaging students. Because of the impact of his work, some have called Kounin the "father of classroom management." In this section, we will learn some of Kounin's concepts that emphasize preventive approaches to managing the classroom.
Managing by Being "Withit"
Photo of students in a classroom using cellphones.
Blend Images/Blend Images/Superstock
There are so many things to consider when teachers begin their teaching careers that crafting a classroom management system often falls low on the priority list, when in fact it should be one of the first topics addressed.
Jacob Kounin (1970) is known for introducing several helpful management concepts. Perhaps the best known is withitness. This term signifies a teacher's awareness of what is going on in his classroom and the communication of this awareness to his students. Teachers most often communicate their withitness in nonverbal ways, anticipating potential difficulties and warding off problems very quickly. Withit teachers act as if they have eyes in the back of their heads. For example, a withit teacher might go right on teaching when two students are chatting with each other, simply laying a hand on each desk as he walks by. In most instances in a well-managed classroom, this is the only action necessary to nip things in the bud.
Withit teachers also possess the ability to overlap, that is, to do more than one thing at a time. By "overlapping," Kounin meant the teacher's ability to handle two or more simultaneous events, or in today's terminology, to multitask. For example, a teacher who can overlap can answer a student's question and hand another student a hall pass without neglecting the first student. Situations continually arise in the classroom ...
1. History of Science aApproach based learning
2. The principles of sciencetific approach based learning
3. Activities
4. procedures of Scientific approach based learning
5. Strengths and weakness of Scientific approach based learning
6. Conclusion
This presentation shared what neuroscience, cognitive science, and biology have to tell us about developing a learner centered approach to teaching. Originally presented at the Upper Peninsula of Michigan Conference on Teaching and Learning, May 11, 2018.
The document discusses action research in education. It defines action research as research used by teachers and administrators to improve the quality of their decisions and actions. The key steps of action research are: 1) identifying a problem, 2) analyzing probable causes, 3) developing action hypotheses, 4) implementing an action program, 5) evaluating the program, and 6) following up and communicating findings. An example is provided of a math teacher who identified that some students could not solve problems independently. The teacher analyzed possible causes, developed an action plan to give original problems, and evaluated the results to test if the students abandoned copying habits.
This document discusses case analysis and role plays in teaching and learning. It defines case analysis as using real-life documented situations to solve problems and determine solutions, while role plays allow students to experience different perspectives by assuming roles. The document recommends using a variety of activities like concept mapping, questioning, debates and role plays in the teaching-learning process. It also provides recommendations for an effective process, like setting goals and reviewing performance. Case analysis and role plays can improve students' understanding by allowing them to apply knowledge and reflect on different situations.
CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT for Multigrade Class.pptxAnneCa1
The document discusses effective classroom management strategies for multigrade classrooms, including establishing consistent routines, balancing variety in activities while maintaining challenge, resolving minor issues before they escalate, and reinforcing positive behavior. It also emphasizes the importance of individualized instruction, independent study, and teaching students to become self-directed learners. A multigrade teacher must meet diverse student needs through organized, well-planned lessons that develop independent study skills.
This document discusses using action research as an instructional supervision approach to improve teaching practices in Ipil District. It found that some teachers were not engaging students or checking their understanding, resulting in low test scores. The research had teachers and school heads implement action research projects to address issues in their classrooms. It identified problems they encountered like time constraints and lack of support. To solve these challenges, teachers sought instructional support and applied lessons from supervisors. The research concluded that instructional supervision and collaboration on action research can strengthen teaching practices, especially for new teachers and school heads. It recommends continuing to use these approaches to promote best practices.
What is Special Education 1iStockphotoThinkstockPre-.docxhelzerpatrina
What is Special Education? 1
iStockphoto/Thinkstock
Pre-Test
1. You can use the terms disability and handicap interchangeably. T/F
2. The history of special education began in Europe. T/F
3. The first American legislation that protected students with disabilities was passed in the 1950s. T/F
4. All students with disabilities should be educated in special education classrooms. T/F
5. Special education law is constantly reinterpreted. T/F
Answers can be found at the end of the chapter.
6Curriculum and
Assessment
Socialstock/Socialstock/Superstock
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to
• Describe the various forms a curriculum can assume in the classroom.
• Identify and describe forces that shape curriculum development.
• Analyze key aspects of both formative and summative assessments, including validity, reliability, and
transparency.
• Define, compare, and contrast traditional quantitative measures with assessment for learning and
alternative/authentic assessment.
Section 6.1Defining Curriculum
The aim of education should be to teach us rather how to think, than what
to think—rather how to improve our minds, so as to enable us to think for
ourselves, than to load the memory with the thoughts of other men.
—John Dewey
Teachers make important decisions about what students should learn on a daily basis. How-
ever, they do not do so in a vacuum. In this chapter, you will examine the meaning of curricu-
lum, the process of curriculum development, and the forces that shape it. You will discover
that deciding what students should learn is not an easy task. It is further complicated by the
influence and expectations of several groups in addition to teachers. Expectations range from
standards set by state legislatures to national programs to recommendations espoused by
professional organizations. In the midst of all these influences, the teacher is expected to be a
pivotal player in making curricular decisions.
Teachers also determine what their students know or have learned, and this chapter also
introduces the role of assessment in the classroom. We have all taken assessments. In fact, a
good portion of the time you spent in school likely involved preparing for an exam or waiting
for its results. School is typically about defined stages: pre-assessment, teaching, learning,
and then post-assessment or evaluation. Assessments are meant as a guide to planning for
additional teaching and learning. Thus, it is important that they provide information that will
help teachers improve instruction. And yet, if teachers lack understanding of assessment’s
purposes, they may focus solely on determining what students have or have not learned, with
no plans for future learning. If teachers are to prepare students for the changing world they
will inherit, they must help them become resourceful, creative, lifelong learners who own
their learning by taking responsibility for it. Assessment ca ...
You will submit your proposal as a text-based Word or PDF file. AnastaciaShadelb
You will submit your proposal as a text-based Word or PDF file.
Your research proposal should include the following:
Your selected global ethical dilemma
Background/explanation of why this is a global ethical issue
Make connections to issues of cultural diversity
Research question
Two scholarly, peer-reviewed sources connected to your selected topic (cited in current APA format)
***NOTE***
RESEARCH IS ON GENDER DISCRIMINATION
...
What is Family Resource Management and why is it important to tAnastaciaShadelb
"What is Family Resource Management and why is it important to today's American family?"
Goldsmith, E. B., & GOLDSMITH, E. B. (2003). Resource Management. In J. J. Ponzetti Jr. (Ed.),
International encyclopedia of marriage and family
(2nd ed.). Farmington, MI: Gale. Retrieved from
RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
from
International Encyclopedia of Marriage and Family
Resource management
is the process in which individuals and families use what they have to get what they want. It begins with thinking and planning and ends with the evaluation of actions taken. Three fundamental concepts in resource management are
values, goals
, and
decision making.
Values such as honesty and trust are principles that guide behavior. They are desirable or important and serve as underlying motivators. Values determine goals, which are sought-after end results. Goals can be implicit or explicit. They can be short-term, intermediate-, or long-term. Decisions are conclusions or judgments about some issue or matter.
Decision making
involves choosing between two or more alternatives and follows a series of steps from inception to evaluation.
Through choices, individuals and families define their lives and influence the lives of others. The study of resource management focuses on order, choices, and control, and how people use time, energy, money, physical space, and information. As an applied social science, it is an academic field that is fundamental to our understanding of human behavior. "The knowledge obtained through the study of management is evaluated in light of its ability to make an individual's or family's management practice more effective" (Goldsmith 2000, p. 5).
Individuals and families have characteristic ways of making decisions and acting called their
management style.
Although similar styles are exhibited within families (such as a tendency to be on time or to finish tasks to completion), there are also wide ranges of styles within families making the study of management intrinsically interesting, especially from a
socialization
point of view. Why do such differences exist and how does the individual's style mesh with that of the other members' styles in the family?
Measuring devices, techniques, or instruments that are used to make decisions and plan courses of action are called management tools. For example, time is a resource and a clock or stopwatch is a management tool.
Resources can be divided up into human and material resources, assets that people have at their disposal.
Material resources
(e.g., bridges, roads, houses) decline through use whereas
human resources
(e.g., the ability to read, ride a bicycle) improve or increase through use.
Human capital
describes the sum total of a person's abilities, knowledge, and skills. Education is one way to develop human capital. Related to this is the concept of social capital. The term
social capital
is gaining in importance in the family-relations field and management is considered ...
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CHAPTER 5 BELOW
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What is Special Education? 1
iStockphoto/Thinkstock
Pre-Test
1. You can use the terms disability and handicap interchangeably. T/F
2. The history of special education began in Europe. T/F
3. The first American legislation that protected students with disabilities was passed in the 1950s. T/F
4. All students with disabilities should be educated in special education classrooms. T/F
5. Special education law is constantly reinterpreted. T/F
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Learning Objectives
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• Identify and describe forces that shape curriculum development.
• Analyze key aspects of both formative and summative assessments, including validity, reliability, and
transparency.
• Define, compare, and contrast traditional quantitative measures with assessment for learning and
alternative/authentic assessment.
Section 6.1Defining Curriculum
The aim of education should be to teach us rather how to think, than what
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ourselves, than to load the memory with the thoughts of other men.
—John Dewey
Teachers make important decisions about what students should learn on a daily basis. How-
ever, they do not do so in a vacuum. In this chapter, you will examine the meaning of curricu-
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additional teaching and learning. Thus, it is important that they provide information that will
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Similar to 12 AmERIcAN EdUcATOR SPRING 2012Principles of Instr (20)
You will submit your proposal as a text-based Word or PDF file. AnastaciaShadelb
You will submit your proposal as a text-based Word or PDF file.
Your research proposal should include the following:
Your selected global ethical dilemma
Background/explanation of why this is a global ethical issue
Make connections to issues of cultural diversity
Research question
Two scholarly, peer-reviewed sources connected to your selected topic (cited in current APA format)
***NOTE***
RESEARCH IS ON GENDER DISCRIMINATION
...
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Goldsmith, E. B., & GOLDSMITH, E. B. (2003). Resource Management. In J. J. Ponzetti Jr. (Ed.),
International encyclopedia of marriage and family
(2nd ed.). Farmington, MI: Gale. Retrieved from
RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
from
International Encyclopedia of Marriage and Family
Resource management
is the process in which individuals and families use what they have to get what they want. It begins with thinking and planning and ends with the evaluation of actions taken. Three fundamental concepts in resource management are
values, goals
, and
decision making.
Values such as honesty and trust are principles that guide behavior. They are desirable or important and serve as underlying motivators. Values determine goals, which are sought-after end results. Goals can be implicit or explicit. They can be short-term, intermediate-, or long-term. Decisions are conclusions or judgments about some issue or matter.
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Through choices, individuals and families define their lives and influence the lives of others. The study of resource management focuses on order, choices, and control, and how people use time, energy, money, physical space, and information. As an applied social science, it is an academic field that is fundamental to our understanding of human behavior. "The knowledge obtained through the study of management is evaluated in light of its ability to make an individual's or family's management practice more effective" (Goldsmith 2000, p. 5).
Individuals and families have characteristic ways of making decisions and acting called their
management style.
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socialization
point of view. Why do such differences exist and how does the individual's style mesh with that of the other members' styles in the family?
Measuring devices, techniques, or instruments that are used to make decisions and plan courses of action are called management tools. For example, time is a resource and a clock or stopwatch is a management tool.
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human resources
(e.g., the ability to read, ride a bicycle) improve or increase through use.
Human capital
describes the sum total of a person's abilities, knowledge, and skills. Education is one way to develop human capital. Related to this is the concept of social capital. The term
social capital
is gaining in importance in the family-relations field and management is considered ...
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Week 4: APN Professional Development Plan Paper
Purpose
The purpose of this assignment is to provide the student with an opportunity to explore the nurse practitioner (NP) practice requirements in his/her state of practice, NP competencies and leadership skills to develop a plan to support professional development.
Activity Learning Outcomes
Through this assignment, the student will demonstrate the ability to:
1. Examine roles and competencies of advanced practice nurses essential to performing as leaders and advocates of holistic, safe, and quality care. (CO1)
2. Analyze essential skills needed to lead within the context of complex systems. (CO3)
3. Explore the process of scholarship engagement to improve health and healthcare outcomes in various settings. (CO4)
Due Date
Assignment should be submitted to the Week 4 Roles in APN Professional Development Plan dropbox by Sunday 11:59 p.m. MST at the end of Week 4.
When the assignment is placed in the dropbox, it will automatically be submitted to Turnitin. You may submit the assignment one additional time before the due date to lower the Turnitin score. If you choose to resubmit, the second submission will be considered final and subject to grading. Once the due date for the assignment passes, you may not resubmit to lower a Turnitin score.
This assignment will follow the late assignment policy specified in the course syllabus.
Students are expected to submit assignments by the time they are due. Assignments submitted after the due date and time will receive a deduction of 10% of the total points possible for that assignment for each day the assignment is late. Assignments will be accepted, with penalty as described, up to a maximum of three days late, after which point a zero will be recorded for the assignment.
In the event of a situation that prevents timely submission of an assignment, students may petition their instructor for a waiver of the late submission grade reduction. The instructor will review the student's rationale for the request and make a determination based on the merits of the student's appeal. Consideration of the student's total course performance to date will be a contributing factor in the determination. Students should continue to attend class, actively participate, and complete other assignments while the appeal is pending.
Total Points Possible: 200
Requirements
A
Week 4 Paper Template to be used for your assignment is required for this assignment.
1. The
APN Professional Development Plan paper is worth 200 points and will be graded on the quality of the content, use of citations, use of Standard English grammar, sentence structure, and overall organization based on the required components as summarized in the directions and grading criteria/rubric.
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Details:
·
2 pages
·
APA 7 th edition reference style with recent references within the last 5 years
·
3 references
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2) the number of Medicare beneficiaries,
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· Paragraph 2 – expand your answer by including additional information and opinions
·
· Paragraph 3 – Summarize your answer, concluding with a thought or an opinion of your own.
- APA 7 th edition reference style with recent references within the last 5 years
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Topic: Hepatitis B infection
Clinical Practice Presentation . The focus of the presentation
must reflect current treatment recommendations from accepted professional organizations.
Clinical Standard of Practice Presentation
Students are expected to expand their use of resources for evidence-based practice beyond the required text and explore nursing and related literature to improve their understanding and application of advanced interventions. Each student will present a Clinical Practice Presentation. The focus of the presentation must reflect current treatment recommendations from accepted professional organizations. Presentations will be evaluated related to the criteria listed.
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image1.png
...
The Fresh Detergent CaseEnterprise Industries produces Fresh, AnastaciaShadelb
The Fresh Detergent Case
Enterprise Industries produces Fresh, a brand of liquid detergent. In order to more effectively manage its inventory, the company would like to better predict demand for Fresh. To develop a prediction model, the company has gathered data concerning demand for Fresh over the last 33 sales periods. Each sales period is defined as one month. The variables are as follows:
·
Period = Time period in month
·
Demand = Y = demand for a large size bottle of Fresh (in 100,000)
·
Price = the price of Fresh as offered by Ent. Industries
·
AIP = the Average Industry Price
·
ADV = Enterprise Industries Advertising Expenditure (in $100,000) to Promote Fresh in the sales period.
·
DIFF = AIP - Price = the "price difference" in the sales period
Only the trend of PRICE is negative. Other four variables have positive trends. However, the R2 values suggest that for ADV and DEMAND only the linear model is explained by the data points moderately (66% and 51% respectively). For all the other three variables, the R2 values are too poor to accept the models as adequates because very few percent of data points actually represents the linear model.
As expected, the Demand is negatively correlated with Price. But the regression line equation cannot be relied upon due to poor R2 value. For other three variables, there is a positive correlation. Out of these, for the ADV variable, the regression line can be adequate for the R2 value is moderately higher.
Interpretation
Strong positive correlation is found between
1. PERIOD and ADV
2. PERIOD and DEMAND
3. AIP and DIFF
4. DIFF and ADV
5. DIFF and DEMAND
6. ADV and DEMAND
Strong negative correlation exists between
1. PRICE and DIFF
2. PRICE and ADV
3. PRICE and DEMAND
PERIOD
DEMAND
Forecast
MA(3)
Forecast
MA(6)
Absotute Error - MA(3)
Absotute Error - MA(6)
1
9.4
2
10.3
3
11.5
4
11.1
10.4
0.7
5
11
11.0
0.0
6
10.5
11.2
0.7
7
10.2
10.9
10.6
0.7
0.4
8
8.9
10.6
10.8
1.7
1.9
9
8.3
9.9
10.5
1.6
2.2
10
8.12
9.1
10.0
1.0
1.9
11
8.8
8.4
9.5
0.4
0.7
12
9.8
8.4
9.1
1.4
0.7
13
10.1
8.9
9.0
1.2
1.1
14
11.3
9.6
9.0
1.7
2.3
15
12.5
10.4
9.4
2.1
3.1
16
12.4
11.3
10.1
1.1
2.3
17
12.1
12.1
10.8
0.0
1.3
18
11.8
12.3
11.4
0.5
0.4
19
11.5
12.1
11.7
0.6
0.2
20
11
11.8
11.9
0.8
0.9
21
10.2
11.4
11.9
1.2
1.7
22
10.3
10.9
11.5
0.6
1.2
23
10.9
10.5
11.2
0.4
0.2
24
11.2
10.5
11.0
0.7
0.2
25
12.5
10.8
10.9
1.7
1.7
26
13.4
11.5
11.0
1.9
2.4
27
14.7
12.4
11.4
2.3
3.3
28
14.1
13.5
12.2
0.6
1.9
29
14
14.1
12.8
0.1
1.2
30
13.5
14.3
13.3
0.8
0.2
31
13.5
13.9
13.7
0.4
0.2
32
13.1
13.7
13.9
0.6
0.8
33
12.5
13.4
13.8
0.9
1.3
34
13.0
13.5
MAD =
0.9
1.3
Since MAD of MA(3) is less than that of MA(6), we should be preferring MA(3) over MA(6). However, Moving average may not be a good choice for predicting the demand because there is a clear p ...
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TBSB Network
The Best Sports Broadcasting Network is home to all college football games, events, and updates. From Alabama and Clemson to Mount Union and Wheaton College, Division 1 to Division 3 top to bottom 24/7 college football. Being a college football athlete myself and having played at Clemson University and now here at University of Maryland I understand the different levels of exposure programs and athletes get even across power 5 conferences there is some exposure but different and some more than others. What my goal and plan for TBSB is that we bring the same amounts of awareness and exposure to their programs that the Clemson’s and Alabama’s receive to their programs.
After conducting many research experiments on former college athletes as well as parents, family members of student athletes, and fans I learned that they are not happy with not having the chance to always support and watch programs who aren’t top tier and do not have the same lime light as others. I also found that there is not one particular network that shows all power 5 conference football games on Saturdays, there are different networks you have to pay for monthly to keep up with all football games from different conferences. For example, you have ACC Network, Big 10 Network, and SEC Network for each of these networks you need a different subscription and or certain cable plan. With TBSB we are putting all of these networks under one station to give families, fans, and much more the best possible experience.
I feel like this network will be beneficial to many different people starting with the players. Giving all players who are not receiving a lot of exposure this prime television opportunity for family and friends to watch and cheer them on. Also giving these players opportunities to be evaluated, and scouted by the NFL for those who have that desire. This network will also be beneficial to the university itself, football programs have a chance to increase school’s revenue at any given time. Putting these different schools in the lime light will increase the chances to help up school’s revenue. Last but not least TBSB will be beneficial to families, friends, fans, and much more the people who are not able to make it to the games but would still love to support and cheer on these programs. With the click of a button all of their problems are solved with TBSB giving them the chance to watch not only the games of their loved ones but any other college football games of their choice.
Currently, I am in the process of finalizing the concept and sources of revenue, as of now my guaranteed sources of revenue will come from customers who sign up they will pay a monthly fee. My next source of revenue I want to work with television companies to have TBSB added to their channel listings and work with these different companies for another stream of revenue. These are my biggest “road blocks” at the moment. I also will have to find workers who are willing and dedica ...
SU_NSG6430_week2_A2_Pand
ey_R.docx
by Ram Pandey
Submission date: 04-Sep-2020 06:47PM (UTC-0400)
Submission ID: 1379955415
File name: SU_NSG6430_week2_A2_Pandey_R.docx (20.8K)
Word count: 685
Character count: 4114
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SIMILARITY INDEX
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INTERNET SOURCES
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PUBLICATIONS
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STUDENT PAPERS
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SU_NSG6430_week2_A2_Pandey_R.docx
ORIGINALITY REPORT
PRIMARY SOURCES
Submitted to South University
Student Paper
FINAL GRADE
/20
SU_NSG6430_week2_A2_Pandey_R.docx
GRADEMARK REPORT
GENERAL COMMENTS
Instructor
PAGE 1
PAGE 2
PAGE 3
PAGE 4
SU_NSG6430_week2_A2_Pandey_R.docxby Ram PandeySU_NSG6430_week2_A2_Pandey_R.docxORIGINALITY REPORTPRIMARY SOURCESSU_NSG6430_week2_A2_Pandey_R.docxGRADEMARK REPORTFINAL GRADEGENERAL COMMENTSInstructor
SOAP NOTE
Name: MT
Date:12/3/19
Time: 0930
Encounter 2
Age: 32
Sex: Female
SUBJECTIVE
CC:
“I need to start on birth control, I just don’t know which one to go on as there are so many to choose from.”
HPI:
30 -year-old Asian American female that presents to the clinic requesting to start birth control.
Medication: (list with reason for med)
PT is not taking any medication currently
PMH: None
Allergies: Does not have any food or drug allergies
Medication Intolerances: None
Chronic Illnesses/Major traumas:
Patient denies any medical trauma
Chronic Health Problems: No known chronic health problems
Hospitalization/Surgeries: None
Family History: Mother Healthy. Father HTN. Sister Healthy. Brother autism
Social History:
Social history is negative for ETOH and she denies past or present illicit drug use. Denies present use of tobacco. States she does exercise regularly, and is not on a specific diet. Pt is currently in school for accounting.
ROS
General:
Patient denies weight change, fatigue, fever, chills, night sweats, energy level
Cardiovascular:
Denies any episodes of chest pain, palpitations, syncope or orthopnea.
Skin:
Denies any skin lesions.
Respiratory:
Patient denies dyspnea. Denies cough
Eyes:
Patient states no changes in vision, no blurred or double vision.
Gastrointestinal:
Patient denies any change in appetite, denies nausea and vomiting. denies any bowel changes
Ears:
No recent hearing loss, tinnitus, denies any ear discharge or pressure.
Genitourinary/Gynecological:
Patient denies any itching, burning or discharge
Last PAP: 9/11/18
Mammogram: 11/2/18
Pregnancy: G4P3
Not on any contraception, is currently sex ...
Sheet1Risk Register for Project NameDateProject NameID No.RankRisAnastaciaShadelb
This document appears to be a risk register template for a project that lists risks by ID number, rank, description, category, root cause, potential triggers, responses, risk owner, probability, impact, and status. However, the document contains no further details to summarize as it appears to be an empty template.
1
2
Final Project Topic
Final Project Topic
I selected the question: Analyze differences among research, evidence-based practice, practice-based evidence, comparative effectiveness research, outcomes research, and quality improvement. How do these practices affect nursing and patient outcomes?
Selected References
Davis, K., Gorst, S. L., Harman, N., Smith, V., Gargon, E., Altman, D. G., ... & Williamson, P. R. (2018). Choosing important health outcomes for comparative effectiveness research: An updated systematic review and involvement of low and middle-income countries. PloS one, 13(2), e0190695.
Davies, C., Lyons, C., & Whyte, R. (2019). Optimizing nursing time in a daycare unit: Quality improvement using Lean Six Sigma methodology. International Journal for Quality in Health Care, 31(Supplement_1), 22-28.
Eppley, K., Azano, A. P., Brenner, D. G., & Shannon, P. (2018). What counts as evidence in rural schools? Evidence-based practice and practice-based evidence for diverse settings. The Rural Educator, 39(2).
Fiset, V. J., Graham, I. D., & Davies, B. L. (2017). Evidence-based practice in clinical nursing education: A scoping review. Journal of Nursing Education, 56(9), 534-541.
Forsythe, L., Heckert, A., Margolis, M. K., Schrandt, S., & Frank, L. (2018). Methods and impact of engagement in research, from theory to practice and back again: early findings from the Patient-Centered Outcomes Research Institute. Quality of Life Research, 27(1), 17-31.
Gargon, E., Gorst, S. L., Harman, N. L., Smith, V., Matvienko-Sikar, K., & Williamson, P. R. (2018). Choosing important health outcomes for comparative effectiveness research: 4th annual update to a systematic review of core outcome sets for research. PloS one, 13(12), e0209869.
...
12
Capstone Project
Olivia Timmons
Department of Nursing. St. Johns River State College
NUR 4949: Nursing Capstone
Dr. C. Z. Velasco
November 14, 2021
Capstone Project
There is a saying that states one can only learn through doing it, practically and physically. It is the explanation as to why it is very important to implement the skills acquired in theory into practice to ascertain one’s competence. This is even more crucial in the medical field as they have no choice but just to be perfect at what they are doing, the only secret is through practice. Practicums connect the two worlds of theory and classwork, thus breaking the monotony alongside connecting what was taught in class with what happens in the field. They are important as apart from sharpening the student’s skills, they also open a window of opportunity and build up connections that will come in handy for the student later on. They will feel the experience and the pressure that comes with it thus preparing themselves accordingly.
Statement of the Problem
Timing is essential in the nursing field and the Emergency Room is notorious for its long wait times. The goal of a clinical laboratory is to deliver medically useful results for patients on a timely basis. This goal can be hindered by the new paradigm of the modern laboratory – “do more with less" (Lopez, 2020). When implementing new care models for patients, the patient perspective is critical. The objective of this study was to describe and develop an understanding of the information needs of patients in the ED waiting room concerning ED wait time notification (Calder, 2021). As a patient arrives at the ER waiting area, it's critical to have lab results for the provider to evaluate. I can give you an example of a patient that waited in the waiting room for over 3 hours, no labs were completed because they were waiting for the patient to go back into a room. The patient was suffering from a heart attack and his troponins were elevated and no one knew until 3 hours later. If POC labs were done on all patients as soon as they arrived, mistakes like these can be avoided. Completed POC blood can cut the wait times in half and the laboratory also won't be backed up on resulting lab specimens.
PICOT Question
Question: Is there a significant decrease in Emergency Department patient length of stay (LOS) for those whose blood was analyzed using POC testing versus those whose blood was analyzed using laboratory testing?
· P-Population= emergency room patients
· I-Intervention or Exposure= POC testing of blood specimens
· C-Comparison= Laboratory blood specimens
· O-Outcome= Decrease patient stay in the emergency room
· T-Time = N/A
History of the Issue
The length of patient stay in the emergency department (ED) is an issue that not only increases the severity of illnesses but also reduces the quality of patient care. Serious health conditions including diabetes and hypertension can worsen while patients are ...
12
First Name Last Name
Plaza College
MGT1003 Section 8 – Supervisory Management
Professor Aicha Cesar
Spring 2022
1. Do you believe that Joe Trosh has the right to carry a concealed weapon in the hospitaldue to being harassed for visiting casinos?
Part IA: The Purpose of the Report and the Problem
The purpose of the report is to solve the problem of whether or not Joe Trosh has the right to carry a concealed weapon in the hospital as a reason for self-defense against discrimination and harassment from the staff of a rural hospital in Oklahoma. According to the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, harassment is a form of employment that violates Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, Age Discrimination Employment Act of 1967, and Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 ("Equal Employment Opportunity Commission," n.d.).
The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission outlined that “harassment’’ based on race/color discrimination means unwelcome conduct that is based on color, religious background, sex, national origin, older age, disability, or genetic information that is based on medical history ("U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission," n.d.).
Hirsch (2018) stated that the impact of discrimination on racism often creates challenges that the human resource manager is responsible for overcoming. In a workplace, racism is evident through macroaggression, defined as indirect, subtle, and unintentional acts of discrimination against marginalized groups.
Harassment based on stereotypes can affect an organization’s decision-making process in many ways, such as making a quick judgment without looking at the consequences. It also makes people feel preconceptions about a specific group of people leading to harsh treatment.in addition, harassment of stereotypes leads to fixed beliefs about the place of women and men in society.
Managers need to know about the Second Amendment right to bear arms and U.S. Supreme Court Cases that examine this issue because it will protect the hospital from legal matters ("Cornell Law School," n.d.). The District of Columbia v. Heller case in which the supreme court held in 2008 on the second Amendment regarding firearm possession. It gives one the right to possess firearms, independent of service in state militia use the guns for self-defense.
A potential legal issue the Supervisor must consider is how to handle discipline decisions that involve employees who have experienced discrimination through harassment by co-workers. According to the Oklahoma Self-Defense Act, it is “not right for a person to identify themselves as a licensed handgun or as lawfully in possession of any other firemen if the law does not demand information."
Part 1B The Research Experience
To perform my research, I began with online research. I used Google and searched for articles rights of carrying weapons to work as a form of self-defense and discrimination and harassment in the place of work.
I have foun ...
12Epic EMR ImplementationComment by Author 2 Need a AnastaciaShadelb
1
2
Epic EMR Implementation
Comment by Author 2: Need a running head. Ex:
RUNING HEAD: Implementation of EMR
Implementation of Electronic Medical Records (EMR) Comment by Author 2: Your topic is very broad. You should have a unique identification of basically what you are trying to investigate with your research. Basically, you need to try to funnel it. For instance, The impact of the EMR on ...... Comment by Author 2: Also, the title doesn't tell the story of your research. Basically, the reader should be attracted to your topic just by reading the title. That is why is very broad and doesn't present an attractive meaning. Comment by Author 2: Example: The Implementation of EMR: Tjhe Role of Data in ... Comment by Author 2: Or, Barriers to Implementing the EMR in ....
HCIN 699-51 – B-2021/Summer
Applied Project in Healthcare Informatic
Dr. Chaza Abdul and Dr. Glenn Mitchell
Prepared by:
Name: Bolade Yusuf
Student ID: 273092
Harrisburg University
08/18/21
Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION 3
1.1 Background to research problem 3
1.1.1 Electronic Medical Records (EMR) 3
1.1.2 Patient’s Data 4
1.2 Problem Statement 4
1.3 Objectives 5
1.4 Research Questions 5
1.5 Significance of the Research 5
LITERATURE REVIEW 6
2.1 Introduction 6
2.2 Features of an Effective EMR 6
2.3 Barriers to adoption of EMR 8
2.4 Addressing EMR adoption barriers 9
2.5 Related Work 11
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 12
3.0 Introduction 12
3.1 Research Philosophy 12
3.2 Research design 12
3.3 Study Population Sample 13
3.4 Sample Size and Sampling Procedure 13
3.5 Data Collection 14
DATA ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS 15
4.1 Data Analysis 15
4.2 Findings 15
4.3 Benefits of epic EMR 16
Conclusion 17
References 18
Appendix 1: Survey Questionnaire 20
Appendix 2:Survey Questions Response Analysis 21
INTRODUCTION1.1 Background to research problem
Health care is critical in any society. Managing patient’s data goes a long way in ensuring good treatment measures are taken. Health care information therefore must be collected correctly and stored in a manner which abides by the principled of confidentiality, integrity and accessibility (Kaushal et al., 2009). Data regarding a patient should be kept confidential as much as possible and only retrieved when needed. A good health records management system should be able to confidentially store patient’s data. Each patient should have an account within the system where their data is stored. Access to this data should be given on privileges basis and only to individuals who will use it for treatment of the patient. The patient’s data in a good health information management system should be of high integrity. Data should be collected from the source (the patient) and recorded during the collection process. Having an intermediary stage where data is recorded in in a secondary avenue before being transferred to the primary system could lead to errors thus compromising its integrity. A good health information management system should also ...
12Facebook WebsiteAdriana C. HernandezRasmussen UnAnastaciaShadelb
1
2
Facebook Website
Adriana C. Hernandez
Rasmussen University
COURSE#: MA242/BSC2087C
Jenessa Gerling
05/01/2022
Thesis Statement: Facebook, which emerged as a standalone website, is used worldwide. Facebook has emerged as one of the 21st century's largest companies, with a consumer base of people who understand the word internet.
Title of Paper: Facebook Website
I. Introduction
A. Attention grabbing sentence about topic
Facebook, which emerged as a standalone website, is used worldwide. Skyrocketing revenues' simplified version of the term perception is a way of perceiving or viewing things and refers to how the brain knows how things are or processes things (Mosquera et al.,2020).
B. Thesis statement
Facebook, which emerged as a standalone website, is used worldwide. Facebook has emerged as one of the 21st century's largest companies, with a consumer base of people who understand the word internet.
II. First paragraph main point – topic sentence
The case in this study involves deciphering the website perception elements and related responses to the same crucial points as follows:
A. Supporting details (in-text citation for outside resource used as support/evidence)
1. Details about the supporting details
Sensory response refers to the way we respond to specific website visual elements. The website contains both a design pattern and a logo which most individuals worldwide are aware of today.
2. Details about the supporting details
The image of the logo is a letter f-like. The most dominant colour in the ad on Facebook is blue and white shades used to design and highlight the tangible symbol.
B. Supporting details (in-text citation)
There are also lines and shapes in the logo, and as mentioned, the logo lines include lines and a square box forming a bold character, 'f' and highlighting the Facebook company name (Plantin et al.,2018). Contrast and balance are also incorporated. There is contrast present and light colours in the image that easily distinguish the Facebook symbol from other symbols such as WhatsApp and YouTube. The balance is indicated in the proper depiction of the 'F' symbol, highlighting everything around the same.
C. Transition sentence
On the other hand, perceptual response refers to the number of groups of persons attracted to the ad and those not attracted.
III. Second paragraph main point – topic sentence
Though perceptual response targets a potential user base involving many people from any age group, ethnicity, or age, it is more dominant among the youth, in my view.
A. Supporting details (in-text citation)
The aged have no more time in the Facebook like the youth who are in desire remain informed and have interest in sharing their feelings and information through the platform (Plantin et al.,2018).
1. Details about the supporting details
The technical response involves specific elements, including buttons and dropdowns worldwide, which technically impact the user.
2. Details about the supporting details
T ...
1
2
Experience
During my clinical placement in a neurosurgical unit, we would occasionalJy exa mine epilepsy
patients to document any seizures. These patients rarely require substantial nursing care, and
most are self-sufficient with only 1-2 prescriptions administered every six hours. I was working
an early shift, and my buddy nurse assigned me to three patients, one of whom was under
examination for a seizure. My buddy nurse handed me the drawer keys and indicated the
medication was in the side drawer when I went with my nurse to provide the patient medication.
Looking over the initial purchase, I began my safety check prior to dispensing the prescription
and discovered that it had expired in February 2019. I requested that my preceptor come over
and take a look at the package. She realized the medication was out of date when she noticed the
expiration date. She then went out of the room with the packaging. When she returned, she
indicated that she had reported the event to the NUM. I then inquired if there was anything else
we needed to do, but I was respectfully told to stay out of it. I took a set of vitals on the patient,
which were all normal, and the buddy nurse was given a new pack of medication that was still
usable. I felt accomplished at the end of my shift since I had followed the procedure for providing
the correct medication and had identified the problem. Being a part. of event reporting and alerting
the doctors, on the other hand, would have been a great experience. Overall, I followed NSHQS's
safety requirements and medication standards when performing my nursing responsibilities.
h
...
1
2
Dissertation Topic Approval
Dissertation Topic Approval
Topic
How can the fourth industrial revolution technologies be used to address the current climatic issues facing the world?
General Reasoning
I selected this research topic because climatic change has become a major concern today, with world leaders and researchers trying to develop ways to address this concern. There are several adverse impacts of climatic change on the world. One of the adverse effects is that humans and animals face new challenges for their survival due to the consequences of climatic change. Climatic change has resulted in increased temperature levels in the world, rising sea levels, shrinking glaciers, and increased ocean temperatures. It has resulted in frequent and intense droughts, storms, and heat waves threatening animals' lives. It has also resulted in biodiversity loss due to limited adaptability and the economic implications of these climatic changes. One of the ways that can be used to deal with climatic issues is through the use of technology which can help reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The fourth revolution technologies such as the internet of things, artificial intelligence, and cloud computing can play a vital role in addressing these climatic challenges.
Potential thesis
The fourth industrial revolution technologies such as the internet of things, artificial intelligence, and cloud computing can play a vital role in addressing these climatic challenges; therefore, it is important to determine how these technologies can be utilized to achieve the environmental objectives of the world.
Thesis map for your Literature Review
The literature review will consist of articles that have been published over the five years. It will consist of journals and articles that have researched fourth industrial revolutions that can be used to address climatic change.
The research topic I selected for my dissertation is related to the program goals and core courses by addressing the revolution of technology and its applications in addressing the world's challenges.
...
12Essay TitleThesis Statement I. This is the topicAnastaciaShadelb
The document outlines the structure for a Rogerian argument essay on school uniforms. It provides instructions for introducing opposing viewpoints in three paragraphs, then addressing the proponents' viewpoints in three more paragraphs. It instructs to then write a paragraph presenting a compromise viewpoint. Each main point should have an introductory topic sentence, a quote or paraphrase with citation, commentary, and transitional statement. The outline concludes by stating the conclusion paragraph should reiterate the compromise and benefits of accepting it.
How to Add Chatter in the odoo 17 ERP ModuleCeline George
In Odoo, the chatter is like a chat tool that helps you work together on records. You can leave notes and track things, making it easier to talk with your team and partners. Inside chatter, all communication history, activity, and changes will be displayed.
How to Build a Module in Odoo 17 Using the Scaffold MethodCeline George
Odoo provides an option for creating a module by using a single line command. By using this command the user can make a whole structure of a module. It is very easy for a beginner to make a module. There is no need to make each file manually. This slide will show how to create a module using the scaffold method.
বাংলাদেশের অর্থনৈতিক সমীক্ষা ২০২৪ [Bangladesh Economic Review 2024 Bangla.pdf] কম্পিউটার , ট্যাব ও স্মার্ট ফোন ভার্সন সহ সম্পূর্ণ বাংলা ই-বুক বা pdf বই " সুচিপত্র ...বুকমার্ক মেনু 🔖 ও হাইপার লিংক মেনু 📝👆 যুক্ত ..
আমাদের সবার জন্য খুব খুব গুরুত্বপূর্ণ একটি বই ..বিসিএস, ব্যাংক, ইউনিভার্সিটি ভর্তি ও যে কোন প্রতিযোগিতা মূলক পরীক্ষার জন্য এর খুব ইম্পরট্যান্ট একটি বিষয় ...তাছাড়া বাংলাদেশের সাম্প্রতিক যে কোন ডাটা বা তথ্য এই বইতে পাবেন ...
তাই একজন নাগরিক হিসাবে এই তথ্য গুলো আপনার জানা প্রয়োজন ...।
বিসিএস ও ব্যাংক এর লিখিত পরীক্ষা ...+এছাড়া মাধ্যমিক ও উচ্চমাধ্যমিকের স্টুডেন্টদের জন্য অনেক কাজে আসবে ...
Strategies for Effective Upskilling is a presentation by Chinwendu Peace in a Your Skill Boost Masterclass organisation by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan on 08th and 09th June 2024 from 1 PM to 3 PM on each day.
A review of the growth of the Israel Genealogy Research Association Database Collection for the last 12 months. Our collection is now passed the 3 million mark and still growing. See which archives have contributed the most. See the different types of records we have, and which years have had records added. You can also see what we have for the future.
A workshop hosted by the South African Journal of Science aimed at postgraduate students and early career researchers with little or no experience in writing and publishing journal articles.
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How to Make a Field Mandatory in Odoo 17Celine George
In Odoo, making a field required can be done through both Python code and XML views. When you set the required attribute to True in Python code, it makes the field required across all views where it's used. Conversely, when you set the required attribute in XML views, it makes the field required only in the context of that particular view.
Pengantar Penggunaan Flutter - Dart programming language1.pptx
12 AmERIcAN EdUcATOR SPRING 2012Principles of Instr
1. 12 AmERIcAN EdUcATOR | SPRING 2012
Principles of Instruction
Research-Based Strategies That All Teachers Should Know
By Barak Rosenshine
T
his article presents 10 research-based principles of
instruction, along with suggestions for classroom prac-
tice. These principles come from three sources: (a)
research in cognitive science, (b) research on master
teachers, and (c) research on cognitive supports. Each is briefly
explained below.
A: Research in cognitive science: This research focuses on how
our brains acquire and use information. This cognitive research
also provides suggestions on how we might overcome the
limita-
tions of our working memory (i.e., the mental “space” in which
thinking occurs) when learning new material.
B: Research on the classroom practices of master teachers: Mas-
ter teachers are those teachers whose classrooms made the high-
est gains on achievement tests. In a series of studies, a wide
range
of teachers were observed as they taught, and the investigators
coded how they presented new material, how and whether they
checked for student understanding, the types of support they
provided to their students, and a number of other instructional
activities. By also gathering student achievement data, research-
2. ers were able to identify the ways in which the more and less
effec-
tive teachers differed.
C: Research on cognitive supports to help students learn
complex
tasks: Effective instructional procedures—such as thinking
aloud,
providing students with scaffolds, and providing students with
models—come from this research.
Even though these are three very different bodies of research,
there is no conflict at all between the instructional suggestions
that come from each of these three sources. In other words,
these
three sources supplement and complement each other. The fact
that the instructional ideas from three different sources supple -
ment and complement each other gives us faith in the validity of
these findings.
Education involves helping a novice develop strong, readily
accessible background knowledge. It’s important that
background
knowledge be readily accessible, and this occurs when
knowledge
is well rehearsed and tied to other knowledge. The most
effective
teachers ensured that their students efficiently acquired,
rehearsed, and connected background knowledge by providing
a good deal of instructional support. They provided this support
by teaching new material in manageable amounts, modeling,
guiding student practice, helping students when they made
errors,
and providing for sufficient practice and review. Many of these
teachers also went on to experiential, hands-on activities, but
they
3. always did the experiential activities after, not before, the basic
material was learned.
The following is a list of some of the instructional principles
that have come from these three sources. These ideas will be
described and discussed in this article:
• Begin a lesson with a short review of previous learning.1
• Present new material in small steps with student practice after
each step.2
• Ask a large number of questions and check the responses of all
students.3
• Provide models.4
• Guide student practice.5
• Check for student understanding.6
• Obtain a high success rate.7
• Provide scaffolds for difficult tasks.8
• Require and monitor independent practice.9
• Engage students in weekly and monthly review.10
Barak Rosenshine is an emeritus professor of educational
psychology in the
College of Education at the University of Illinois at Urbana-
Champaign.
A distinguished researcher, he has spent much of the past four
decades
identifying the hallmarks of effective teaching. He began his
4. career as a
high school history teacher in the Chicago public schools. This
article is
adapted with permission from Principles of Instruction by Barak
Rosen-
shine. Published by the International Academy of Education in
2010, the
original report is available at
www.ibe.unesco.org/fileadmin/user_upload/
Publications/Educational_Practices/EdPractices_21.pdf.I LL
U
ST
R
A
T
IO
N
S
B
Y
J
A
m
E
S
Y
A
5. N
G
www.ibe.unesco.org/fileadmin/user_upload/Publications/Educat
ional_Practices/EdPractices_21.pdf
AmERIcAN EdUcATOR | SPRING 2012 13
1. Begin a lesson with a short review of previous
learning: Daily review can strengthen previous
learning and can lead to fluent recall.
Research findings
Daily review is an important component of instruction. Review
can help us strengthen the connections among the material we
have learned. The review of previous learning can help us recall
words, concepts, and procedures effortlessly and automatically
when we need this material to solve problems or to understand
new material. The development of expertise requires thousands
of hours of practice, and daily review is one component of this
practice.
For example, daily review was part of a successful experiment
in elementary school mathematics. Teachers in the experiment
were taught to spend eight minutes every day on review.
Teachers
used this time to check the homework, go over problems where
there were errors, and practice the concepts and skills that
needed
to become automatic. As a result, students in these classrooms
had higher achievement scores than did students in other
classrooms.
Daily practice of vocabulary can lead to seeing each practiced
word as a unit (i.e., seeing the whole word automatically rather
6. than as individual letters that have to be sounded out and
blended). When students see words as units, they have more
space available in their working memory, and this space can
now
be used for comprehension. Mathematical problem solving is
also
improved when the basic skills (addition, multiplication, etc.)
are
overlearned and become automatic, thus freeing working-mem-
ory capacity.
In the classroom
The most effective teachers in the studies of classroom
instruction
understood the importance of practice, and they began their les -
sons with a five- to eight-minute review of previously covered
material. Some teachers reviewed vocabulary, formulae, events,
or previously learned concepts. These teachers provided addi -
tional practice on facts and skills that were needed for recall to
become automatic.
Effective teacher activities also included reviewing the con-
cepts and skills that were necessary to do the homework, having
students correct each others’ papers, and asking about points on
which the students had difficulty or made errors. These reviews
ensured that the students had a firm grasp of the skills and con-
cepts that would be needed for the day’s lesson.
Effective teachers also reviewed the knowledge and concepts
that were relevant for that day’s lesson. It is important for a
teacher
to help students recall the concepts and vocabulary that will be
relevant for the day’s lesson because our working memory is
very
limited. If we do not review previous learning, then we will
7. have
to make a special effort to recall old material while learning
new
material, and this makes it difficult for us to learn the new
material.
Daily review is particularly important for teaching material that
will be used in subsequent learning. Examples include reading
sight words (i.e., any word that is known by a reader automati -
cally), grammar, math facts, math computation, math factoring,
and chemical equations.
When planning for review, teachers might want to consider
which words, math facts, procedures, and concepts need to
become automatic, and which words, vocabulary, or ideas need
to be reviewed before the lesson begins.
In addition, teachers might consider doing the following dur-
ing their daily review:
• Correct homework.
• Review the concepts and skills that were practiced as part of
the homework.
• Ask students about points where they had difficulties or made
errors.
• Review material where errors were made.
• Review material that needs overlearning (i.e., newly acquired
skills should be practiced well beyond the point of initial mas -
tery, leading to automaticity).
2. Present new material in small steps with student
practice after each step: Only present small amounts
8. of new material at any time, and then assist students
as they practice this material.
Research findings
Our working memory, the place where we process information,
is small. It can only handle a few bits of information at once—
too
much information swamps our working memory. Presenting too
much material at once may confuse students because their work-
ing memory will be unable to process it.
Therefore, the more effective teachers do not overwhelm their
students by presenting too much new material at once. Rather,
The most effective teachers ensured
that students efficiently acquired,
rehearsed, and connected knowledge.
many went on to hands-on activities,
but always after, not before, the basic
material was learned.
14 AmERIcAN EdUcATOR | SPRING 2012
these teachers only present small amounts of new material at
any
time, and then assist the students as they practice this material.
Only after the students have mastered the first step do teachers
proceed to the next step.
The procedure of first teaching in small steps and then guiding
student practice represents an appropriate way of dealing with
the limitation of our working memory.
In the classroom
9. The more successful teachers did not overwhelm their students
by presenting too much new material at once. Rather, they pre-
sented only small amounts of new material at one time, and they
taught in such a way that each point was mastered before the
next
point was introduced. They checked their students’ understand-
ing on each point and retaught material when necessary.
Some successful teachers taught by giving a series of short
presentations using many examples. The examples provided
concrete learning and elaboration that were useful for
processing
new material.
Teaching in small steps requires time, and the more effective
teachers spent more time presenting new material and guiding
student practice than did the less effective teachers. In a study
of
mathematics instruction, for instance, the most effective math-
ematics teachers spent about 23 minutes of a 40-minute period
in lecture, demonstration, questioning, and working examples.
In contrast, the least effective teachers spent only 11 minutes
presenting new material. The more effective teachers used this
extra time to provide additional explanations, give many exam-
ples, check for student understanding, and provide sufficient
instruction so that the students could learn to work
independently
without difficulty. In one study, the least effective teachers
asked
only nine questions in a 40-minute period. Compared with the
successful teachers, the less effective teachers gave much
shorter
presentations and explanations, and then passed out worksheets
and told students to solve the problems. The less successful
teach-
10. ers were then observed going from student to student and having
to explain the material again.
Similarly, when students were taught a strategy for summariz-
ing a paragraph, an effective teacher taught the strategy using
small steps. First, the teacher modeled and thought aloud as she
identified the topic of a paragraph. Then, she led practice on
iden-
tifying the topics of new paragraphs. Then, she taught students
to
identify the main idea of a paragraph. The teacher modeled this
step and then supervised the students as they practiced both
find-
ing the topic and locating the main idea. Following this, the
teacher taught the students to identify the supporting details in a
paragraph. The teacher modeled and thought aloud, and then the
students practiced. Finally, the students practiced carrying out
all
three steps of this strategy. Thus, the strategy of summarizing a
paragraph was divided into smaller steps, and there was
modeling
and practice at each step.
3. Ask a large number of questions and check the
responses of all students: Questions help students
practice new information and connect new material
to their prior learning.
Research findings
Students need to practice new material. The teacher’s questions
and student discussion are a major way of providing this neces -
sary practice. The most successful teachers in these studies
spent
more than half of the class time lecturing, demonstrating, and
asking questions.
11. Questions allow a teacher to determine how well the material
has been learned and whether there is a need for additional
instruction. The most effective teachers also ask students to
explain the process they used to answer the question, to explain
how the answer was found. Less successful teachers ask fewer
questions and almost no process questions.
In the classroom
In one classroom-based experimental study, one group of teach-
ers was taught to follow the presentation of new material with
lots
of questions.11 They were taught to increase the number of
factual
questions and process questions they asked during this guided
practice. Test results showed that their students achieved higher
scores than did students whose teachers did not receive the
training.
Imaginative teachers have found ways to involve all students
in answering questions. Examples include having all students:
• Tell the answer to a neighbor.
• Summarize the main idea in one or two sentences, writing the
summary on a piece of paper and sharing this with a neighbor,
or repeating the procedures to a neighbor.
• Write the answer on a card and then hold it up.
• Raise their hands if they know the answer (thereby allowing
the teacher to check the entire class).
• Raise their hands if they agree with the answer that someone
else has given.
12. Across the classrooms that researchers observed, the purpose
of all these procedures was to provide active participation for
the
students and also to allow the teacher to see how many students
were correct and confident. The teacher may then reteach some
material when it was considered necessary. An alternative was
for
students to write their answers and then trade papers with each
other.
Other teachers used choral responses to provide sufficient
practice when teaching new vocabulary or lists of items. This
made the practice seem more like a game. To be effective, how -
AmERIcAN EdUcATOR | SPRING 2012 15
ever, all students needed to start together, on a signal. When
students did not start together, only the faster students
answered.
In addition to asking questions, the more effective teachers
facilitated their students’ rehearsal by providing explanations,
giving more examples, and supervising students as they
practiced
the new material.
The following is a series of stems12 for questions that teachers
might ask when teaching literature, social science content, or
sci-
ence content to their students. Sometimes, students may also
develop questions from these stems to ask questions of each
other.
How are __________ and __________ alike?
13. What is the main idea of __________?
What are the strengths and weaknesses of __________?
In what way is __________ related to __________?
Compare __________ and __________ with regard to
__________.
What do you think causes __________?
How does __________ tie in with what we have learned before?
Which one is the best __________, and why?
What are some possible solutions for the problem of
__________?
Do you agree or disagree with this statement: __________?
What do you still not understand about __________?
4. Provide models: Providing students with
models and worked examples can help them
learn to solve problems faster.
Research findings
Students need cognitive support to help them learn to solve
prob-
lems. The teacher modeling and thinking aloud while
demonstrat-
ing how to solve a problem are examples of effective cognitive
support. Worked examples (such as a math problem for which
the
teacher not only has provided the solution but has clearly lai d
out
each step) are another form of modeling that has been developed
by researchers. Worked examples allow students to focus on the
specific steps to solve problems and thus reduce the cognitive
load on their working memory. Modeling and worked examples
have been used successfully in mathematics, science, writing,
and
reading comprehension.
In the classroom
14. Many of the skills that are taught in classrooms can be
conveyed
by providing prompts, modeling use of the prompt, and then
guid-
ing students as they develop independence. When teaching read-
ing comprehension strategies, for example, effective teachers
provided students with prompts that the students could use to
ask
themselves questions about a short passage. In one class,
students
were given words such as “who,” “where,” “why,” and “how” to
help them begin a question. Then, everyone read a passage and
the teacher modeled how to use these words to ask questions.
Many examples were given.
Next, during guided practice, the teacher helped the students
practice asking questions by helping them select a prompt and
develop a question that began with that prompt. The students
practiced this step many times with lots of support from the
teacher.
Then, the students read new passages and practiced asking
questions on their own, with support from the teacher when
needed. Finally, students were given short passages followed by
questions, and the teacher expressed an opinion about the
quality
of the students’ questions.
This same procedure—providing a prompt, modeling, guiding
practice, and supervising independent practice—can be used for
many tasks. When teaching students to write an essay, for exam-
ple, an effective teacher first modeled how to write each para-
graph, then the students and teacher worked together on two or
more new essays, and finally students worked on their own with
15. supervision from the teacher.
Worked examples are another form of modeling that has been
used to help students learn how to solve problems in
mathematics
and science. A worked example is a step-by-step demonstration
of how to perform a task or how to solve a problem. The
presenta-
tion of worked examples begins with the teacher modeling and
explaining the steps that can be taken to solve a specific
problem.
The teacher also identifies and explains the underlying
principles
for these steps.
Usually, students are then given a series of problems to com-
plete at their desks as independent practice. But, in research
car-
ried out in Australia, students were given a mixture of problems
to solve and worked examples. So, during independent practice,
students first studied a worked example, then they solved a
prob-
lem ; then they studied another worked example and solved
another problem. In this way, the worked examples showed stu-
dents how to focus on the essential parts of the problems. Of
course, not all students studied the worked examples. To correct
many of the skills taught in classrooms
can be conveyed by providing prompts,
modeling use of the prompt, and then
guiding students as they develop
independence.
16 AmERIcAN EdUcATOR | SPRING 2012
16. this problem, the Australian researchers also presented partially
completed problems in which students had to complete the miss-
ing steps and thus pay more attention to the worked example.
5. Guide student practice: Successful teachers
spend more time guiding students’ practice
of new material.
Research findings
It is not enough simply to present students with new material,
because the material will be forgotten unless there is sufficient
rehearsal. An important finding from information-processing
research is that students need to spend additional time rephras -
ing, elaborating, and summarizing new material in order to store
this material in their long-term memory. When there has been
sufficient rehearsal, the students are able to retrieve this
material
easily and thus are able to make use of this material to foster
new
learning and aid in problem solving. But when the rehearsal
time
is too short, students are less able to store, remember, or use the
material. As we know, it is relatively easy to place something in
a
filing cabinet, but it can be very difficult to recall where exactly
we
filed it. Rehearsal helps us remember where we filed it so we
can
access it with ease when needed.
A teacher can facilitate this rehearsal process by asking ques -
tions; good questions require students to process and rehearse
the
material. Rehearsal is also enhanced when students are asked to
17. summarize the main points, and when they are supervised as
they
practice new steps in a skill. The quality of storage in long-term
memory will be weak if students only skim the material and do
not
engage in it. It is also important that all students process the
new
material and receive feedback, so they do not inadvertently
store
partial information or a misconception in long-term memory.
In the classroom
In one study, the more successful teachers of mathematics spent
more time presenting new material and guiding practice. The
more successful teachers used this extra time to provide addi -
tional explanations, give many examples, check for student
under-
standing, and provide sufficient instruction so that the students
could learn to work independently without difficulty. In
contrast,
the less successful teachers gave much shorter presentations and
explanations, and then they passed out worksheets and told stu-
dents to work on the problems. Under these conditions, the stu-
dents made too many errors and had to be retaught the lesson.
The most successful teachers presented only small amounts of
material at a time. After this short presentation, these teachers
then guided student practice. This guidance often consisted of
the
teacher working the first problems at the blackboard and
explain-
ing the reason for each step, which served as a model for the
students. The guidance also included asking students to come to
the blackboard to work out problems and discuss their proce-
dures. Through this process, the students seated in the
18. classroom
saw additional models.
Although most teachers provided some guided practice, the
most successful teachers spent more time in guided practice,
more time asking questions, more time checking for understand-
ing, more time correcting errors, and more time having students
work out problems with teacher guidance.
Teachers who spent more time in guided practice and had
higher success rates also had students who were more engaged
during individual work at their desks. This finding suggests
that,
when teachers provided sufficient instruction during guided
practice, the students were better prepared for the independent
practice (e.g., seatwork and homework activities), but when the
guided practice was too short, the students were not prepared
for
the seatwork and made more errors during independent
practice.
6. Check for student understanding: Checking
for student understanding at each point can help
students learn the material with fewer errors.
Research findings
The more effective teachers frequently checked to see if all the
students were learning the new material. These checks provided
some of the processing needed to move new learning into long-
term memory. These checks also let teachers know if students
were developing misconceptions.
In the classroom
Effective teachers also stopped to check for student understand-
ing. They checked for understanding by asking questions, by
ask-
19. ing students to summarize the presentation up to that point or to
repeat directions or procedures, or by asking students whether
they agreed or disagreed with other students’ answers. This
check-
ing has two purposes: (a) answering the questions might cause
the students to elaborate on the material they have learned and
augment connections to other learning in their long-term mem-
ory, and (b) alerting the teacher to when parts of the material
need
to be retaught.
In contrast, the less effective teachers simply asked, “Are there
any questions?” and, if there were no questions, they assumed
the
students had learned the material and proceeded to pass out
worksheets for students to complete on their own.
Another way to check for understanding is to ask students to
think aloud as they work to solve mathematical problems, plan
an essay, or identify the main idea in a paragraph. Yet another
check is to ask students to explain or defend their position to
oth-
ers. Having to explain a position may help students integrate
and
elaborate their knowledge in new ways, or may help identify
gaps
in their understanding.
AmERIcAN EdUcATOR | SPRING 2012 17
Another reason for the importance of teaching in small steps,
guiding practice, and checking for understanding (as well as
obtaining a high success rate, which we’ll explore in principle
7)
20. comes from the fact that we all construct and reconstruct knowl -
edge as we learn and use what we have learned. We cannot
simply
repeat what we hear word for word. Rather, we connect our
under-
standing of the new information to our existing concepts or
“schema,” and we then construct a mental summary (i.e., the
gist
of what we have heard). However, when left on their own, many
students make errors in the process of constructing this mental
summary. These errors occur, particularly, when the information
is new and the student does not have adequate or well -formed
background knowledge. These constructions are not errors so
much as attempts by the students to be logical in an area where
their background knowledge is weak. These errors are so
common
that there is a research literature on the development and
correc-
tion of student misconceptions in science. Providing guided
practice after teaching small amounts of new material, and
check-
ing for student understanding, can help limit the development of
misconceptions.
7. Obtain a high success rate: It is important
for students to achieve a high success rate
during classroom instruction.
Research findings
In two of the major studies on the impact of teachers, the
investi-
gators found that students in classrooms with more effective
teachers had a higher success rate, as judged by the quality of
their
oral responses during guided practice and their individual work.
21. In a study of fourth-grade mathematics, it was found that 82
per-
cent of students’ answers were correct in the classrooms of the
most successful teachers, but the least successful teachers had a
success rate of only 73 percent. A high success rate during
guided
practice also leads to a higher success rate when students are
working on problems on their own.
The research also suggests that the optimal success rate for
fostering student achievement appears to be about 80 percent. A
success rate of 80 percent shows that students are learning the
material, and it also shows that the students are challenged.
In the classroom
The most effective teachers obtained this success level by
teaching
in small steps (i.e., by combining short presentations with
super-
vised student practice), and by giving sufficient practice on
each
part before proceeding to the next step. These teachers
frequently
checked for understanding and required responses from all
students.
It is important that students achieve a high success rate during
instruction and on their practice activities. Practice, we are told,
makes perfect, but practice can be a disaster if students are
prac-
ticing errors! If the practice does not have a high success level,
there is a chance that students are practicing and learning
errors.
Once errors have been learned, they are ver y difficult to
overcome.
22. As discussed in the previous section, when we learn new mate-
rial, we construct a gist of this material in our long-term
memory.
However, many students make errors in the process of
construct-
ing this mental summary. These errors can occur when the
infor-
mation is new and the student did not have adequate or
well-formed background knowledge. These constructions are not
errors so much as attempts by the students to be logical in an
area
where their background knowledge is weak. But students are
more
likely to develop misconceptions if too much material is
presented
at once, and if teachers do not check for student understanding.
Providing guided practice after teaching small amounts of new
material, and checking for student understanding, can help limit
the development of misconceptions.
I once observed a class where an effective teacher was going
from desk to desk during independent practice and suddenly
realized that the students were having difficulty. She stopped
the
work, told the students not to do the problems for homework,
and
said she would reteach this material the next day. She stopped
the
work because she did not want the students to practice errors.
Unless all students have mastered the first set of lessons, there
is a danger that the slower students will fall further behind
when
the next set of lessons is taught. So there is a need for a high
23. suc-
cess rate for all students. “Mastery learning” is a form of
instruc-
tion where lessons are organized into short units and all
students
are required to master one set of lessons before they proceed to
the next set. In mastery learning, tutoring by other students or
by
teachers is provided to help students master each unit.
variations
of this approach, particularly the tutoring, might be useful in
many classroom settings.
The most successful teachers spent
more time in guided practice, more
time asking questions, more time
checking for understanding, and more
time correcting errors.
18 AmERIcAN EdUcATOR | SPRING 2012
8. Provide scaffolds for difficult tasks: The teacher
provides students with temporary supports and
scaffolds to assist them when they learn difficult tasks.
Research findings
Investigators have successfully provided students with
scaffolds,
or instructional supports, to help them learn difficult tasks. A
scaf-
fold is a temporary support that is used to assist a learner.
These
scaffolds are gradually withdrawn as learners become more
com-
24. petent, although students may continue to rely on scaffolds
when
they encounter particularly difficult problems. Providing
scaffolds
is a form of guided practice.
Scaffolds include modeling the steps by the teacher, or thinking
aloud by the teacher as he or she solves the problem. Scaffolds
also may be tools, such as cue cards or checklists, that complete
part of the task for the students, or a model of the completed
task
against which students can compare their own work.
The process of helping students solve difficult problems by
modeling and providing scaffolds has been called “cognitive
apprenticeship.” Students learn strategies and content during
this
apprenticeship that enable them to become competent readers,
writers, and problem solvers. They are aided by a master who
models, coaches, provides supports, and scaffolds them as they
become independent.
In the classroom
One form of scaffolding is to give students prompts for steps
they
might use. Prompts such as “who,” “why,” and “how” have
helped
students learn to ask questions while they read. Teaching
students
to ask questions has been shown to help students’ reading
comprehension.
Similarly, one researcher developed the following prompt to
help students organize material.13
1. Draw a central box and write the title of the article in it.
25. 2. Skim the article to find four to six main ideas.
3. Write each main idea in a box below the central box.
4. Find and write two to four important details to list under each
main idea.
Another form of scaffolding is thinking aloud by the teacher.
For example, teachers might think aloud as they try to
summarize
a paragraph. They would show the thought processes they go
through as they determine the topic of the paragraph and then
use the topic to generate a summary sentence. Teachers might
think aloud while solving a scientific equation or writing an
essay,
and at the same time provide labels for their mental processes.
Such thinking aloud provides novice learners with a way to
observe “expert thinking” that is usually hidden from the
student.
Teachers also can study their students’ thought processes by
ask-
ing them to think aloud during problem solving.
One characteristic of effective teachers is their ability to antici -
pate students’ errors and warn them about possible errors some
of them are likely to make. For example, a teacher might have
students read a passage and then give them a poorly written
topic
sentence to correct. In teaching division or subtraction, the
teacher may show and discuss with students the mistakes other
students have frequently made.
In some of the studies, students were given a checklist to evalu-
ate their work. Checklist items included “Have I found the most
important information that tells me more about the main idea?”
and “Does every sentence start with a capital letter?” The
26. teacher
then modeled use of the checklist.
In some studies, students were provided with expert models
with which they could compare their work. For example, when
students were taught to generate questions, they could compare
their questions with those generated by the teacher. Similarly,
when learning to write summaries, students could compare their
summaries on a passage with those generated by an expert.
9. Require and monitor independent practice: Students
need extensive, successful, independent practice in
order for skills and knowledge to become automatic.
Research findings
In a typical teacher-led classroom, guided practice is followed
by
independent practice—by students working alone and practicing
the new material. This independent practice is necessary
because
a good deal of practice (overlearning) is needed in order to
become fluent and automatic in a skill. When material is over -
learned, it can be recalled automatically and doesn’t take up any
space in working memory. When students become automatic in
an area, they can then devote more of their attention to compre-
hension and application.
Independent practice provides students with the additional
review and elaboration they need to become fluent. This need
for
fluency applies to facts, concepts, and discriminations that must
be used in subsequent learning. Fluency is also needed in opera -
tions, such as dividing decimals, conjugating a regular verb in a
foreign language, or completing and balancing a chemical
equation.
27. One characteristic of effective
teachers is their ability to anticipate
students’ errors and warn them
about possible errors some of them
are likely to make.
AmERIcAN EdUcATOR | SPRING 2012 19
In the classroom
The more successful teachers provided for extensive and
success-
ful practice, both in the classroom and after class. Independent
practice should involve the same material as the guided
practice.
If guided practice deals with identifying types of sentences, for
example, then independent practice should deal with the same
topic or, perhaps, with a slight variation, like creating
individual
compound and complex sentences. It would be inappropriate if
the independent practice asked the students to do an activity
such
as “Write a paragraph using two compound and two complex
sentences,” however, because the students have not been ade-
quately prepared for such an activity.
Students need to be fully prepared for their independent prac-
tice. Sometimes, it may be appropriate for a teacher to practice
some of the seatwork problems with the entire class before stu-
dents begin independent practice.
Research has found that students were more engaged when
their teacher circulated around the room, and monitored and
supervised their seatwork. The optimal time for these contacts
28. was 30 seconds or less. Classrooms where the teachers had to
stop
at students’ desks and provide a great deal of explanation
during
seatwork were the classrooms where students were making
errors.
These errors occurred because the guided practice was not suf-
ficient for students to engage productively in independent prac -
tice. This reiterates the importance of adequately preparing
students before they begin their independent practice.
Some investigators14 have developed procedures, such as
cooperative learning, during which students help each other as
they study. Research has shown that all students tend to achieve
more in these settings than do students in regular settings. Pre-
sumably, some of the advantage comes from having to explain
the
material to someone else and/or having someone else (other
than
the teacher) explain the material to the student. Cooperative
learning offers an opportunity for students to get feedback from
their peers about correct as well as incorrect responses, which
promotes both engagement and learning. These cooperative/
competitive settings are also valuable for helping slower
students
in a class by providing extra instruction for them.
10. Engage students in weekly and monthly
review: Students need to be involved in extensive
practice in order to develop well-connected and
automatic knowledge.
Research findings
Students need extensive and broad reading, and extensive prac-
tice in order to develop well-connected networks of ideas (sche-
mas) in their long-term memory. When one’s knowledge on a
29. particular topic is large and well connected, it is easier to learn
new information and prior knowledge is more readily available
for use. The more one rehearses and reviews information, the
stronger these interconnections become. It is also easier to solve
new problems when one has a rich, well-connected body of
knowledge and strong ties among the connections. One of the
goals of education is to help students develop extensive and
avail-
able background knowledge.
Knowledge (even very extensive knowledge) stored in long-
term memory that is organized into patterns only occupies a tiny
amount of space in our limited working memory. So having
larger
and better-connected patterns of knowledge frees up space in
our
working memory. This available space can be used for
reflecting
on new information and for problem solving. The development
of well-connected patterns (also called “unitization” and
“chunk-
ing”) and the freeing of space in the working memory is one of
the
hallmarks of an expert in a field.
Thus, research on cognitive processing supports the need for
a teacher to assist students by providing for extensive reading
of
a variety of materials, frequent review, and discussion and
appli-
cation activities. The research on cognitive processing suggests
that these classroom activities help students increase the
number
of pieces of information in their long-term memory and
organize
30. this information into patterns and chunks.
The more one rehearses and reviews information, the stronger
the interconnections between the materials become. Review also
helps students develop their new knowledge into patterns, and it
The best way to become an expert
is through practice—thousands of
hours of practice. The more the
practice, the better the
performance.
The following list of 17 principles emerges from the research
discussed in the main article. It overlaps with, and offers
slightly more detail than, the 10 principles used to organize
that article.
• Begin a lesson with a short review of previous learning.
• Present new material in small steps with student practice
after each step.
• Limit the amount of material students receive at one
time.
• Give clear and detailed instructions and explanations.
• Ask a large number of questions and check for
understanding.
• Provide a high level of active practice for all students.
• Guide students as they begin to practice.
• Think aloud and model steps.
• Provide models of worked-out problems.
• Ask students to explain what they have learned.
• check the responses of all students.
• Provide systematic feedback and corrections.
• Use more time to provide explanations.
31. • Provide many examples.
• Reteach material when necessary.
• Prepare students for independent practice.
• monitor students when they begin independent practice.
–B.R.
17 Principles of
Effective Instruction
(Continued on page 39)
AMERICAN EDUCATOR | SPRING 2012 39
helps them acquire the ability to recall past
learning automatically.
The best way to become an expert is
through practice—thousands of hours of
practice. The more the practice, the better
the performance.
In the classroom
Many successful programs, especially in
the elementary grades, provided for exten-
sive review. One way of achieving this goal
is to review the previous week’s work every
Monday and the previous month’s work
ever y fourth Monday. Some effective
teachers also gave tests after their reviews.
Research has found that even at the sec-
ondary level, classes that had weekly quiz-
zes scored better on final exams than did
classes with only one or two quizzes during
32. the term. These reviews and tests provided
the additional practice students needed to
become skilled, successful performers who
could apply their knowledge and skills in
new areas.
Teachers face a difficult problem when
they need to cover a lot of material and
don’t feel they have the time for sufficient
review. But the research states (and we all
know from personal experience) that
material that is not adequately practiced
and reviewed is easily forgotten.
T
he 10 principles in this article
c o m e f r o m t h r e e d i f f e r e n t
sources : research on how the
mind acquires and uses informa-
tion, the instructional procedures that are
used by the most successful teachers, and
the procedures invented by researchers to
help students learn difficult tasks. The
research from each of these three sources
has implications for classroom instruction,
and these implications are described in
each of these 10 principles.
Even though these principles come
from three different sources, the instruc-
tional procedures that are taken from one
source do not conflict with the instruc-
tional procedures that are taken from
another source. Instead, the ideas from
each of the sources overlap and add to each
33. other. This overlap gives us faith that we are
developing a valid and research-based
understanding of the art of teaching. ☐
Endnotes
1. Suggested readings: George A. Miller, “The Magical
Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on Our
Capacity for Processing Information,” Psychological Review
63, no. 2 (1956): 81–97; and David LaBerge and S. Jay
Samuels, “Toward a Theory of Automatic Information
Processing in Reading,” Cognitive Psychology 6, no. 2
(1974): 293–323.
2. Suggested readings: Carolyn M. Evertson, Charles W.
Anderson, Linda M. Anderson, and Jere E. Brophy,
“Relationships between Classroom Behaviors and Student
Outcomes in Junior High Mathematics and English Classes,”
American Educational Research Journal 17, no. 1 (1980):
43–60; and Thomas L. Good and Jere E. Brophy, Educational
Psychology: A Realistic Approach, 4th ed. (New York:
Longman, 1990).
3. Suggested readings: Thomas L. Good and Douglas A.
Grouws, “The Missouri Mathematics Effectiveness Project,”
Journal of Educational Psychology 71, no. 3 (1979):
355–362; and Alison King, “Guiding Knowledge
Construction in the Classroom: Effects of Teaching Children
How to Question and How to Explain,” American
Educational Research Journal 31, no. 2 (1994): 338–368.
4. Suggested readings: John Sweller, “Cognitive Load
Theory, Learning Difficulty, and Instructional Design,”
Learning and Instruction 4, no. 4 (1994): 295–312; Barak
Rosenshine, Carla Meister, and Saul Chapman, “Teaching
Students to Generate Questions: A Review of the
Intervention Studies,” Review of Educational Research 66,
34. no. 2 (1996): 181–221; and Alan H. Schoenfeld,
Mathematical Problem Solving (New York: Academic Press,
1985).
5. Suggested readings: Evertson et al., “Relationships
between Classroom Behaviors and Student Outcomes”; and
Paul A. Kirschner, John Sweller, and Richard E. Clark, “Why
Minimal Guidance during Instruction Does Not Work: An
Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery,
Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching,”
Educational Psychologist 41, no. 2 (2006): 75–86.
6. Suggested readings: Douglas Fisher and Nancy Frey,
Checking for Understanding: Formative Assessment
Techniques for Your Classroom (Alexandria, VA: Association
for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 2007); and
Michael J. Dunkin, “Student Characteristics, Classroom
Processes, and Student Achievement,” Journal of
Educational Psychology 70, no. 6 (1978): 998–1009.
7. Suggested readings: Lorin W. Anderson and Robert B.
Burns, “Values, Evidence, and Mastery Learning,” Review of
Educational Research 57, no. 2 (1987): 215–223; and
Norman Frederiksen, “Implications of Cognitive Theory for
Instruction in Problem Solving,” Review of Educational
Research 54, no. 3 (1984): 363–407.
8. Suggested readings: Michael Pressley and Vera Woloshyn,
Cognitive Strategy Instruction that Really Improves Children’s
Academic Performance, 2nd ed. (Cambridge, MA: Brookline
Books, 1995); and Barak Rosenshine and Carla Meister, “The
Use of Scaffolds for Teaching Higher-Level Cognitive
Strategies,” Educational Leadership 49, no. 7 (April 1992):
26–33.
9. Suggested readings: Barak Rosenshine, “The Empirical
35. Support for Direct Instruction,” in Constructivist Instruction:
Success or Failure? ed. Sigmund Tobias and Thomas M.
Duffy (New York: Routledge, 2009), 201–220; and Robert E.
Slavin, Education for All (Exton, PA: Swets and Zeitlinger,
1996).
10. Suggested readings: Good and Grouws, “The Missouri
Mathematics Effectiveness Project”; and James A. Kulik and
Chen-Lin C. Kulik, “College Teaching,” in Research on
Teaching: Concepts, Findings, and Implications, ed. Penelope
L. Peterson and Herbert J. Walberg (Berkeley, CA:
McCutchan, 1979).
11. Good and Grouws, “The Missouri Mathematics
Effectiveness Project.”
12. These stems were developed by King, “Guiding
Knowledge Construction in the Classroom.”
13. Sandra J. Berkowitz, “Effects of Instruction in Text
Organization on Sixth-Grade Students’ Memory for
Expository Reading,” Reading Research Quarterly 21, no. 2
(1986): 161–178. For additional strategies to help students
organize material, see Wisconsin Department of Public
Instruction, Strategic Learning in the Content Areas
(Madison, WI: Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction,
2005).
14. Slavin, Education for All.
Principles
(Continued from page 19)
INTENTIONALLY
LEFT BLANK
36. 2
2
Personal Philosophy and Theoretical Concepts Draft
Your Name
South University
NSG5002 Advanced Theorical Perspective for Nursing
Week 2 Project
Your Professor’s Name
MMDDYYYY
Personal Philosophy and Theoretical Concepts
2-3 sentences about your paper (introduce the paper in general).
Autobiography
Describe your professional background with personal history
that is pertinent to you as a professional. It should not include
future goals. It should be about a page long.
The Four Metaparadigms
This is where you discuss what metaparadigms are (in general)
37. and introduce the topics. It needs to be about three to four
sentences long. Do not relate these to your theory.
Patient.
Here you write three to four sentences on what a patient is –
according to your textbook or in general. Do not make this part
theory-specific.
Environment.
Here you write three to four sentences on what environment
means – according to your textbook or in general. Do not make
this part theory-specific.
Nursing.
Here you write three to four sentences on what nursing means –
according to your textbook or in general. Do not make this part
theory-specific.
Health.
Here you write three to four sentences on what health is –
according to your textbook or in general. Do not make this part
theory-specific.
Two Practice-Specific Concepts
Three or four sentences to introduce your theory (including the
concepts the theorist lists). Then mention the two concepts you
chose from the theory that are relevant to your practice.
Name of First Concept
Discuss the meaning of the first concept from other sources.
Then discuss how the theorist defines the concept. Then a few
sentences on how the concept applies to your clinical practice.
Name of Second Concept
Discuss the meaning of the second concept from other sources.
Then discuss how the theorist defines the concept. Then a few
sentences on how the concept applies to your clinical practice.
Conclusion
Three to four sentences to summarize your paper.
38. References
Bredow, T. S., Peterson, S.J. (2017). Middle range theories:
Application to nursing research and practice (4th ed.). Wolters
Kluwer.
Butts, J. B., & Rich, K. L. (2017). Philosophies and theories for
advanced nursing practice (3rd ed.). Jones & Bartlett Learning.
Choi, E., & Moore, G. (2020). A case for cultural
awareness. The Journal for Nurse Practitioners, 16(2), 163–164.
https://doi-org.su.idm.oclc.org/10.1016/j.nurpra. 2019.11.012
Peterson, S. J., & Bredow, T. S. (2016). Middle range theories:
Application to nursing research (4th ed.). Lippincott Williams
& Wilkins.
V013121
12 AmERIcAN EdUcATOR | SPRING 2012
Principles of Instruction
Research-Based Strategies That All Teachers Should Know
By Barak Rosenshine
39. T
his article presents 10 research-based principles of
instruction, along with suggestions for classroom prac-
tice. These principles come from three sources: (a)
research in cognitive science, (b) research on master
teachers, and (c) research on cognitive supports. Each is briefly
explained below.
A: Research in cognitive science: This research focuses on how
our brains acquire and use information. This cognitive research
also provides suggestions on how we might overcome the
limita-
tions of our working memory (i.e., the mental “space” in which
thinking occurs) when learning new material.
B: Research on the classroom practices of master teachers: Mas -
ter teachers are those teachers whose classrooms made the high-
est gains on achievement tests. In a series of studies, a wide
range
of teachers were observed as they taught, and the investigators
coded how they presented new material, how and whether they
checked for student understanding, the types of support they
provided to their students, and a number of other instructional
activities. By also gathering student achievement data, research-
ers were able to identify the ways in which the more and less
effec-
tive teachers differed.
C: Research on cognitive supports to help students learn
complex
tasks: Effective instructional procedures—such as thinking
aloud,
providing students with scaffolds, and providing students with
models—come from this research.
40. Even though these are three very different bodies of research,
there is no conflict at all between the instructional suggestions
that come from each of these three sources. In other words,
these
three sources supplement and complement each other. The fact
that the instructional ideas from three different sources supple -
ment and complement each other gives us faith in the validity of
these findings.
Education involves helping a novice develop strong, readily
accessible background knowledge. It’s important that
background
knowledge be readily accessible, and this occurs when
knowledge
is well rehearsed and tied to other knowledge. The most
effective
teachers ensured that their students efficiently acquired,
rehearsed, and connected background knowledge by providing
a good deal of instructional support. They provided this support
by teaching new material in manageable amounts, modeling,
guiding student practice, helping students when they made
errors,
and providing for sufficient practice and review. Many of these
teachers also went on to experiential, hands-on activities, but
they
always did the experiential activities after, not before, the basic
material was learned.
The following is a list of some of the instructional principles
that have come from these three sources. These ideas will be
described and discussed in this article:
• Begin a lesson with a short review of previous learning.1
• Present new material in small steps with student practice after
41. each step.2
• Ask a large number of questions and check the responses of all
students.3
• Provide models.4
• Guide student practice.5
• Check for student understanding.6
• Obtain a high success rate.7
• Provide scaffolds for difficult tasks.8
• Require and monitor independent practice.9
• Engage students in weekly and monthly review.10
Barak Rosenshine is an emeritus professor of educational
psychology in the
College of Education at the University of Illinois at Urbana-
Champaign.
A distinguished researcher, he has spent much of the past four
decades
identifying the hallmarks of effective teaching. He began his
career as a
high school history teacher in the Chicago public schools. This
article is
adapted with permission from Principles of Instruction by Barak
Rosen-
shine. Published by the International Academy of Education in
2010, the
original report is available at
www.ibe.unesco.org/fileadmin/user_upload/
Publications/Educational_Practices/EdPractices_21.pdf.ILL
43. learning: Daily review can strengthen previous
learning and can lead to fluent recall.
Research findings
Daily review is an important component of instruction. Revi ew
can help us strengthen the connections among the material we
have learned. The review of previous learning can help us recall
words, concepts, and procedures effortlessly and automatically
when we need this material to solve problems or to understand
new material. The development of expertise requires thousands
of hours of practice, and daily review is one component of this
practice.
For example, daily review was part of a successful experiment
in elementary school mathematics. Teachers in the experiment
were taught to spend eight minutes every day on review.
Teachers
used this time to check the homework, go over problems where
there were errors, and practice the concepts and skills that
needed
to become automatic. As a result, students in these classrooms
had higher achievement scores than did students in other
classrooms.
Daily practice of vocabulary can lead to seeing each practiced
word as a unit (i.e., seeing the whole word automatically rather
than as individual letters that have to be sounded out and
blended). When students see words as units, they have more
space available in their working memory, and this space can
now
be used for comprehension. Mathematical problem solving is
also
improved when the basic skills (addition, multiplication, etc.)
are
overlearned and become automatic, thus freeing working-mem-
ory capacity.
44. In the classroom
The most effective teachers in the studies of classroom
instruction
understood the importance of practice, and they began their les -
sons with a five- to eight-minute review of previously covered
material. Some teachers reviewed vocabulary, formulae, events,
or previously learned concepts. These teachers provided addi -
tional practice on facts and skills that were needed for recall to
become automatic.
Effective teacher activities also included reviewing the con-
cepts and skills that were necessary to do the homework, having
students correct each others’ papers, and asking about points on
which the students had difficulty or made errors. These reviews
ensured that the students had a firm grasp of the skills and con-
cepts that would be needed for the day’s lesson.
Effective teachers also reviewed the knowledge and concepts
that were relevant for that day’s lesson. It is important for a
teacher
to help students recall the concepts and vocabulary that will be
relevant for the day’s lesson because our working memory is
very
limited. If we do not review previous learning, then we will
have
to make a special effort to recall old material while learning
new
material, and this makes it difficult for us to learn the new
material.
Daily review is particularly important for teaching material that
will be used in subsequent learning. Examples include reading
sight words (i.e., any word that is known by a reader automati-
cally), grammar, math facts, math computation, math factoring,
45. and chemical equations.
When planning for review, teachers might want to consider
which words, math facts, procedures, and concepts need to
become automatic, and which words, vocabulary, or ideas need
to be reviewed before the lesson begins.
In addition, teachers might consider doing the following dur -
ing their daily review:
• Correct homework.
• Review the concepts and skills that were practiced as part of
the homework.
• Ask students about points where they had difficulties or made
errors.
• Review material where errors were made.
• Review material that needs overlearning (i.e., newly acquired
skills should be practiced well beyond the point of initial mas-
tery, leading to automaticity).
2. Present new material in small steps with student
practice after each step: Only present small amounts
of new material at any time, and then assist students
as they practice this material.
Research findings
Our working memory, the place where we process information,
is small. It can only handle a few bits of information at once—
too
much information swamps our working memory. Presenting too
much material at once may confuse students because their work-
ing memory will be unable to process it.
46. Therefore, the more effective teachers do not overwhelm their
students by presenting too much new material at once. Rather,
The most effective teachers ensured
that students efficiently acquired,
rehearsed, and connected knowledge.
many went on to hands-on activities,
but always after, not before, the basic
material was learned.
14 AmERIcAN EdUcATOR | SPRING 2012
these teachers only present small amounts of new material at
any
time, and then assist the students as they practice this material.
Only after the students have mastered the first step do teachers
proceed to the next step.
The procedure of first teaching in small steps and then guiding
student practice represents an appropriate way of dealing with
the limitation of our working memory.
In the classroom
The more successful teachers did not overwhelm their students
by presenting too much new material at once. Rather, they pre-
sented only small amounts of new material at one time, and they
taught in such a way that each point was mastered before the
next
point was introduced. They checked their students’ understand-
ing on each point and retaught material when necessary.
Some successful teachers taught by giving a series of short
47. presentations using many examples. The examples provided
concrete learning and elaboration that were useful for
processing
new material.
Teaching in small steps requires time, and the more effective
teachers spent more time presenting new material and guiding
student practice than did the less effective teachers. In a study
of
mathematics instruction, for instance, the most effective math-
ematics teachers spent about 23 minutes of a 40-minute period
in lecture, demonstration, questioning, and working examples.
In contrast, the least effective teachers spent only 11 minutes
presenting new material. The more effective teachers used this
extra time to provide additional explanations, give many exam-
ples, check for student understanding, and provide sufficient
instruction so that the students could learn to work
independently
without difficulty. In one study, the least effective teachers
asked
only nine questions in a 40-minute period. Compared with the
successful teachers, the less effective teachers gave much
shorter
presentations and explanations, and then passed out worksheets
and told students to solve the problems. The less successful
teach-
ers were then observed going from student to student and having
to explain the material again.
Similarly, when students were taught a strategy for summariz-
ing a paragraph, an effective teacher taught the strategy using
small steps. First, the teacher modeled and thought aloud as she
identified the topic of a paragraph. Then, she led practice on
iden-
tifying the topics of new paragraphs. Then, she taught students
48. to
identify the main idea of a paragraph. The teacher modeled this
step and then supervised the students as they practiced both
find-
ing the topic and locating the main idea. Following this, the
teacher taught the students to identify the supporting details in a
paragraph. The teacher modeled and thought aloud, and then the
students practiced. Finally, the students practiced carrying out
all
three steps of this strategy. Thus, the strategy of summarizing a
paragraph was divided into smaller steps, and there was
modeling
and practice at each step.
3. Ask a large number of questions and check the
responses of all students: Questions help students
practice new information and connect new material
to their prior learning.
Research findings
Students need to practice new material. The teacher’s questions
and student discussion are a major way of providing this neces -
sary practice. The most successful teachers in these studies
spent
more than half of the class time lecturing, demonstrating, and
asking questions.
Questions allow a teacher to determine how well the material
has been learned and whether there is a need for additional
instruction. The most effective teachers also ask students to
explain the process they used to answer the question, to explain
how the answer was found. Less successful teachers ask fewer
questions and almost no process questions.
In the classroom
In one classroom-based experimental study, one group of teach-
49. ers was taught to follow the presentation of new material with
lots
of questions.11 They were taught to increase the number of
factual
questions and process questions they asked during this guided
practice. Test results showed that their students achieved higher
scores than did students whose teachers did not receive the
training.
Imaginative teachers have found ways to involve all students
in answering questions. Examples include having all students:
• Tell the answer to a neighbor.
• Summarize the main idea in one or two sentences, writing the
summary on a piece of paper and sharing this with a neighbor,
or repeating the procedures to a neighbor.
• Write the answer on a card and then hold it up.
• Raise their hands if they know the answer (thereby allowing
the teacher to check the entire class).
• Raise their hands if they agree with the answer that someone
else has given.
Across the classrooms that researchers observed, the purpose
of all these procedures was to provide active participation for
the
students and also to allow the teacher to see how many students
were correct and confident. The teacher may then reteach some
material when it was considered necessary. An alternative was
for
students to write their answers and then trade papers with each
other.
50. Other teachers used choral responses to provide sufficient
practice when teaching new vocabulary or lists of items. This
made the practice seem more like a game. To be effective, how -
AmERIcAN EdUcATOR | SPRING 2012 15
ever, all students needed to start together, on a signal. When
students did not start together, only the faster students
answered.
In addition to asking questions, the more effective teachers
facilitated their students’ rehearsal by providing explanations,
giving more examples, and supervising students as they
practiced
the new material.
The following is a series of stems12 for questions that teachers
might ask when teaching literature, social science content, or
sci-
ence content to their students. Sometimes, students may also
develop questions from these stems to ask questions of each
other.
How are __________ and __________ alike?
What is the main idea of __________?
What are the strengths and weaknesses of __________?
In what way is __________ related to __________?
Compare __________ and __________ with regard to
__________.
What do you think causes __________?
How does __________ tie in with what we have learned before?
Which one is the best __________, and why?
What are some possible solutions for the problem of
__________?
51. Do you agree or disagree with this statement: __________?
What do you still not understand about __________?
4. Provide models: Providing students with
models and worked examples can help them
learn to solve problems faster.
Research findings
Students need cognitive support to help them learn to solve
prob-
lems. The teacher modeling and thinking aloud while
demonstrat-
ing how to solve a problem are examples of effective cognitive
support. Worked examples (such as a math problem for which
the
teacher not only has provided the solution but has clearly laid
out
each step) are another form of modeling that has been developed
by researchers. Worked examples allow students to focus on the
specific steps to solve problems and thus reduce the cognitive
load on their working memory. Modeling and worked examples
have been used successfully in mathematics, science, writing,
and
reading comprehension.
In the classroom
Many of the skills that are taught in classrooms can be
conveyed
by providing prompts, modeling use of the prompt, and then
guid-
ing students as they develop independence. When teaching read-
ing comprehension strategies, for example, effective teachers
provided students with prompts that the students could use to
ask
themselves questions about a short passage. In one class,
52. students
were given words such as “who,” “where,” “why,” and “how” to
help them begin a question. Then, everyone read a passage and
the teacher modeled how to use these words to ask questions.
Many examples were given.
Next, during guided practice, the teacher helped the students
practice asking questions by helping them select a prompt and
develop a question that began with that prompt. The students
practiced this step many times with lots of support from the
teacher.
Then, the students read new passages and practiced asking
questions on their own, with support from the teacher when
needed. Finally, students were given short passages followed by
questions, and the teacher expressed an opinion about the
quality
of the students’ questions.
This same procedure—providing a prompt, modeling, guiding
practice, and supervising independent practice—can be used for
many tasks. When teaching students to write an essay, for exam-
ple, an effective teacher first modeled how to write each para-
graph, then the students and teacher worked together on two or
more new essays, and finally students worked on their own with
supervision from the teacher.
Worked examples are another form of modeling that has been
used to help students learn how to solve problems in
mathematics
and science. A worked example is a step-by-step demonstration
of how to perform a task or how to solve a problem. The
presenta-
tion of worked examples begins with the teacher modeling and
explaining the steps that can be taken to solve a specific
53. problem.
The teacher also identifies and explains the underlying
principles
for these steps.
Usually, students are then given a series of problems to com-
plete at their desks as independent practice. But, in research
car-
ried out in Australia, students were given a mixture of problems
to solve and worked examples. So, during independent practice,
students first studied a worked example, then they solved a
prob-
lem ; then they studied another worked example and solved
another problem. In this way, the worked examples showed stu-
dents how to focus on the essential parts of the problems. Of
course, not all students studied the worked examples. To correct
many of the skills taught in classrooms
can be conveyed by providing prompts,
modeling use of the prompt, and then
guiding students as they develop
independence.
16 AmERIcAN EdUcATOR | SPRING 2012
this problem, the Australian researchers also presented partially
completed problems in which students had to complete the miss-
ing steps and thus pay more attention to the worked example.
5. Guide student practice: Successful teachers
spend more time guiding students’ practice
of new material.
Research findings
54. It is not enough simply to present students with new material,
because the material will be forgotten unless there is sufficient
rehearsal. An important finding from information-processing
research is that students need to spend additional time rephras-
ing, elaborating, and summarizing new material in order to store
this material in their long-term memory. When there has been
sufficient rehearsal, the students are able to retrieve this
material
easily and thus are able to make use of this material to foster
new
learning and aid in problem solving. But when the rehearsal
time
is too short, students are less able to store, remember, or use the
material. As we know, it is relatively easy to place something in
a
filing cabinet, but it can be very difficult to recall where exactly
we
filed it. Rehearsal helps us remember where we filed it so we
can
access it with ease when needed.
A teacher can facilitate this rehearsal process by asking ques -
tions; good questions require students to process and rehearse
the
material. Rehearsal is also enhanced when students are asked to
summarize the main points, and when they are supervised as
they
practice new steps in a skill. The quality of storage in long-term
memory will be weak if students only skim the material and do
not
engage in it. It is also important that all students process the
new
material and receive feedback, so they do not inadvertently
store
partial information or a misconception in long-term memory.
55. In the classroom
In one study, the more successful teachers of mathematics spent
more time presenting new material and guiding practice. The
more successful teachers used this extra time to provide addi -
tional explanations, give many examples, check for student
under-
standing, and provide sufficient instruction so that the students
could learn to work independently without difficulty. In
contrast,
the less successful teachers gave much shorter presentations and
explanations, and then they passed out worksheets and told stu-
dents to work on the problems. Under these conditions, the stu-
dents made too many errors and had to be retaught the lesson.
The most successful teachers presented only small amounts of
material at a time. After this short presentation, these teachers
then guided student practice. This guidance often consisted of
the
teacher working the first problems at the blackboard and
explain-
ing the reason for each step, which served as a model for the
students. The guidance also included asking students to come to
the blackboard to work out problems and discuss their proce-
dures. Through this process, the students seated in the
classroom
saw additional models.
Although most teachers provided some guided practice, the
most successful teachers spent more time in guided practice,
more time asking questions, more time checking for understand-
ing, more time correcting errors, and more time having students
work out problems with teacher guidance.
Teachers who spent more time in guided practice and had
56. higher success rates also had students who were more engaged
during individual work at their desks. This finding suggests
that,
when teachers provided sufficient instruction during guided
practice, the students were better prepared for the independent
practice (e.g., seatwork and homework activities), but when the
guided practice was too short, the students were not prepared
for
the seatwork and made more errors during independent
practice.
6. Check for student understanding: Checking
for student understanding at each point can help
students learn the material with fewer errors.
Research findings
The more effective teachers frequently checked to see if all the
students were learning the new material. These checks provided
some of the processing needed to move new learning into long-
term memory. These checks also let teachers know if students
were developing misconceptions.
In the classroom
Effective teachers also stopped to check for student understand-
ing. They checked for understanding by asking questions, by
ask-
ing students to summarize the presentation up to that point or to
repeat directions or procedures, or by asking students whether
they agreed or disagreed with other students’ answers. This
check-
ing has two purposes: (a) answering the questions might cause
the students to elaborate on the material they have learned and
augment connections to other learning in their long-term mem-
ory, and (b) alerting the teacher to when parts of the material
need
to be retaught.
57. In contrast, the less effective teachers simply asked, “Are there
any questions?” and, if there were no questions, they assumed
the
students had learned the material and proceeded to pass out
worksheets for students to complete on their own.
Another way to check for understanding is to ask students to
think aloud as they work to solve mathematical problems, plan
an essay, or identify the main idea in a paragraph. Yet another
check is to ask students to explain or defend their position to
oth-
ers. Having to explain a position may help students integrate
and
elaborate their knowledge in new ways, or may help identify
gaps
in their understanding.
AmERIcAN EdUcATOR | SPRING 2012 17
Another reason for the importance of teaching in small steps,
guiding practice, and checking for understanding (as well as
obtaining a high success rate, which we’ll explore in principle
7)
comes from the fact that we all construct and reconstruct knowl -
edge as we learn and use what we have learned. We cannot
simply
repeat what we hear word for word. Rather, we connect our
under-
standing of the new information to our existing concepts or
“schema,” and we then construct a mental summary (i.e., the
gist
of what we have heard). However, when left on their own, many
students make errors in the process of constructing this mental
58. summary. These errors occur, particularly, when the information
is new and the student does not have adequate or well -formed
background knowledge. These constructions are not errors so
much as attempts by the students to be logical in an area where
their background knowledge is weak. These errors are so
common
that there is a research literature on the development and
correc-
tion of student misconceptions in science. Providing guided
practice after teaching small amounts of new material, and
check-
ing for student understanding, can help limit the development of
misconceptions.
7. Obtain a high success rate: It is important
for students to achieve a high success rate
during classroom instruction.
Research findings
In two of the major studies on the impact of teachers, the
investi-
gators found that students in classrooms with more effective
teachers had a higher success rate, as judged by the quality of
their
oral responses during guided practice and their individual work.
In a study of fourth-grade mathematics, it was found that 82
per-
cent of students’ answers were correct in the classrooms of the
most successful teachers, but the least successful teachers had a
success rate of only 73 percent. A high success rate during
guided
practice also leads to a higher success rate when students are
working on problems on their own.
The research also suggests that the optimal success rate for
59. fostering student achievement appears to be about 80 percent. A
success rate of 80 percent shows that students are learning the
material, and it also shows that the students are challenged.
In the classroom
The most effective teachers obtained this success level by
teaching
in small steps (i.e., by combining short presentations with
super-
vised student practice), and by giving sufficient practice on
each
part before proceeding to the next step. These teachers
frequently
checked for understanding and required responses from all
students.
It is important that students achieve a high success rate during
instruction and on their practice activities. Practice, we are told,
makes perfect, but practice can be a disaster if students are
prac-
ticing errors! If the practice does not have a high success level,
there is a chance that students are practicing and learning
errors.
Once errors have been learned, they are ver y difficult to
overcome.
As discussed in the previous section, when we learn new mate-
rial, we construct a gist of this material in our long-term
memory.
However, many students make errors in the process of
construct-
ing this mental summary. These errors can occur when the
infor-
mation is new and the student did not have adequate or
60. well-formed background knowledge. These constructions are not
errors so much as attempts by the students to be logical in an
area
where their background knowledge is weak. But students are
more
likely to develop misconceptions if too much material is
presented
at once, and if teachers do not check for student understanding.
Providing guided practice after teaching small amounts of new
material, and checking for student understanding, can help limit
the development of misconceptions.
I once observed a class where an effective teacher was going
from desk to desk during independent practice and suddenly
realized that the students were having difficulty. She stopped
the
work, told the students not to do the problems for homework,
and
said she would reteach this material the next day. She stopped
the
work because she did not want the students to practice errors.
Unless all students have mastered the first set of lessons, there
is a danger that the slower students will fall further behind
when
the next set of lessons is taught. So there is a need for a high
suc-
cess rate for all students. “Mastery learning” is a form of
instruc-
tion where lessons are organized into short units and all
students
are required to master one set of lessons before they proceed to
the next set. In mastery learning, tutoring by other students or
by
teachers is provided to help students master each unit.
variations
61. of this approach, particularly the tutoring, might be useful in
many classroom settings.
The most successful teachers spent
more time in guided practice, more
time asking questions, more time
checking for understanding, and more
time correcting errors.
18 AmERIcAN EdUcATOR | SPRING 2012
8. Provide scaffolds for difficult tasks: The teacher
provides students with temporary supports and
scaffolds to assist them when they learn difficult tasks.
Research findings
Investigators have successfully provided students with
scaffolds,
or instructional supports, to help them learn difficult tasks. A
scaf-
fold is a temporary support that is used to assist a learner.
These
scaffolds are gradually withdrawn as learners become more
com-
petent, although students may continue to rely on scaffolds
when
they encounter particularly difficult problems. Providing
scaffolds
is a form of guided practice.
Scaffolds include modeling the steps by the teacher, or thinking
aloud by the teacher as he or she solves the problem. Scaffolds
also may be tools, such as cue cards or checklists, that complete
part of the task for the students, or a model of the completed
62. task
against which students can compare their own work.
The process of helping students solve difficult problems by
modeling and providing scaffolds has been called “cognitive
apprenticeship.” Students learn strategies and content during
this
apprenticeship that enable them to become competent readers,
writers, and problem solvers. They are aided by a master who
models, coaches, provides supports, and scaffolds them as they
become independent.
In the classroom
One form of scaffolding is to give students prompts for steps
they
might use. Prompts such as “who,” “why,” and “how” have
helped
students learn to ask questions while they read. Teaching
students
to ask questions has been shown to help students’ reading
comprehension.
Similarly, one researcher developed the following prompt to
help students organize material.13
1. Draw a central box and write the title of the article in it.
2. Skim the article to find four to six main ideas.
3. Write each main idea in a box below the central box.
4. Find and write two to four important details to list under each
main idea.
Another form of scaffolding is thinking aloud by the teacher.
For example, teachers might think aloud as they try to
summarize
a paragraph. They would show the thought processes they go
63. through as they determine the topic of the paragraph and then
use the topic to generate a summary sentence. Teachers might
think aloud while solving a scientific equation or writing an
essay,
and at the same time provide labels for their mental processes.
Such thinking aloud provides novice learners with a way to
observe “expert thinking” that is usually hidden from the
student.
Teachers also can study their students’ thought processes by
ask-
ing them to think aloud during problem solving.
One characteristic of effective teachers is their ability to antici -
pate students’ errors and warn them about possible errors some
of them are likely to make. For example, a teacher might have
students read a passage and then give them a poorly written
topic
sentence to correct. In teaching division or subtraction, the
teacher may show and discuss with students the mistakes other
students have frequently made.
In some of the studies, students were given a checklist to evalu-
ate their work. Checklist items included “Have I found the most
important information that tells me more about the main idea?”
and “Does every sentence start with a capital letter?” The
teacher
then modeled use of the checklist.
In some studies, students were provided with expert models
with which they could compare their work. For example, when
students were taught to generate questions, they could compare
their questions with those generated by the teacher. Similarly,
when learning to write summaries, students could compare their
summaries on a passage with those generated by an expert.
64. 9. Require and monitor independent practice: Students
need extensive, successful, independent practice in
order for skills and knowledge to become automatic.
Research findings
In a typical teacher-led classroom, guided practice is followed
by
independent practice—by students working alone and practicing
the new material. This independent practice is necessary
because
a good deal of practice (overlearning) is needed in order to
become fluent and automatic in a skill. When material is over -
learned, it can be recalled automatically and doesn’t take up any
space in working memory. When students become automatic in
an area, they can then devote more of their attention to compre-
hension and application.
Independent practice provides students with the additional
review and elaboration they need to become fluent. This need
for
fluency applies to facts, concepts, and discriminations that must
be used in subsequent learning. Fluency is also needed in opera-
tions, such as dividing decimals, conjugating a regular verb in a
foreign language, or completing and balancing a chemical
equation.
One characteristic of effective
teachers is their ability to anticipate
students’ errors and warn them
about possible errors some of them
are likely to make.
AmERIcAN EdUcATOR | SPRING 2012 19
65. In the classroom
The more successful teachers provided for extensive and
success-
ful practice, both in the classroom and after class. Independent
practice should involve the same material as the guided
practice.
If guided practice deals with identifying types of sentences, for
example, then independent practice should deal with the same
topic or, perhaps, with a slight variation, like creating
individual
compound and complex sentences. It would be inappropriate if
the independent practice asked the students to do an activity
such
as “Write a paragraph using two compound and two complex
sentences,” however, because the students have not been ade-
quately prepared for such an activity.
Students need to be fully prepared for their independent prac-
tice. Sometimes, it may be appropriate for a teacher to practice
some of the seatwork problems with the entire class before stu-
dents begin independent practice.
Research has found that students were more engaged when
their teacher circulated around the room, and monitored and
supervised their seatwork. The optimal time for these contacts
was 30 seconds or less. Classrooms where the teachers had to
stop
at students’ desks and provide a great deal of explanation
during
seatwork were the classrooms where students were making
errors.
These errors occurred because the guided practice was not suf-
ficient for students to engage productively in independent prac-
tice. This reiterates the importance of adequately preparing
students before they begin their independent practice.
66. Some investigators14 have developed procedures, such as
cooperative learning, during which students help each other as
they study. Research has shown that all students tend to achieve
more in these settings than do students in regular settings. Pre-
sumably, some of the advantage comes from having to explain
the
material to someone else and/or having someone else (other
than
the teacher) explain the material to the student. Cooperative
learning offers an opportunity for students to get feedback from
their peers about correct as well as incorrect responses, which
promotes both engagement and learning. These cooperative/
competitive settings are also valuable for helping slower
students
in a class by providing extra instruction for them.
10. Engage students in weekly and monthly
review: Students need to be involved in extensive
practice in order to develop well-connected and
automatic knowledge.
Research findings
Students need extensive and broad reading, and extensive prac-
tice in order to develop well-connected networks of ideas (sche-
mas) in their long-term memory. When one’s knowledge on a
particular topic is large and well connected, it is easier to learn
new information and prior knowledge is more readily available
for use. The more one rehearses and reviews information, the
stronger these interconnections become. It is also easier to solve
new problems when one has a rich, well-connected body of
knowledge and strong ties among the connections. One of the
goals of education is to help students develop extensive and
avail-
able background knowledge.
67. Knowledge (even very extensive knowledge) stored in long-
term memory that is organized into patterns only occupies a tiny
amount of space in our limited working memory. So having
larger
and better-connected patterns of knowledge frees up space in
our
working memory. This available space can be used for
reflecting
on new information and for problem solving. The development
of well-connected patterns (also called “unitization” and
“chunk-
ing”) and the freeing of space in the working memory is one of
the
hallmarks of an expert in a field.
Thus, research on cognitive processing supports the need for
a teacher to assist students by providing for extensive reading
of
a variety of materials, frequent review, and discussion and
appli-
cation activities. The research on cognitive processing suggests
that these classroom activities help students increase the
number
of pieces of information in their long-term memory and
organize
this information into patterns and chunks.
The more one rehearses and reviews information, the stronger
the interconnections between the materials become. Review also
helps students develop their new knowledge into patterns, and it
The best way to become an expert
is through practice—thousands of
hours of practice. The more the
practice, the better the
68. performance.
The following list of 17 principles emerges from the research
discussed in the main article. It overlaps with, and offers
slightly more detail than, the 10 principles used to organize
that article.
• Begin a lesson with a short review of previous learning.
• Present new material in small steps with student practice
after each step.
• Limit the amount of material students receive at one
time.
• Give clear and detailed instructions and explanations.
• Ask a large number of questions and check for
understanding.
• Provide a high level of active practice for all students.
• Guide students as they begin to practice.
• Think aloud and model steps.
• Provide models of worked-out problems.
• Ask students to explain what they have learned.
• check the responses of all students.
• Provide systematic feedback and corrections.
• Use more time to provide explanations.
• Provide many examples.
• Reteach material when necessary.
• Prepare students for independent practice.
• monitor students when they begin independent practice.
–B.R.
17 Principles of
Effective Instruction
69. (Continued on page 39)
AMERICAN EDUCATOR | SPRING 2012 39
helps them acquire the ability to recall past
learning automatically.
The best way to become an expert is
through practice—thousands of hours of
practice. The more the practice, the better
the performance.
In the classroom
Many successful programs, especially in
the elementary grades, provided for exten-
sive review. One way of achieving this goal
is to review the previous week’s work every
Monday and the previous month’s work
ever y fourth Monday. Some effective
teachers also gave tests after their reviews.
Research has found that even at the sec-
ondary level, classes that had weekly quiz-
zes scored better on final exams than did
classes with only one or two quizzes during
the term. These reviews and tests provided
the additional practice students needed to
become skilled, successful performers who
could apply their knowledge and skills in
new areas.
Teachers face a difficult problem when
they need to cover a lot of material and
don’t feel they have the time for sufficient
review. But the research states (and we all
70. know from personal experience) that
material that is not adequately practiced
and reviewed is easily forgotten.
T
he 10 principles in this article
c o m e f r o m t h r e e d i f f e r e n t
sources : research on how the
mind acquires and uses informa-
tion, the instructional procedures that are
used by the most successful teachers, and
the procedures invented by researchers to
help students learn difficult tasks. The
research from each of these three sources
has implications for classroom instruction,
and these implications are described in
each of these 10 principles.
Even though these principles come
from three different sources, the instruc-
tional procedures that are taken from one
source do not conflict with the instruc-
tional procedures that are taken from
another source. Instead, the ideas from
each of the sources overlap and add to each
other. This overlap gives us faith that we are
developing a valid and research-based
understanding of the art of teaching. ☐
Endnotes
1. Suggested readings: George A. Miller, “The Magical
Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on Our
Capacity for Processing Information,” Psychological Review
63, no. 2 (1956): 81–97; and David LaBerge and S. Jay
Samuels, “Toward a Theory of Automatic Information
71. Processing in Reading,” Cognitive Psychology 6, no. 2
(1974): 293–323.
2. Suggested readings: Carolyn M. Evertson, Charles W.
Anderson, Linda M. Anderson, and Jere E. Brophy,
“Relationships between Classroom Behaviors and Student
Outcomes in Junior High Mathematics and English Classes,”
American Educational Research Journal 17, no. 1 (1980):
43–60; and Thomas L. Good and Jere E. Brophy, Educational
Psychology: A Realistic Approach, 4th ed. (New York:
Longman, 1990).
3. Suggested readings: Thomas L. Good and Douglas A.
Grouws, “The Missouri Mathematics Effectiveness Project,”
Journal of Educational Psychology 71, no. 3 (1979):
355–362; and Alison King, “Guiding Knowledge
Construction in the Classroom: Effects of Teaching Children
How to Question and How to Explain,” American
Educational Research Journal 31, no. 2 (1994): 338–368.
4. Suggested readings: John Sweller, “Cognitive Load
Theory, Learning Difficulty, and Instructional Design,”
Learning and Instruction 4, no. 4 (1994): 295–312; Barak
Rosenshine, Carla Meister, and Saul Chapman, “Teaching
Students to Generate Questions: A Review of the
Intervention Studies,” Review of Educational Research 66,
no. 2 (1996): 181–221; and Alan H. Schoenfeld,
Mathematical Problem Solving (New York: Academic Press,
1985).
5. Suggested readings: Evertson et al., “Relationships
between Classroom Behaviors and Student Outcomes”; and
Paul A. Kirschner, John Sweller, and Richard E. Clark, “Why
Minimal Guidance during Instruction Does Not Work: An
Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery,
Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching,”
72. Educational Psychologist 41, no. 2 (2006): 75–86.
6. Suggested readings: Douglas Fisher and Nancy Frey,
Checking for Understanding: Formative Assessment
Techniques for Your Classroom (Alexandria, VA: Association
for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 2007); and
Michael J. Dunkin, “Student Characteristics, Classroom
Processes, and Student Achievement,” Journal of
Educational Psychology 70, no. 6 (1978): 998–1009.
7. Suggested readings: Lorin W. Anderson and Robert B.
Burns, “Values, Evidence, and Mastery Learning,” Review of
Educational Research 57, no. 2 (1987): 215–223; and
Norman Frederiksen, “Implications of Cognitive Theory for
Instruction in Problem Solving,” Review of Educational
Research 54, no. 3 (1984): 363–407.
8. Suggested readings: Michael Pressley and Vera Woloshyn,
Cognitive Strategy Instruction that Really Improves Children’s
Academic Performance, 2nd ed. (Cambridge, MA: Brookline
Books, 1995); and Barak Rosenshine and Carla Meister, “The
Use of Scaffolds for Teaching Higher-Level Cognitive
Strategies,” Educational Leadership 49, no. 7 (April 1992):
26–33.
9. Suggested readings: Barak Rosenshine, “The Empirical
Support for Direct Instruction,” in Constructivist Instruction:
Success or Failure? ed. Sigmund Tobias and Thomas M.
Duffy (New York: Routledge, 2009), 201–220; and Robert E.
Slavin, Education for All (Exton, PA: Swets and Zeitlinger,
1996).
10. Suggested readings: Good and Grouws, “The Missouri
Mathematics Effectiveness Project”; and James A. Kulik and
Chen-Lin C. Kulik, “College Teaching,” in Research on
Teaching: Concepts, Findings, and Implications, ed. Penelope
73. L. Peterson and Herbert J. Walberg (Berkeley, CA:
McCutchan, 1979).
11. Good and Grouws, “The Missouri Mathematics
Effectiveness Project.”
12. These stems were developed by King, “Guiding
Knowledge Construction in the Classroom.”
13. Sandra J. Berkowitz, “Effects of Instruction in Text
Organization on Sixth-Grade Students’ Memory for
Expository Reading,” Reading Research Quarterly 21, no. 2
(1986): 161–178. For additional strategies to help students
organize material, see Wisconsin Department of Public
Instruction, Strategic Learning in the Content Areas
(Madison, WI: Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction,
2005).
14. Slavin, Education for All.
Principles
(Continued from page 19)
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