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7
Philosophical Foundations of the Curriculum
Theresa M. “Terry” Valiga, EdD, RN, CNE, ANEF, FAAN
Beautiful words. Admirable values. Published prominently on websites and in catalogues, student handbooks and accreditation reports. The philosophical statement of a school of nursing is accepted by faculty as a document that must be crafted to please external reviewers, but for many it remains little more than that. Far too often the school’s philosophy remains safely tucked inside a report but is rarely seen as a living document that guides the day-to-day workings of the school.
In reality, the philosophy of a school of nursing should be referenced and reflected upon often. It should be reviewed seriously with candidates for faculty positions and with those individuals who join the community as new members. It should be discussed in a deliberate way with potential students and with students as they progress throughout the program. And it should be a strong guiding force as the school revises or sharpens its goals, outlines action steps to implement its strategic plan, and makes decisions about the allocation of resources.
This chapter explores the significance of reflecting on, articulating, and being guided by a philosophy, examines the essential components of a philosophy for a school of nursing, and points out how philosophical statements guide the design and implementation of the curriculum and the evaluation of its effectiveness. The role of faculty, administrators, and students in crafting and “living” the philosophy is discussed, and the issues and debates surrounding the “doing of philosophy” (Greene, 1973) are examined. Finally, suggestions are offered regarding how faculty might go about writing or revising the school’s philosophy.
What Is Philosophy?
The educational philosopher Maxine Greene (1973) challenged educators to “do philosophy.” By this she meant that we need to take the risk of thinking about what we do when we teach and what we mean when we talk of enabling others to learn. It also means we need to become progressively more conscious of the choices and commitments we make in our professional lives. Greene also challenged educators to look at our presuppositions, to examine critically the principles underlying what we think and what we say as educators, and to confront the individual within us. She acknowledged that we often have to ask and answer painful questions when we “do philosophy.”
In his seminal book, The Courage to Teach, Parker Palmer (2007) asserted that “though the academy claims to value multiple modes of knowing, it honors only one—an ‘objective’ way of knowing that takes us into the ‘real’ world by taking us ‘out of ourselves’” (p. 18). He encouraged educators to challenge this culture by bringing a more human, personal perspective to the teaching–learning experience. Like Greene, Palmer suggested that, to do this, educators must look inside so that we can understand that “we teach who we are” (p. xi) a ...
Invitational Education is a systematic approach to creating effective schools and organizations through communication that results in learning and human development. It is based on the foundations of the democratic ethos, the perceptual tradition, and self-concept theory. The key aspects of Invitational Education are optimizing human potential through intentionally inviting practices, policies, places, programs, and people. Effectiveness is measured by assessing functioning on "The Ladder" of four levels - from least to most desirable are intentionally disinviting, unintentionally disinviting, unintentionally inviting, and intentionally inviting.
This document discusses key concepts that are shared between education and social work, which the author argues form the core of social pedagogy. Some examples of shared concepts are developing motivation in pupils/clients, perspective shifting, and the role of expectations in educational and therapeutic meetings. The author argues these concepts are especially significant in certain educational settings and constitute the essence of social pedagogy in both academic and practical terms. The document then examines several of these shared concepts in more depth, including the pedagogical meeting, developing motivation, and diagnostic competence.
Tseliso Ncheke believes in a learner-centered philosophy of adult education that emphasizes self-directed learning and empowerment. Their approach focuses on drawing out the experiences and knowledge that learners already possess, and helping them develop critical thinking skills to analyze issues and make informed decisions. They strive to create a safe, participatory learning environment where learners feel comfortable sharing views and experiences. The goal is for learners to take responsibility for their own learning and development, rather than relying on the educator.
Critical pedagogy began during South African apartheid when teachers employed it to subvert the racist curriculum and encourage critical examination of social issues. It combines education with critical theory to help students develop consciousness, recognize authoritarianism, and take constructive action. Critical pedagogy involves relationships between teaching and learning through processes of unlearning, learning, and relearning. Problem-based learning is a student-centered approach where students learn through problem solving in groups, while the teacher facilitates the learning process. Reflective practice involves critically examining one's actions and theories to engage in continuous learning. Experiential learning is making meaning from direct experiences, and genuine learning requires willingness to engage, reflection, conceptualization skills, and decision making.
The document discusses educational philosophies and how they relate to curriculum and teaching gifted and talented (AIG) students. It provides an overview of four major philosophies - idealism, realism, pragmatism, and existentialism - and how they influenced the development of four educational philosophies: perennialism, essentialism, progressivism, and reconstructionism. It notes that teachers' philosophical beliefs impact how they motivate and prepare students. For AIG students specifically, the philosophies that guide the curriculum and teaching methods used are important to ensure they are sufficiently challenged. The reflections at the end discuss taking a progressive approach to provide fair and equitable education for all students, including AIG students.
Invitational Education is a systematic approach to creating effective schools and organizations through communication that results in learning and human development. It is based on the foundations of the democratic ethos, the perceptual tradition, and self-concept theory. The key aspects of Invitational Education are optimizing human potential through intentionally inviting practices, policies, places, programs, and people. Effectiveness is measured by assessing functioning on "The Ladder" of four levels - from least to most desirable are intentionally disinviting, unintentionally disinviting, unintentionally inviting, and intentionally inviting.
This document discusses key concepts that are shared between education and social work, which the author argues form the core of social pedagogy. Some examples of shared concepts are developing motivation in pupils/clients, perspective shifting, and the role of expectations in educational and therapeutic meetings. The author argues these concepts are especially significant in certain educational settings and constitute the essence of social pedagogy in both academic and practical terms. The document then examines several of these shared concepts in more depth, including the pedagogical meeting, developing motivation, and diagnostic competence.
Tseliso Ncheke believes in a learner-centered philosophy of adult education that emphasizes self-directed learning and empowerment. Their approach focuses on drawing out the experiences and knowledge that learners already possess, and helping them develop critical thinking skills to analyze issues and make informed decisions. They strive to create a safe, participatory learning environment where learners feel comfortable sharing views and experiences. The goal is for learners to take responsibility for their own learning and development, rather than relying on the educator.
Critical pedagogy began during South African apartheid when teachers employed it to subvert the racist curriculum and encourage critical examination of social issues. It combines education with critical theory to help students develop consciousness, recognize authoritarianism, and take constructive action. Critical pedagogy involves relationships between teaching and learning through processes of unlearning, learning, and relearning. Problem-based learning is a student-centered approach where students learn through problem solving in groups, while the teacher facilitates the learning process. Reflective practice involves critically examining one's actions and theories to engage in continuous learning. Experiential learning is making meaning from direct experiences, and genuine learning requires willingness to engage, reflection, conceptualization skills, and decision making.
The document discusses educational philosophies and how they relate to curriculum and teaching gifted and talented (AIG) students. It provides an overview of four major philosophies - idealism, realism, pragmatism, and existentialism - and how they influenced the development of four educational philosophies: perennialism, essentialism, progressivism, and reconstructionism. It notes that teachers' philosophical beliefs impact how they motivate and prepare students. For AIG students specifically, the philosophies that guide the curriculum and teaching methods used are important to ensure they are sufficiently challenged. The reflections at the end discuss taking a progressive approach to provide fair and equitable education for all students, including AIG students.
Critical Emancipatory Education Peer Response discusses alternative approaches to education that can transform urban education systems. It argues that non-Western education allows teachers and students to actively participate, in contrast to Western systems that treat students as "empty vessels" to be filled by teachers. The document also discusses how education should serve to liberate and transform students by engaging them intellectually and spiritually, rather than just focusing on academic performance.
Here are the key points about John Dewey:
- American philosopher, psychologist, and educational reformer.
- Born in 1859 in Burlington, Vermont.
- Obtained his PhD from Johns Hopkins University in 1884.
- Taught at the University of Chicago from 1894 to 1904.
- Founded the University of Chicago Laboratory School in 1896 to test his educational philosophy.
- Believed that education should be based on experience and interaction rather than rote memorization.
- Emphasized the importance of learning through experience and hands-on activities rather than textbooks.
- One of the primary influences on progressive education in the 20th century.
- Died in 1952
developmental social individual factors of learner centered principleJocel Vallejo
This research paper examines developmental, social, and individual factors that influence learner-centered psychological principles. It discusses several theories of learner development, including those proposed by Piaget, Vygotsky, Erikson, and Kohlberg. These theories explore how cognitive, social, and emotional development affect learning. The paper also analyzes how individual differences like cultural background and learning styles require teachers to understand diversity and plan lessons accordingly. Overall, the research emphasizes that understanding learner development helps teachers facilitate effective learning through appropriate strategies and activities.
This document discusses five major educational philosophies: perennialism, essentialism, progressivism, existentialism, and pragmatism. Perennialism focuses on teaching reasoning and wisdom through subjects and doctrine with a highly disciplined approach. Essentialism emphasizes teaching intellectual and moral standards through a core curriculum of essential knowledge and skills. Progressivism believes education should focus on the whole child through active learning rooted in the learner's experiences. Existentialism rejects set truths and focuses on helping students understand themselves and accept responsibility for their own development. Pragmatism sees education as a means to solve problems and believes learning happens through active experimentation.
This document discusses the formulation of an educational philosophy. It begins by explaining the importance of having a clear philosophy of education to guide curriculum planning and teaching approaches. It then defines philosophy and outlines three main branches: metaphysics, epistemology, and axiology. The document proceeds to explain five major philosophical positions that influence education: perennialism, essentialism, progressivism, reconstructionism, idealism, realism, pragmatism, and existentialism. It provides the key features and implications of each position. Advantages of developing a teaching philosophy are also presented. The document concludes with sample multiple choice questions.
The document discusses educational philosophies and how they relate to curriculum and teaching gifted and talented (AIG) students. It provides an overview of four major philosophies - idealism, realism, pragmatism, and existentialism - and how they influenced the development of four educational philosophies: perennialism, essentialism, progressivism, and reconstructionism. It notes that teachers' philosophical beliefs impact how they motivate and prepare students. For AIG students specifically, the philosophies that guide the curriculum and teaching methods are important to ensure they are sufficiently challenged. The reflections at the end discuss taking a progressive approach to provide fair and equitable education for all students, including AIG students.
The document provides definitions and comparisons of different educational philosophies including essentialism, progressivism, perennialism, constructivism, behaviorism, reconstructionism, existentialism, and eclecticism. It defines each philosophy's views on why and how to teach as well as what content to teach. A comparison chart then outlines the differences between traditional and contemporary approaches across categories such as philosophical orientation, theoretical orientation, educational values, processes, focus, curriculum, learning, grouping, teachers, students, direction, and citizenship. References are provided at the end.
- The document discusses 7 philosophies of education: essentialism, progressivism, perennialism, existentialism, behaviorism, linguistic philosophy, and constructivism.
- For each philosophy, it provides information on why teachers teach according to that philosophy, what content is taught, and how teaching is done.
- The philosophies differ in their views of the purpose of education, what should be taught, and teaching methods but all aim to educate students.
- The document provides information about a student named Amna Rashid with roll number 2021-744 studying from 2021-2025 under the teacher Ms. Shaista Naheed with the goal of becoming a professor in psychology.
- It discusses how psychology has influenced curriculum development through theorists like Piaget and Vygotsky who studied child development and learning.
- The major philosophies that influence education are discussed as idealism, realism, pragmatism, and existentialism which focus on what and how students should learn.
Creating a Culture of Learning describes the key characteristics of a school with a culture of learning. Such a school possesses a widely shared strong vision, believes in effort-based education, and operates based on selective core values that grow out of the vision. It exercises effective leadership that derives power from trust, celebrates the teaching profession, and empowers teachers to be leaders. The school nourishes a spirit of teamwork among teachers and humanizes education by seeing the school as a people system focused on developing students. It generates motivation to learn and commits to a process of never-ending renewal.
Philosophical and psychological foundations of curriculumgopikarchandran
The document discusses the philosophical foundations of curriculum. It explains that philosophy influences educational decisions and curriculum development. It outlines four major philosophical positions that have influenced curriculum - idealism, realism, pragmatism, and existentialism. Idealism emphasizes moral and spiritual reality, while realism focuses on imparting knowledge about the real world. Pragmatism considers social and perceptual change, and existentialism stresses individual experiences. A prudent eclectic approach is needed for curriculum that serves students and society.
1 Week 3 – The impact of personal and cultural VannaJoy20
1
Week 3 – The impact of personal and cultural
values in educational contexts
TOPIC GOALS
Explore personal and cultural values in education for educators and
students
2
1. Introduction
“Great people have great values and great ethics.”
(Jeffrey Gitomer, 1993)
2. Educators Personal and Cultural Values
Our values as educators play a significant role to how we portray ourselves
in action, what we do and what we say. Most of the times you find educators
asking themselves the same question. What kind of an educator am I? Educators
always need to justify themselves through their teaching practices and that can
only be done when we reflect on what we do and why we teach in a particular
way. That involves the values of any educator to be questioned.
‘Throughout our teaching careers we think and behave in certain ways and
believe in certain things, such as how far our teaching can be called ‘educational’,
about what we can offer children and what our capabilities are. What we do, think,
and feel about teaching constitute our sense of professional identity. We can
reveal and communicate this identity when we address and articulate an answer
to the question’ (Ghaye, 2011).
3
If we reflect on these descriptions of practice, we give
ourselves the chance to learn from our experiences of
teaching. This can help to move our practice forward.
(Ghaye, 2011)
‘While a case could be made that there are some universally accepted
values, values in education are culturally bound. No aspect of curriculum is taught
in a cultural void, and the relationship of values education to cultural context
throws up particular challenges in attempting an international study’ (Stephenson,
1998).
Educators usually do not stay in an unchanged set of values as they develop
more practice and experience the reflection on these shifts and changes happen
depending on the setting and context they work in. To be called a professional
implies that educators need to reflect on their teaching constantly and be
responsive to what is happening around them. ‘A teacher’s values should be
derived from the nature of what constitutes effective and ethical practice. To
reach this position, we have to understand and question the purposes of education’
(Ghaye, 2011)
4
Cultural values on the other hand are the particular concepts of interest of
each individual when asked about their beliefs, personality, values and identity.
That way you can distinguish their cultural views and behaviours in their personal
lives which then reflect in their practices as well. This also reflects specific
characteristics and certain practices on a larger nationwide scale that constitutes
each educational context. However, ‘Individuals are expected to cultivate and
express their own preferences, feelings, ideas, and abilities. Schwartz (1994)
distinguishes two types of auto ...
Tamaso ma Jyotirgamaya: From Darkness to Lightbaidya
Share your knowledge, go from darkness to Light .
In a formal teaching environment, various content and subjects are exchanged between teachers and learners. A student’s learning is assessed only through the contents -its retention, its depth, and width. However, none of these give any measure to the amount of luminance of light that a learner has acquired and passed on during his/her learning processes using content as a vehicle. Thus the acquired luminance of light acts as the learner’s North Star of life – a guiding path. With this, the learner achieves success, builds family, contributes to society, and becomes part of the bonafide citizenry of any nation.
Leadership in School Head Teachers Based on Trust and Virtue Leads to a Bette...Fundación Varkey
By Carlos de Marcos
There is abundant research trying to describe the dynamics and behaviors of successful schools. These
approaches are often targeted at structural levels, teaching methods and techniques, improved
curriculum, systems, programs, laws or regulations. There is research and collective experience,
however, to support the idea that virtue and trust in school head teachers’ leadership is ranked first in
the changes needed to improve the education transformation processes.
This paper is aimed at establishing a different and complementary approach to successful schools based
on virtue and character as sources of trust, cooperation and positive interpersonal relationship between
head teachers and teachers.
Contact: kdm0910@gmail.com
The document discusses affective assessment and various methods for measuring attitudes and values in the affective domain. It begins by explaining affective assessment and its place within Bloom's Taxonomy, specifically measuring a student's attitudes, interests, and values. It then describes several common methods for measuring the affective domain, including Likert scales, semantic differential scales, Thurstone scales, checklists, and Guttman scales. Examples are provided for each method. The goal of affective assessment is to evaluate aspects of learning beyond just cognitive knowledge, focusing on a student's underlying emotions, feelings, and values.
This document is a philosophy paper written by Wasan F. Abu-Baker for a history and philosophy of education course. The paper discusses Abu-Baker's beliefs about education based on critical theory. It argues that education should promote freedom, intellectual growth, and critical thinking. The purpose of schools according to critical theory is to provide historical perspective, human liberation, and raise consciousness. Teachers should listen to students and encourage free thinking and expression. An essentialist approach that focuses only on basic skills ignores developing students' social skills and ability to think critically.
Relationship between Education and Philosophy.SANA FATIMA
This document discusses the relationship between education and philosophy. It defines both education and philosophy, explaining that education is the process of facilitating learning, while philosophy is the study of fundamental problems concerning existence, knowledge, values, and more. It argues that education without philosophy is blind, as philosophy provides guidance on educational aims, harmonizes traditions, and prepares students for modern challenges. Philosophy of education helps determine goals, balance old and new approaches, and provide vision to educational leaders.
Visible Thinking is a framework that aims to enrich classroom learning, foster students' intellectual development, and shift the classroom culture towards enthusiastic thinkers and learners. It involves using thinking routines, emphasizing four thinking ideals, and making students' thinking visible through explanations, ideas, debates, and interpretations displayed in the classroom. When thinking is visible, students are more metacognitive, engaged in exploring ideas rather than just memorizing content, and teachers can better understand students' thinking to address challenges and extend learning.
This document outlines various philosophies of education including essentialism, progressivism, perennialism, existentialism, behaviorism, linguistic philosophy, and constructivism. It discusses the key beliefs of each philosophy in terms of why we teach, what we teach, and how we teach. The document also introduces the four pillars of learning: learning to know, learning to do, learning to live together, and learning to be. Finally, it provides an overview of four branches of philosophy related to teaching: axiology, epistemology, logic, and metaphysics.
1. Analyze the case and determine the factors that have made KFC a s.docxaulasnilda
1. Analyze the case and determine the factors that have made KFC a successful global business.
2. Why are cultural factors so important to KFC’s sales success in India and China?
3. Spot the cultural factors in India that go against KFC’s original recipe.
4. Why did Kentucky Fried Chicken change its name to KFC?
5. What PESTEL factors contributed to KFC’s positioning?
6. How does the SWOT analysis of KFC affect the future of KFC?
Points to be considered:
1. Please follow 6th edition of the APA Format.
2. On separate page, the word "Abstract,' centered on paper followed by 75-100 word overview.
3. References needs to be Peer Reviewed Articles.
4. This assignment should be 15-20 pages excluding the title and reference pages. The paper should contain at least one graph, figure, chart, or table.
5. Please use the questions as Headings for the topics in the Paper.
I have attached the case study document below.
.
1. A.Discuss how the concept of health has changed over time. B.Di.docxaulasnilda
1. A.Discuss how the concept of "health" has changed over time. B.Discuss how the concept has evolved to include wellness, illness, and overall well-being. C.How has health promotion changed over time? D.Why is it important that nurses implement health promotion interventions based on evidence-based practice?
2. A.Compare and contrast the three different levels of health promotion (primary, secondary, tertiary). B.Discuss how the levels of prevention help determine educational needs for a patient.
.
More Related Content
Similar to 1187Philosophical Foundations of the CurriculumTheresa M. T.docx
Critical Emancipatory Education Peer Response discusses alternative approaches to education that can transform urban education systems. It argues that non-Western education allows teachers and students to actively participate, in contrast to Western systems that treat students as "empty vessels" to be filled by teachers. The document also discusses how education should serve to liberate and transform students by engaging them intellectually and spiritually, rather than just focusing on academic performance.
Here are the key points about John Dewey:
- American philosopher, psychologist, and educational reformer.
- Born in 1859 in Burlington, Vermont.
- Obtained his PhD from Johns Hopkins University in 1884.
- Taught at the University of Chicago from 1894 to 1904.
- Founded the University of Chicago Laboratory School in 1896 to test his educational philosophy.
- Believed that education should be based on experience and interaction rather than rote memorization.
- Emphasized the importance of learning through experience and hands-on activities rather than textbooks.
- One of the primary influences on progressive education in the 20th century.
- Died in 1952
developmental social individual factors of learner centered principleJocel Vallejo
This research paper examines developmental, social, and individual factors that influence learner-centered psychological principles. It discusses several theories of learner development, including those proposed by Piaget, Vygotsky, Erikson, and Kohlberg. These theories explore how cognitive, social, and emotional development affect learning. The paper also analyzes how individual differences like cultural background and learning styles require teachers to understand diversity and plan lessons accordingly. Overall, the research emphasizes that understanding learner development helps teachers facilitate effective learning through appropriate strategies and activities.
This document discusses five major educational philosophies: perennialism, essentialism, progressivism, existentialism, and pragmatism. Perennialism focuses on teaching reasoning and wisdom through subjects and doctrine with a highly disciplined approach. Essentialism emphasizes teaching intellectual and moral standards through a core curriculum of essential knowledge and skills. Progressivism believes education should focus on the whole child through active learning rooted in the learner's experiences. Existentialism rejects set truths and focuses on helping students understand themselves and accept responsibility for their own development. Pragmatism sees education as a means to solve problems and believes learning happens through active experimentation.
This document discusses the formulation of an educational philosophy. It begins by explaining the importance of having a clear philosophy of education to guide curriculum planning and teaching approaches. It then defines philosophy and outlines three main branches: metaphysics, epistemology, and axiology. The document proceeds to explain five major philosophical positions that influence education: perennialism, essentialism, progressivism, reconstructionism, idealism, realism, pragmatism, and existentialism. It provides the key features and implications of each position. Advantages of developing a teaching philosophy are also presented. The document concludes with sample multiple choice questions.
The document discusses educational philosophies and how they relate to curriculum and teaching gifted and talented (AIG) students. It provides an overview of four major philosophies - idealism, realism, pragmatism, and existentialism - and how they influenced the development of four educational philosophies: perennialism, essentialism, progressivism, and reconstructionism. It notes that teachers' philosophical beliefs impact how they motivate and prepare students. For AIG students specifically, the philosophies that guide the curriculum and teaching methods are important to ensure they are sufficiently challenged. The reflections at the end discuss taking a progressive approach to provide fair and equitable education for all students, including AIG students.
The document provides definitions and comparisons of different educational philosophies including essentialism, progressivism, perennialism, constructivism, behaviorism, reconstructionism, existentialism, and eclecticism. It defines each philosophy's views on why and how to teach as well as what content to teach. A comparison chart then outlines the differences between traditional and contemporary approaches across categories such as philosophical orientation, theoretical orientation, educational values, processes, focus, curriculum, learning, grouping, teachers, students, direction, and citizenship. References are provided at the end.
- The document discusses 7 philosophies of education: essentialism, progressivism, perennialism, existentialism, behaviorism, linguistic philosophy, and constructivism.
- For each philosophy, it provides information on why teachers teach according to that philosophy, what content is taught, and how teaching is done.
- The philosophies differ in their views of the purpose of education, what should be taught, and teaching methods but all aim to educate students.
- The document provides information about a student named Amna Rashid with roll number 2021-744 studying from 2021-2025 under the teacher Ms. Shaista Naheed with the goal of becoming a professor in psychology.
- It discusses how psychology has influenced curriculum development through theorists like Piaget and Vygotsky who studied child development and learning.
- The major philosophies that influence education are discussed as idealism, realism, pragmatism, and existentialism which focus on what and how students should learn.
Creating a Culture of Learning describes the key characteristics of a school with a culture of learning. Such a school possesses a widely shared strong vision, believes in effort-based education, and operates based on selective core values that grow out of the vision. It exercises effective leadership that derives power from trust, celebrates the teaching profession, and empowers teachers to be leaders. The school nourishes a spirit of teamwork among teachers and humanizes education by seeing the school as a people system focused on developing students. It generates motivation to learn and commits to a process of never-ending renewal.
Philosophical and psychological foundations of curriculumgopikarchandran
The document discusses the philosophical foundations of curriculum. It explains that philosophy influences educational decisions and curriculum development. It outlines four major philosophical positions that have influenced curriculum - idealism, realism, pragmatism, and existentialism. Idealism emphasizes moral and spiritual reality, while realism focuses on imparting knowledge about the real world. Pragmatism considers social and perceptual change, and existentialism stresses individual experiences. A prudent eclectic approach is needed for curriculum that serves students and society.
1 Week 3 – The impact of personal and cultural VannaJoy20
1
Week 3 – The impact of personal and cultural
values in educational contexts
TOPIC GOALS
Explore personal and cultural values in education for educators and
students
2
1. Introduction
“Great people have great values and great ethics.”
(Jeffrey Gitomer, 1993)
2. Educators Personal and Cultural Values
Our values as educators play a significant role to how we portray ourselves
in action, what we do and what we say. Most of the times you find educators
asking themselves the same question. What kind of an educator am I? Educators
always need to justify themselves through their teaching practices and that can
only be done when we reflect on what we do and why we teach in a particular
way. That involves the values of any educator to be questioned.
‘Throughout our teaching careers we think and behave in certain ways and
believe in certain things, such as how far our teaching can be called ‘educational’,
about what we can offer children and what our capabilities are. What we do, think,
and feel about teaching constitute our sense of professional identity. We can
reveal and communicate this identity when we address and articulate an answer
to the question’ (Ghaye, 2011).
3
If we reflect on these descriptions of practice, we give
ourselves the chance to learn from our experiences of
teaching. This can help to move our practice forward.
(Ghaye, 2011)
‘While a case could be made that there are some universally accepted
values, values in education are culturally bound. No aspect of curriculum is taught
in a cultural void, and the relationship of values education to cultural context
throws up particular challenges in attempting an international study’ (Stephenson,
1998).
Educators usually do not stay in an unchanged set of values as they develop
more practice and experience the reflection on these shifts and changes happen
depending on the setting and context they work in. To be called a professional
implies that educators need to reflect on their teaching constantly and be
responsive to what is happening around them. ‘A teacher’s values should be
derived from the nature of what constitutes effective and ethical practice. To
reach this position, we have to understand and question the purposes of education’
(Ghaye, 2011)
4
Cultural values on the other hand are the particular concepts of interest of
each individual when asked about their beliefs, personality, values and identity.
That way you can distinguish their cultural views and behaviours in their personal
lives which then reflect in their practices as well. This also reflects specific
characteristics and certain practices on a larger nationwide scale that constitutes
each educational context. However, ‘Individuals are expected to cultivate and
express their own preferences, feelings, ideas, and abilities. Schwartz (1994)
distinguishes two types of auto ...
Tamaso ma Jyotirgamaya: From Darkness to Lightbaidya
Share your knowledge, go from darkness to Light .
In a formal teaching environment, various content and subjects are exchanged between teachers and learners. A student’s learning is assessed only through the contents -its retention, its depth, and width. However, none of these give any measure to the amount of luminance of light that a learner has acquired and passed on during his/her learning processes using content as a vehicle. Thus the acquired luminance of light acts as the learner’s North Star of life – a guiding path. With this, the learner achieves success, builds family, contributes to society, and becomes part of the bonafide citizenry of any nation.
Leadership in School Head Teachers Based on Trust and Virtue Leads to a Bette...Fundación Varkey
By Carlos de Marcos
There is abundant research trying to describe the dynamics and behaviors of successful schools. These
approaches are often targeted at structural levels, teaching methods and techniques, improved
curriculum, systems, programs, laws or regulations. There is research and collective experience,
however, to support the idea that virtue and trust in school head teachers’ leadership is ranked first in
the changes needed to improve the education transformation processes.
This paper is aimed at establishing a different and complementary approach to successful schools based
on virtue and character as sources of trust, cooperation and positive interpersonal relationship between
head teachers and teachers.
Contact: kdm0910@gmail.com
The document discusses affective assessment and various methods for measuring attitudes and values in the affective domain. It begins by explaining affective assessment and its place within Bloom's Taxonomy, specifically measuring a student's attitudes, interests, and values. It then describes several common methods for measuring the affective domain, including Likert scales, semantic differential scales, Thurstone scales, checklists, and Guttman scales. Examples are provided for each method. The goal of affective assessment is to evaluate aspects of learning beyond just cognitive knowledge, focusing on a student's underlying emotions, feelings, and values.
This document is a philosophy paper written by Wasan F. Abu-Baker for a history and philosophy of education course. The paper discusses Abu-Baker's beliefs about education based on critical theory. It argues that education should promote freedom, intellectual growth, and critical thinking. The purpose of schools according to critical theory is to provide historical perspective, human liberation, and raise consciousness. Teachers should listen to students and encourage free thinking and expression. An essentialist approach that focuses only on basic skills ignores developing students' social skills and ability to think critically.
Relationship between Education and Philosophy.SANA FATIMA
This document discusses the relationship between education and philosophy. It defines both education and philosophy, explaining that education is the process of facilitating learning, while philosophy is the study of fundamental problems concerning existence, knowledge, values, and more. It argues that education without philosophy is blind, as philosophy provides guidance on educational aims, harmonizes traditions, and prepares students for modern challenges. Philosophy of education helps determine goals, balance old and new approaches, and provide vision to educational leaders.
Visible Thinking is a framework that aims to enrich classroom learning, foster students' intellectual development, and shift the classroom culture towards enthusiastic thinkers and learners. It involves using thinking routines, emphasizing four thinking ideals, and making students' thinking visible through explanations, ideas, debates, and interpretations displayed in the classroom. When thinking is visible, students are more metacognitive, engaged in exploring ideas rather than just memorizing content, and teachers can better understand students' thinking to address challenges and extend learning.
This document outlines various philosophies of education including essentialism, progressivism, perennialism, existentialism, behaviorism, linguistic philosophy, and constructivism. It discusses the key beliefs of each philosophy in terms of why we teach, what we teach, and how we teach. The document also introduces the four pillars of learning: learning to know, learning to do, learning to live together, and learning to be. Finally, it provides an overview of four branches of philosophy related to teaching: axiology, epistemology, logic, and metaphysics.
Similar to 1187Philosophical Foundations of the CurriculumTheresa M. T.docx (20)
1. Analyze the case and determine the factors that have made KFC a s.docxaulasnilda
1. Analyze the case and determine the factors that have made KFC a successful global business.
2. Why are cultural factors so important to KFC’s sales success in India and China?
3. Spot the cultural factors in India that go against KFC’s original recipe.
4. Why did Kentucky Fried Chicken change its name to KFC?
5. What PESTEL factors contributed to KFC’s positioning?
6. How does the SWOT analysis of KFC affect the future of KFC?
Points to be considered:
1. Please follow 6th edition of the APA Format.
2. On separate page, the word "Abstract,' centered on paper followed by 75-100 word overview.
3. References needs to be Peer Reviewed Articles.
4. This assignment should be 15-20 pages excluding the title and reference pages. The paper should contain at least one graph, figure, chart, or table.
5. Please use the questions as Headings for the topics in the Paper.
I have attached the case study document below.
.
1. A.Discuss how the concept of health has changed over time. B.Di.docxaulasnilda
1. A.Discuss how the concept of "health" has changed over time. B.Discuss how the concept has evolved to include wellness, illness, and overall well-being. C.How has health promotion changed over time? D.Why is it important that nurses implement health promotion interventions based on evidence-based practice?
2. A.Compare and contrast the three different levels of health promotion (primary, secondary, tertiary). B.Discuss how the levels of prevention help determine educational needs for a patient.
.
1. Abstract2. Introduction to Bitcoin and Ethereum3..docxaulasnilda
1.
Abstract
2.
Introduction to Bitcoin and Ethereum
3.
Background
a. How do we understand Ethereum and Smart Contracts?
b. Blockchain Cryptocurrency and Smart Contracts
c. What are Pros and Cons of using Ethereum?
d. Ethereum Virtual Machine
4.
Platforms or Programming for Smart Contracts
5.
Smart Contract Applications
6.
Research Methodology
a. Current Smart Contract Applications
b. Security Issues
c. Privacy Issues
d. Performance Issues
7.
Ethereum System and Solidity Smart Contracts
a. What do we understand about Ethereum and the Likes?
b. How does Ethereum and the likes work?
8.
Ethereum and Hyperledger in Smart Contracts
9.
What can we get by the term Scalability?
10.
Smart Contracting Programming and High-Level Issues
a. Usability
b. Ethical and Legal Issues
11.
Specifications and Implementations
12.
Pros and Cons of using Ethereum Smart Contracts
13.
Current Trends on Ethereum
14.
Future State of Ethereum Smart Contracts or Virtual Machines
15.
Conclusion
Note: Paper about Ethereum
20 pages
ppt 12-14 slides.
No plagiarism,
APA , Citations, and references.
.
1. A. Compare vulnerable populations. B. Describe an example of one .docxaulasnilda
1. A. Compare vulnerable populations. B. Describe an example of one of these groups in the United States or from another country. C.Explain why the population is designated as "vulnerable." Include the number of individuals belonging to this group and the specific challenges or issues involved. D. Discuss why these populations are unable to advocate for themselves, the ethical issues that must be considered when working with these groups, and how nursing advocacy would be beneficial.
2. A. How does the community health nurse recognize bias, stereotypes, and implicit bias within the community? B. How should the nurse address these concepts to ensure health promotion activities are culturally competent? C. Propose strategies that you can employ to reduce cultural dissonance and bias to deliver culturally competent care. D. Include an evidence-based article that addresses the cultural issue. E. Cite and reference the article in APA format.
.
1. A highly capable brick and mortar electronics retailer with a l.docxaulasnilda
1. A highly capable brick and mortar electronics retailer with a loyal regional customer base (such as Fry's) should adopt which of the following medium term strategies?
"50% off" sale every month
Divest
Niche or harvest
Invest in R&D
2. Amazon's strategy involves offering expanded variety but at very competitive prices. This is primarily achieved through
Economies of scope
Focus on international markets
Economies of scale
Innovative products
3. Uber is an example of industry chaining in which of the following ways?
Economies of scale for service providers
Economies of scope for customers
Improving access and reduced search costs for customers and service providers
Lower wages for service providers and lower prices for customers
4. Shareholder returns are primarily derived from
Growth in share value and dividend payments
dividend payments only
Growth in company profits
Growth in the share value only
5. Strategy is defined best as:
A unique value proposition supported by sound financial decisions
A unique value proposition supported by synergies in operations
A unique value proposition supported by aggressive marketing
A unique value proposition supported by a complex supply chain
6. The cost of attracting new customers is the highest with which of the following groups?
Early adopters
Late majority
Laggards
Innovators
7. In the context of the Differentiation (Quality) vs Efficiency trade-off curve, the efficient frontier refers to:
The company that provides maximum quality for a given cost
The company that provides minimum cost
The company that provides maximum quality
The company that maximizes efficiency
8. Nike hiring sports stars to be brand ambassadors is an example of which of the following mechanisms?
Market development
Customer segmentation
Product development
Market penetration
9. Which of the following is an indication of strategic committment of a company in an industry
Lowering wages of the workforce
Increased technology investment
Acquiring real-estate in an urban location of demand
Increased divident payments for two years in a row
10. A pharma company with a deep roster of capable engineers and scientists and that is the market leader is best advised to begin development of a new drug as:
A partnership with smaller competitors
License its innovation from other laboratories
An independent venture
Smaller scale effort
11. The most valuable competency in the declining phase of an industry is:
Resposiveness
Innovation
Efficiency
Quality
12. There is often limited capacity relative to demand in the early growth period of an industry because:
Capacity is very expensive in the later stages of an industry
Only few companies have products or technologies in a budding industry
Prices tend to be low in the embryonic stage
Many companies compete for early advantage in an emerging industry
13. If the willingness to pay of .
1. A. Research the delivery, finance, management, and sustainabili.docxaulasnilda
1. A. Research the delivery, finance, management, and sustainability methods of the U.S. health care system.
B. Evaluate the effectiveness of one or more of these areas on quality patient care and health outcomes.
C.Propose a potential health care reform solution to improve effectiveness in the area you evaluated and predict the expected effect.
D. Describe the effect of health care reform on the U.S. health care system and its respective stakeholders.
E.Support your post with a peer-reviewed journal article.
2. The Affordable Care Act was signed into law by President Barack Obama in March 2010. Many of the provisions of the law directly affect health care providers. Review the following topic materials:
"About the Affordable Care Act"
"Health Care Transformation: The Affordable Care Act and More"
What are the most important elements of the Affordable Care Act in relation to community and public health? What is the role of the nurse in implementing this law?
.
1. All of the following artists except for ONE used nudity as part.docxaulasnilda
1. All of the following artists except for ONE used nudity as part of her/ his work:
a) Ana Mendieta
b) Carolee Schneeman
c) Yoko Ono
d) Judy Chicago
e) Robert Mapplethorpe
2. All of the following except ONE are features of Conceptualism (though not all apply to every Conceptualist work)
a) Audience participation
b) Use of text/language within visual works
c) Direct criticism of the art museum
d) Very expensive artworks
e) Sets of instructions to follow
f) Temporary or fleeting projects
3. Please match the following description with correct art movement or tendency:
1) Minimalism
2) Fluxus
3) Abstract Expressionism
4) Feminist practices
5) Conceptualism
A. Created action paintings that blurred the line between art and life
B. Included works drawing attention to the unethical actions of art museums
C. An idealistic to recalibrate the human senses
D. A loose knit international group of artists that made performances and other unconventional works
E. Argued that the criteria for determining historical value in visual art has been too narrow
4. The following art movement or tendencies except for ONE can be considered to have been responses to Abstract Expressionism (through sometimes for very different reasons)
a) Conceptualism
b) Pop Art
c) Earthwork
d) Surrealism
e) Minimalism
.
1. According to the article, what is myth and how does it functi.docxaulasnilda
1. According to the article, what is myth and how does it function as a naturalizing agent?
2. What is a sign?What is its relation to myth?
3. If advertising “is not an attempted sale of products – evidence shows that consumers are able to resist ‘advertising in the imperative’(12.) – but a ‘clear expression of a culture’ and cultural beliefs” then what does the iPod advert express about current culture?
4. What does the iPod advert presented in the article “sell”?
Attachments have resources
.
1. 6 Paragraph OverviewReflection on Reading Assigbnment Due Before.docxaulasnilda
1. 6 Paragraph Overview/Reflection on Reading Assigbnment Due Before Class Commences
The Critical Theorists: Critical Legal Theory, Critical Race Theory, Critical Feminist Theory, & Critical Latinx Theory
Wacks Chapters 13 & 14
Bix Chapter 19
2.6 Paragraph Overview/Reflection on Reading Assigbnment Due Before Class Commences
Why Obey the Law & Why Punish?
Wacks Chapters 11 & 12
Bix Chapters 9 & 16
3.6 Paragraph Overview/Reflection on Reading Assigbnment Due Before Class Commences
Wacks Chapter 10
Bix Chapter 10
.
1. A.Compare independent variables, B.dependent variables, and C.ext.docxaulasnilda
Independent variables are those that are manipulated by the researcher, dependent variables are those that are measured, and extraneous variables are those that are not controlled that could influence the dependent variable. Researchers attempt to control extraneous variables through random assignment and holding all variables constant except the independent variable. Levels of evidence range from expert opinion to randomized controlled trials, with stronger evidence able to lead to broader practice changes.
1. According to the Court, why is death a proportionate penalty for .docxaulasnilda
1. According to the Court, why is death a proportionate penalty for child rape? Do you agree? Explain your reasons.
2. Who should make the decision as to what is the appropriate penalty for crimes? Courts? Legislatures? Juries? Defend your answer.
3. In deciding whether the death penalty for child rape is cruel and unusual, is it relevant that Louisiana is the only state that punishes child rape with death?
4. According to the Court, some crimes are worse than death. Do you agree? Is child rape one of them? Why? Why not?
THE RESPONSE TO THE FOUR QUESTIONS ALL TOGETHER SHOULD LEAD ADD UP TO 400 WORDS IN TOTAL.
.
1- Prisonization What if . . . you were sentenced to prison .docxaulasnilda
1- Prisonization?
What if . . . you were sentenced to prison? Do you believe you would become a more seasoned criminal or would learning criminal ways from those who were caught make you a worse criminal? Explain
2- Gangs of Prison?
What if . . . you were appointed as warden at a medium security prison which had a terrible problem with gang affiliations? What methods would you employ to combat the problem? Explain.
3-The solidarity of inmate culture (Big House era) developed through several characteristics. Name them?
.
1. 250+ word count What is cultural and linguistic competence H.docxaulasnilda
1. 250+ word count
What is cultural and linguistic competence? How does this competency apply to public health? Why is this important to the practice of public health?
2. 250+ word count
Reflect on your own cultural and linguistic competence. How confident are you in your ability to address the needs of diverse communities? How do you think you could improve your level of cultural and linguistic competence?
.
1. 200 words How valuable is a having a LinkedIn profile Provid.docxaulasnilda
1. 200 words How valuable is a having a LinkedIn profile? Provide example to support your statement.
2. 200 words What benefits does it add your academic and professional development? Provide example to support your statement.
3. 200 words How does having this profile contribute to networking as healthcare and public health professionals? Provide example to support your statement.
4. 200 words What other social media and networking platforms are available to network with other healthcare and public health professionals? Provide example to support your statement.
.
1. According to recent surveys, China, India, and the Philippines ar.docxaulasnilda
1. According to recent surveys, China, India, and the Philippines are the three most popular countries for IT outsourcing. Write a short paper (2-4 paragraphs) explaining what the appeal would be for US companies to outsource IT functions to these countries. You may discuss cost, labor pool, language, or possibly government support as your reasons. There are many other reasons you may choose to highlight in your paper. Be sure to use your own words.
2.) Many believe that cloud computing can reduce the total cost of computing and enhance “green computing” (environmental friendly). Why do you believe this to be correct? If you disagree, please explain why?
.
1. Addressing inflation using Fiscal and Monetary Policy tools.S.docxaulasnilda
1. Addressing inflation using Fiscal and Monetary Policy tools.
Scenario - The US economy is currently experiencing high rates of inflation. You
have Fiscal and Monetary policy tools available to address this problem:
a. To attack the problem of inflation you must select one Monetary Policy
tool and one Fiscal Policy tool. Write down the name of your Fiscal Policy
tool and your Monetary Policy tool.
i. Think the options through and write down your choices.
b. Please explain why you selected the tools that you selected and why you did
not select the other choices? Do this for both monetary and fiscal policy
tools!
i. Specifically, explain what is so good about the tool you selected and what is not so
good about the tools you did not select? Do this for both the Monetary Policy tool
and the Fiscal Policy tool. The key here is to use some decision criteria in making
your choice.
c. Thoroughly and completely explain how your solution (both the monetary
and the fiscal policy tool) would work to solve the problem of inflation, and
indicate the impact your solution would have on at least 5 key economic
variables. Be specific.
i. Present this using the chain of events format with up or down arrows to indicate the
direction of impact on each variable. I need to see the detail.
2. Addressing recession using Fiscal and Monetary Policy tools.
Scenario - The US economy is currently experiencing recession. You have Fiscal
and Monetary policy tools available to address this problem:
a. To attack the problem of recession, you must select at least one Monetary
Policy tool and one Fiscal Policy tool. Write down the name of your Fiscal
Policy tool and your Monetary Policy tool.
i. Think the options through and write down your choices.
b. Please explain why you selected the tools that you selected and why you did
not select the other choices? Do this for both monetary and fiscal policy
tools!
i. Specifically, explain what is so good about the tool you selected and what is not so
good about the tools you did not select? Do this for both the Monetary Policy tool
and the Fiscal Policy tool. The key here is to use some decision criteria in making
your choice.
c. Thoroughly and completely explain how your solution (both monetary and
fiscal policy tools) would work to solve the problem of recession, and
indicate the impact your solution would have on the key economic
variables. Be specific.
i. Present this using the chain of events format with up or down arrows to indicate the
direction of impact on each variable. I need to see the detail.
3. Please list and explain the 4 key supply side growth factors we discussed, and
discuss the viability (do-ability) of each in terms of getting our economy growing
again, given that today our economy is not growing.
a. The slides should provide you with what you need here.
b. The issue of viability – if the economy is growing slowly or not at all, do we have any chance
of achieving suc.
1. A vulnerability refers to a known weakness of an asset (resou.docxaulasnilda
1. A vulnerability refers to a
known
weakness of an asset (resource) that can be exploited by one or more attackers. In other words, it is a known issue that allows an attack to succeed.
For example, when a team member resigns and you forget to disable their access to external accounts, change logins, or remove their names from company credit cards, this leaves your business open to both intentional and unintentional threats. However, most vulnerabilities are exploited by automated attackers and not a human typing on the other side of the network.
Testing for vulnerabilities is critical to ensuring the continued security of your systems. Identify the weak points. Discuss at least four questions to ask when determining your security vulnerabilities.
2.
Topic:
Assume that you have been hired by a small veterinary practice to help them prepare a contingency planning document. The practice has a small LAN with four computers and Internet access. Prepare a list of threat categories and the associated business impact for each. Identify preventive measures for each type of threat category. Include at least one major disaster in the plan. 200-300 words.
.
1. According to the readings, philosophy began in ancient Egypt an.docxaulasnilda
1. According to the readings, philosophy began in ancient Egypt and then spread to Greece.
True/False
2. This question is based on the presentation of logical concepts in the first reading.
Consider the following argument: "All chemists are Lutheran. Rita is Lutheran. So, Rita must be a chemist."
Is the argument …
Deductive & Invalid
Inductive & Valid
Deductive & Strong
Inductive & Weak
3. Would Socrates agree or disagree with the following statement:
Each of us invents his or her own truth and if you feel it in your heart and really want it to be true then don't listen to those who criticize your belief.
He would agree
He would disagree
4. According to the first reading, Thales asked some important "gateway" questions. Which of the following is not one of the gateway questions discussed in the reading:
Does the diverse range of things we experience have a single common explanation or cause?
Does God exist?
Is the universe intelligible?
5. Scientism is the belief that science is one of many paths to truth about the world.
True/False
6. Deductive arguments always aim to show
The conclusion is probably true
The conclusion must be true
7. In the type of argument known as _____, we begin with premises about a phenomenon or state of affairs to be explained; then we reason from those premises to an explanation for that state of affairs.
deduction
inference to the best explanation
syllogism
anaological induction
8. In the online lecture, the multiverse hypothesis is put forward by Stenger in support of theism.
True/False
9. According to the reading, the cosmic coincidences were known in ancient times.
True/False
10. According to the reading, the problem with Darwin's claim that his theory of natural selection explains all the order in nature is that no evolutionary process of natural selection is possible unless a background system of amazing complexity already exists; but since it must exist prior to any evolutionary process, it cannot be explained as the result of an evolutionary process.
True/False
11. Suppose we have two highly improbable hypotheses: H1 and H2. Suppose H2 is slightly less improbable than H1, all else equal.
According to the presentation of best explanation arguments in the reading, H2 presents a more reasonable explanation than H1.
True/False
12. According to the reading, the fine tuning argument shows that we can know with certainty that an intelligent designer exists.
True/False
13. According to the readings, science cannot possibly explain the source of the order in the universe.
True/False
14. The design argument is presented in the readings as an analogical argument and it is also presented as an inference to the best explanation.
True/False
15. According to the online readings, Ockham's Razor favors the multiverse theory over theism,
True/False
16. The proposition that Mount Rainier has snow on its peak would be an example of a proposition known to be true a priori.
True/False
17. Which of the foll.
1-Explain what you understood from the paper with (one paragraph).docxaulasnilda
1-Explain what you understood from the paper with (one paragraph)
2-What is a Lorenze curve and how is it disputed by Paglin
3-What is the method used in the paper and what can you say about the data used and the empirical aspect of the paper.
4-What other common measurements out there for measuring income inequality, poverty, and development gap.
.
1-Explanation of how healthcare policy can impact the advanced p.docxaulasnilda
The document discusses how healthcare policy impacts advanced practice nurses and why advocacy is an essential part of their role. It explains the four pillars of transformational leadership and how that approach can influence policy change. Finally, it addresses the need for advanced practice nurses to advocate for policies that support patient-centered care through research, leadership, and professional growth.
LAND USE LAND COVER AND NDVI OF MIRZAPUR DISTRICT, UPRAHUL
This Dissertation explores the particular circumstances of Mirzapur, a region located in the
core of India. Mirzapur, with its varied terrains and abundant biodiversity, offers an optimal
environment for investigating the changes in vegetation cover dynamics. Our study utilizes
advanced technologies such as GIS (Geographic Information Systems) and Remote sensing to
analyze the transformations that have taken place over the course of a decade.
The complex relationship between human activities and the environment has been the focus
of extensive research and worry. As the global community grapples with swift urbanization,
population expansion, and economic progress, the effects on natural ecosystems are becoming
more evident. A crucial element of this impact is the alteration of vegetation cover, which plays a
significant role in maintaining the ecological equilibrium of our planet.Land serves as the foundation for all human activities and provides the necessary materials for
these activities. As the most crucial natural resource, its utilization by humans results in different
'Land uses,' which are determined by both human activities and the physical characteristics of the
land.
The utilization of land is impacted by human needs and environmental factors. In countries
like India, rapid population growth and the emphasis on extensive resource exploitation can lead
to significant land degradation, adversely affecting the region's land cover.
Therefore, human intervention has significantly influenced land use patterns over many
centuries, evolving its structure over time and space. In the present era, these changes have
accelerated due to factors such as agriculture and urbanization. Information regarding land use and
cover is essential for various planning and management tasks related to the Earth's surface,
providing crucial environmental data for scientific, resource management, policy purposes, and
diverse human activities.
Accurate understanding of land use and cover is imperative for the development planning
of any area. Consequently, a wide range of professionals, including earth system scientists, land
and water managers, and urban planners, are interested in obtaining data on land use and cover
changes, conversion trends, and other related patterns. The spatial dimensions of land use and
cover support policymakers and scientists in making well-informed decisions, as alterations in
these patterns indicate shifts in economic and social conditions. Monitoring such changes with the
help of Advanced technologies like Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems is
crucial for coordinated efforts across different administrative levels. Advanced technologies like
Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems
9
Changes in vegetation cover refer to variations in the distribution, composition, and overall
structure of plant communities across different temporal and spatial scales. These changes can
occur natural.
it describes the bony anatomy including the femoral head , acetabulum, labrum . also discusses the capsule , ligaments . muscle that act on the hip joint and the range of motion are outlined. factors affecting hip joint stability and weight transmission through the joint are summarized.
This slide is special for master students (MIBS & MIFB) in UUM. Also useful for readers who are interested in the topic of contemporary Islamic banking.
This presentation includes basic of PCOS their pathology and treatment and also Ayurveda correlation of PCOS and Ayurvedic line of treatment mentioned in classics.
Leveraging Generative AI to Drive Nonprofit InnovationTechSoup
In this webinar, participants learned how to utilize Generative AI to streamline operations and elevate member engagement. Amazon Web Service experts provided a customer specific use cases and dived into low/no-code tools that are quick and easy to deploy through Amazon Web Service (AWS.)
How to Add Chatter in the odoo 17 ERP ModuleCeline George
In Odoo, the chatter is like a chat tool that helps you work together on records. You can leave notes and track things, making it easier to talk with your team and partners. Inside chatter, all communication history, activity, and changes will be displayed.
Pengantar Penggunaan Flutter - Dart programming language1.pptx
1187Philosophical Foundations of the CurriculumTheresa M. T.docx
1. 118
7
Philosophical Foundations of the Curriculum
Theresa M. “Terry” Valiga, EdD, RN, CNE, ANEF, FAAN
Beautiful words. Admirable values. Published prominently on
websites and in catalogues, student handbooks and accreditation
reports. The philosophical statement of a school of nursing is
accepted by faculty as a document that must be crafted to please
external reviewers, but for many it remains little more than that.
Far too often the school’s philosophy remains safely tucked
inside a report but is rarely seen as a living document that
guides the day-to-day workings of the school.
In reality, the philosophy of a school of nursing should be
referenced and reflected upon often. It should be reviewed
seriously with candidates for faculty positions and with those
individuals who join the community as new members. It should
be discussed in a deliberate way with potential students and
with students as they progress throughout the program. And it
should be a strong guiding force as the school revises or
sharpens its goals, outlines action steps to implement its
strategic plan, and makes decisions about the allocation of
resources.
This chapter explores the significance of reflecting on,
articulating, and being guided by a philosophy, examines the
essential components of a philosophy for a school of nursing,
and points out how philosophical statements guide the design
and implementation of the curriculum and the evaluation of its
effectiveness. The role of faculty, administrators, and students
in crafting and “living” the philosophy is discussed, and the
issues and debates surrounding the “doing of philosophy”
(Greene, 1973) are examined. Finally, suggestions are offered
regarding how faculty might go about writing or revising the
school’s philosophy.
What Is Philosophy?
2. The educational philosopher Maxine Greene (1973) challenged
educators to “do philosophy.” By this she meant that we need to
take the risk of thinking about what we do when we teach and
what we mean when we talk of enabling others to learn. It also
means we need to become progressively more conscious of the
choices and commitments we make in our professional lives.
Greene also challenged educators to look at our presuppositions,
to examine critically the principles underlying what we think
and what we say as educators, and to confront the individual
within us. She acknowledged that we often have to ask and
answer painful questions when we “do philosophy.”
In his seminal book, The Courage to Teach, Parker Palmer
(2007) asserted that “though the academy claims to value
multiple modes of knowing, it honors only one—an ‘objective’
way of knowing that takes us into the ‘real’ world by taking us
‘out of ourselves’” (p. 18). He encouraged educators to
challenge this culture by bringing a more human, personal
perspective to the teaching–learning experience. Like Greene,
Palmer suggested that, to do this, educators must look inside so
that we can understand that “we teach who we are” (p. xi) and
so that we can appreciate that such insight is critical for
“authentic teaching, learning, and living” (p. ix).
Philosophy, then, is a way of framing questions that have to do
with what is presupposed, perceived, intuited, believed, and
known. It is a way of contemplating, examining, or thinking
about what is taken to be significant, valuable, or worthy of
commitment. Additionally, it is a way of becoming self-aware
and thinking of everyday experiences as opportunities to reflect,
contemplate, and exercise our curiosity so that questions are
posed about what we do and how we do it, usual practices are
challenged and not merely accepted as “the way things are,” and
positive change can occur. Indeed, 119each of us—as a
fundamental practice of being—must go beyond the reality we
confront, refuse to accept it as a given and, instead, view life as
a reality to be created.
These perspectives on “doing philosophy” focus primarily on
3. individuals—as human beings in general or as teachers in
particular—reflecting seriously on their beliefs and values.
There is no question that such reflection is critical and is to be
valued and encouraged. However, “doing philosophy” must also
be a group activity when one is involved in curriculum work. In
crafting a statement of philosophy for a school of nursing, the
beliefs and values of all faculty must be considered, addressed,
and incorporated as much as possible. In fact, the very process
of talking about one’s beliefs and values—while it may generate
heated debates—leads to a deeper understanding of what a
group truly accepts as guiding principles for all it does.
Philosophical Statements
A philosophy is essentially a narrative statement of values or
beliefs. It reflects broad principles or fundamental “isms” that
guide actions and decision making, and it expresses the
assumptions we make about people, situations, or goals. As
noted by Bevis in her seminal work (1989, p. 35), the
philosophy “provides the value system for ordering priorities
and selecting from among various data.”
In writing a philosophical statement, we must raise questions,
contemplate ideas, examine what it is we truly believe, become
self-aware, and probe what might be—and what should be. It
calls on us to think critically and deeply, forge ideas and ideals,
and become highly conscious of the phenomena and events in
the world.
We also must reflect on the mission, vision, and values of our
parent institution and of our school itself, as well as on the
values of our profession. Figure 7-1 illustrates how a school’s
statement of philosophy is related to but differs from these
other sources. A mission statement describes unique purposes
for which an institution or nursing unit exists: to improve the
health of the surrounding community, to advance scientific
understanding or contribute to the development of nursing
science, to prepare responsible citizens, or to graduate
individuals who will influence public policy to ensure access to
quality health care for all. A vision is an expression of what an
4. institution or nursing unit wants to be: the institution of choice
for highly qualified students wishing to make a positive
difference in our world; the leader in integrating innovative
technology in the preparation of nurses; or a center of synergy
for teaching, research, professional practice, and public service.
Institutions and schools of nursing often also articulate a set of
values that guide their operation: honesty and transparency,
serving the public good, excellence, innovation, or constantly
being open to change and transformation.
Figure 7-1 Interrelation of curricular elements.
As stated, a philosophy statement is the narrative that reflects
and integrates concepts expressed in the mission, vision, and
values of the institution or profession; it serves to guide the
actions and decisions of those involved in the organization.
Educational philosophy is a matter of “doing philosophy” with
respect to the educational enterprise as it engages the educator.
It involves becoming critically conscious of what is involved in
the complex teaching–learning relationship and what education
truly means. The following statements about education, many by
well-known individuals, provide examples of different
philosophical perspectives:
The secret of Education lies in respecting the pupil.
—Ralph Waldo Emerson
If the student is to grow, the teacher must also grow.
—Confucius
I think [education] refines you. I think some of us have rough
edges. Education is like sanding down a piece of wood and
putting the varnish to it.
—Suzanne Gordon (1991, p. 131)
The whole art of teaching is only the art of awakening the
natural curiosity of young minds for the purpose of satisfying it
afterwards.
—Anatole France
The teacher learns from the student just as the student learns
from the teacher with their encounters as examples of mutual
5. openness to each other’s needs.
—Nili Tabak, Livne Adi, and Mali Eherenfeld (2003, p. 251)
120
Philosophy as It Relates to Nursing Education
As noted earlier, “doing philosophy” must move from individual
work to group work when engaged in curriculum development,
implementation, and evaluation. Faculty need to reflect on their
own individual beliefs and values, share them with colleagues,
affirm points of agreement, and discuss points of disagreement.
Table 7-1 summarizes many of the philosophical perspectives
expressed through the years, and faculty are encouraged to
explore the meaning and implications of each as they engage in
developing, reviewing, or refining the philosophical
121statement that guides their work. A discussion of three basic
educational ideologies is presented here to point out how
differences might arise if each person on a faculty were to
approach education from her or his own belief system only.
Table 7-1
Summary of Philosophical Perspectives
Philosophical Perspective
Brief Description
Behaviorism
Education focuses on developing mental discipline, particularly
through memorization, drill, and recitation. Because learning is
systematic, sequential building on previous learning is
important.
Essentialism
Because knowledge is key, the goal of education is to transmit
and uphold the cultural heritage of the past.
Existentialism
The function of education is to help individuals explore reasons
for existence. Personal choice and commitment are crucial.
Hermeneutics
Because individuals are self-interpreting beings, uniquely
defined by personal beliefs, concerns, and experiences of life,
education must attend to the meaning of experiences for
6. learners.
Humanism
Education must provide for learner autonomy and respect their
dignity. It also must help individuals achieve self-actualization
by developing their full potential.
Idealism
Individuals desire to live in a perfect world of high ideals,
beauty, and art, and they search for ultimate truth. Education
assists in this search.
Postmodernism
Education challenges convention, values a high tolerance for
ambiguity, emphasizes diversity of culture and thought, and
encourages innovation and change.
Pragmatism
Truth is relative to an individual’s experience; therefore
education must provide for “real-world” experiences.
Progressivism
The role of learners is to make choices about what is important,
and the role of teachers is to facilitate their learning.
Realism
Education is designed to help learners understand the natural
laws that regulate all of nature.
Reconstructionism
Education embraces the social ideal of a democratic life, and
the school is viewed as the major vehicle for social change.
Adapted from Csokasy, J. (2009). Philosophical foundations of
the curriculum. In D. M. Billings & J. A. Halstead, Teaching in
nursing: A guide for faculty. St. Louis, MO: Saunders.
One basic educational ideology is that of romanticism (Jarvis,
1995). This perspective, which emerged in the 1960s, is highly
learner centered and asserts that what comes from within the
learner is most important. Within this ideological perspective,
one would construct an educational environment that is
permissive and freeing; promotes creativity and discovery;
allows each student’s inner abilities to unfold and grow; and
stresses the unique, the novel, and the personal. Bradshaw
7. asserted that “this ‘romantic’ educational philosophy underpins
current nurse education” (1998, p. 104); however, those who
acknowledge our current “content-laden curricula” in nursing
(Diekelmann, 2002; Diekelmann & Smythe, 2004; Giddens &
Brady, 2007; Tanner, 2010) would disagree and posit that,
although a “romantic” philosophy is embraced as an ideal, it is
not always evident in our day-to-day practices.
A second educational ideology, that of cultural transmission
(Bernstein, 1975), is more society- or culture-centered. Here the
emphasis is on transmitting bodies of information, rules, values,
and the culturally given (i.e., the beliefs and practices that are
central to our educational environments and our society in
general). One would expect an educational environment that is
framed within a cultural transmission perspective to be
structured, rigid, and controlled, with an emphasis on the
common and the already established.
The third major educational ideology has been called
progressivism (Dewey, 1944; Kohlberg & Mayer, 1972), where
the focus is oriented toward the future and the goal of education
is to nourish the learner’s natural interaction with the world.
Here the educational environment is designed to present
resolvable but genuine problems or conflicts that “force”
learners to think so that they can be effective later in life. The
total development of learners—not merely their cognitive or
intellectual abilities—is emphasized and enhanced.
Increasingly, education experts agree that development must be
an overarching paradigm of 122education, students must be
central to the educational enterprise, and education must be
designed to empower learners and help them fulfill their
potentials. Beliefs and values such as these surely would
influence expectations faculty express regarding students’ and
their own performance, the relationships between students and
teachers, how the curriculum is designed and implemented (see
Figure 7-1), and the kind of “evidence” that is gathered to
determine whether the curriculum has been successful and
effective.
8. There is no doubt that a statement of philosophy for a school of
nursing must address beliefs and values about education,
teaching, and learning. However, it also must address other
concepts that are critical to the practice of nursing, namely
human beings, society and the environment, health, and the
roles of nurses themselves. These major concepts have been
referred to as the metaparadigm of nursing, a concept first
introduced by Fawcett in 1984.
Central Concepts in a School of Nursing’s Philosophy
Several central concepts are typically contained within a
nursing school’s statement of philosophy about which faculty
communicate their beliefs and values. These concepts include
beliefs about human beings, the societal or environmental
context in which humans live and act, health, and nursing.
Faculty may also add additional concepts about phenomena they
hold to be particularly meaningful to the learning environment
they are creating within their programs.
In preparing or revising the school of nursing’s statement of
philosophy, faculty must articulate their beliefs and values
about human beings, including the individual patients for whom
nurses care, patients’ families, the communities in which
patients live and work, students, and fellow nurses and faculty.
It is inconsistent to express a belief that patients and families
want to be involved in making decisions that affect them and
then never give students an opportunity to make decisions that
will affect them. Likewise, it is admirable to talk about
respecting others, treating others with dignity, and valuing
differences among people, but when faculty then treat one
another in disrespectful ways or insist that everyone teach in the
same way and do exactly the same thing, the validity of those
expressed values must be questioned. Consider the following
statements about human beings that might be expressed in a
school’s philosophy, keeping in mind that human beings refers
to students, faculty, and administrators, as well as patients:
• Human beings are unique, complex, holistic individuals.
• Human beings have the inherent capacity for rational thinking,
9. self-actualization, and growth throughout the life cycle.
• Human beings engage in deliberate action to achieve goals.
• Human beings want and have the right to be involved in
making decisions that affect their lives.
• All human beings have strengths as well as weaknesses, and
they often need support and guidance to capitalize on those
strengths or to overcome or manage those weaknesses or
limitations.
• All human beings are to be respected and valued.
Faculty also need to reflect on their beliefs and values related to
society and environment, their effect on human beings, and the
ways in which individuals and groups can influence their
environments and society. The following statements may be
ones to consider as faculty write or refine the philosophy of
their school of nursing:
• Human beings interact in families, groups, and communities in
an interdependent manner.
• Individuals, families, and communities reflect unique and
diverse cultural, ethnic, experiential, and socioeconomic
backgrounds.
• Human beings determine societal goals, values, and ethical
systems.
• Society has responsibility for providing environments
conducive to maximizing the health and well being of its
members.
• Although human beings often must adapt to their
environments, the environment also adapts to them in reciprocal
ways.
Because the goal of nursing is to promote health and well being,
faculty must consider the values and beliefs they hold about
health. For example, the following statements express values
and beliefs about health that a faculty might consider:
• Health connotes a sense of wholeness or integrity.
• Health is a goal to be attained.
123
• Health is the energy that sustains life, allows an individual to
10. participate in a variety of human experiences, and supports
one’s ability to set and meet life goals.
• Health is a dynamic, complex state of being that human beings
use as a resource to achieve their life goals; it is therefore a
means to an end rather than an end in itself.
• Health can be promoted, maintained, or regained.
• Health is a right more than a privilege.
• All human beings must have access to quality health care.
Finally, it is critical for faculty to discuss their beliefs about
nurses and nursing because this is the essence of our programs.
In doing so, it may be important to reflect on the current and
evolving roles of the nurse, the purpose of nursing, the ways in
which nurses practice in collaboration with other health care
professionals, and how one’s identity as a nurse evolves. The
following statements may stimulate thinking about beliefs and
values related to nurses and nursing:
• Nursing is a human interactive process.
• The focus of nursing is to enhance human beings’ capacity to
take deliberate action for themselves and their dependent others
regarding goals for optimal wellness.
• Nursing is a practice discipline that requires the deliberate use
of specialized techniques and a broad range of scientific
knowledge to design, deliver, coordinate, and manage care for
complex individuals, families, groups, communities, and
populations.
• Nurses are scholars who practice with scientific competence,
intellectual maturity, and humanistic concern for others.
• The formation of one’s identity as a nurse requires deep self-
reflection, feedback from others, and a commitment to lifelong
learning.
• Nurses must be educated at the university level.
• Nurses must be prepared to provide leadership within their
practice settings and for the profession as a whole.
• Nurses collaborate with patients and other professionals as
equal yet unique members of the health care team.
• Nurses are accountable for their own practice.
11. Box 7-1 provides examples of actual statements of philosophy
regarding these components of the metaparadigm. These
examples illustrate the beliefs of various groups of faculty,
some of which may express vastly different perspectives and
some of which express essentially the same idea but through
different words.
Box 7-1
Examples of Statements of Philosophy from Current Schools of
Nursing
Clayton State University School of Nursing
We believe that nursing is a dynamic, challenging profession
that requires a synthesis of critical thinking skills and theory
based practice to provide care for individuals, families, and
communities experiencing a variety of developmental and
health–illness transitions. Caring, which is at the heart of the
nursing profession, involves the development of a committed,
nurturing relationship, characterized by attentiveness to others
and respect for their dignity, values, and culture. We believe
that nursing practice must reflect an understanding of and
respect for each individual and for human diversity.
Transitions involve a process of movement and change in
fundamental life patterns, which are manifested in all
individuals. Transitions cause changes in identities, roles,
relationships, abilities, and patterns of behavior. Outcomes of
transitional experiences are influenced by environmental factors
interacting with the individual’s perceptions, resources, and
state of well-being. Negotiating successful transitions depends
on the development of an effective relationship between the
nurse and client. This relationship is a highly reciprocal process
that affects both the client and nurse.
Clayton State University, School of Nursing, Morrow, GA.
Retrieved from
http://www.clayton.edu/health/Nursing/Philosophy
Villanova University College of Nursing
The Philosophy of the College of Nursing is in accord with the
Philosophy of Villanova University as stated in its Mission
12. Statement. While the Philosophy is rooted in the Catholic and
Augustinian heritage of the university, the College of Nursing is
welcoming and respectful of those from other faith traditions.
We recognize human beings as unique and created by God. The
faculty believes that human beings are physiological,
psychological, social and spiritual beings, endowed with
intellect, free will, and inherent dignity. Human beings have the
potential to direct, integrate, and/or adapt to their total
environment in order to meet their needs.
The faculty believes that education provides students with
opportunities to develop habits of critical, constructive thought
so that they can make discriminating judgments in their search
for truth. This type of intellectual development can best be
attained in a highly technologic teaching–learning environment
that fosters sharing of knowledge, skills, and attitudes as well
as scholarship toward the development of new knowledge. The
faculty and students comprise a community of learners with the
teacher as the facilitator and the students responsible for their
own learning.
Villanova University College of Nursing, Villanova, PA.
Retrieved from
https://www1.villanova.edu/villanova/nursing/about/mission/col
lege_philosophy.html
Duke University School of Nursing
Duke University School of Nursing is committed to achieving
distinction in research, education, and patient care predicated
on our beliefs regarding human beings, society and the
environment, health and health care delivery, nursing, and
teaching and learning.
Human Beings—We believe that the dignity of each human
being is to be respected and nurtured, and embracing our
diversity affirms, respects, and celebrates the uniqueness of
each person. We believe that each human being is a unique
expression of attributes, behaviors, and values which are
influenced by his or her environment, social norms, cultural
values, physical characteristics, experiences, religious beliefs,
13. and practices. We also believe that human beings exist in
relation to one another, including families, communities, and
populations
Teaching/Learning—We believe that our purpose is to develop
nurse leaders in practice, education, administration, and
research by focusing on students’ intellectual growth and
development as adults committed to high ethical standards and
full participation in their communities. We recognize that it is
the responsibility of all individuals to assume ownership of and
responsibility for ongoing learning and to continually refine the
skills that facilitate critical inquiry for lifelong learning.
Duke University School of Nursing promotes an intellectual
environment that is built on a commitment to free and open
inquiry and is a center of excellence for the promotion of
scholarship and advancement of nursing science, practice, and
education. We affirm that it is the responsibility of faculty to
create and nurture academic initiatives that strengthen our
engagement of real world issues by anticipating new models of
knowledge formation and applying knowledge to societal issues.
This, we believe, equips students with the necessary cognitive
skills, clinical reasoning, clinical imagination, professional
identity, and commitment to the values of the profession that
are necessary to function as effective and ethical nurse leaders
in situations that are underdetermined, contingent, and changing
over time.
Duke University School of Nursing, Durham, NC. Retrieved
from http://nursing.duke.edu/about/academic-philosophy
124
Purpose of a Statement of Philosophy
Given that “doing philosophy” is hard work, takes time, and
may lead to substantial debates among faculty, one may ask,
“Why bother?” Perhaps part of the answer to that question lies
in a statement made by Alexander Astin, a noted educational
scholar whose seminal study (1997) of more than 20,000
students, 25,000 faculty members, and 200 institutions helped
educators better understand who our students are; what is
14. important to them; what they value; what they think about
teachers; how they change and develop in college; and how
academic programs, faculty, student peer groups, and other
variables affect students’ development and college experiences.
Although Astin’s original research was completed nearly 20
years ago and focused on traditional-age students enrolled,
typically, on a full-time basis—thereby not fully reflecting
today’s student population—the following comment has
relevance for this discussion of why faculty need to “bother”
with philosophy: “The problems of strengthening and reforming
American higher education are fundamentally problems of
values” [emphasis added] (Astin, 1997, p. 127).
Engaging in serious discussions about beliefs and values—about
human beings, society and environment, health, nurses and
nursing, and education—challenges faculty to search for points
of congruence, brings to the surface points of incongruence or
difference, and highlights what is truly important to the group.
In a time when nursing faculty are struggling to minimize
content overload and focus more on core concepts, gaining
clarity about what is truly important can be helpful in deciding
“what to leave in and what to leave out” of the curriculum.
Such exercises also help faculty minimize or avoid what is often
referred to as the “hidden curriculum” (Adler et al., 2006;
D’eon et al., 2007; Gofton & Regehr, 2006; Smith, 2013) by
ensuring that faculty are fully aware of and committed to
upholding certain beliefs and values in how they 125interact
with and what they expect of students and one another. Such
agreement and consistency is likely to avoid having three
components to the curriculum: “what is planned for the
students, what is delivered to the students, and what the
students experience” (Prideaux, as cited in Ozolins et al., 2008,
p. 606). For example, the plan may be to help students think of
themselves as evolving scholars; what is delivered is little more
than content about the research process or evidence-based
practice; and what is experienced by students is minimal
discussion by faculty of their own scholarly activities and how
15. they think of themselves as scholars. When what is delivered to
and experienced by students does not match what was planned
for them, confusion can reign, due process can be challenged,
and the relationships between students and teachers can be
irreparably damaged. Thus having clear statements of values to
which all faculty agree to subscribe can serve a most practical,
as well as philosophical, purpose.
Developing or Refining the School of Nursing’s Statement of
Philosophy
Developing or refining the school’s statement of philosophy,
while important and valuable, is far from easy. It takes time and
effort and is not to be taken lightly. But just how does a group
of faculty go about developing a philosophical statement for the
school and getting “buy-in” on it? As expected, there are no
formulas or step-by-step guidelines on how to go about doing
this work, but some examples (Colley, 2012; Snyder, 2014;
Thistlethwaite et al., 2014) and suggestions for a process may
be helpful.
One approach to engaging in this work may include reflecting
on the nursing theories that have been developed to determine if
any of them capture the essence of faculty beliefs. For example,
if faculty are in agreement that human beings are self-
determining individuals who want to take responsibility for
their own health and need specific knowledge, skills, and
attitudes to do whatever is required to maintain, regain, or
improve their health, then Orem’s (1971) self-care nursing
model may be evident in that school’s statement of philosophy.
Likewise, Roy’s (1980) adaptation model may be reflected in
the philosophical statement of a school where the faculty
believe that a central challenge to individuals and families is to
adapt to their environments and circumstances, and that the role
of the nurse is to facilitate that adaptation. Finally, if the
concept of caring is essential to a third group of faculty, their
philosophy may clearly be congruent with Watson’s (2008)
theory of human caring.
Whether or not to acknowledge a single nursing theory in a
16. school’s statement of philosophy (and then use that theory to
develop the school’s conceptual framework, end-of-program
outcomes or competencies, and other curriculum elements) has
been debated in recent years. Those in favor of such an
approach argue that it provides students with a way to “think
nursing” and approach nursing situations in a way that clearly is
nursing-focused, not medical model–focused, and that provides
an opportunity to contribute to the ongoing development of the
theory and therefore the science of nursing. Those against such
an approach argue that it limits students’ thinking and engages
them with language and perspectives that are not likely to be
widely encountered in practice, thereby making it difficult for
graduates to communicate effectively with their nursing and
health care team colleagues. Obviously, there is no one right
answer to this debate. The key question to consider is whether
the concepts that are central to a theory—nursing or
otherwise—truly are congruent with the beliefs and values of
the majority of faculty, because that is what a statement of
philosophy must reflect.
The inductive approach can be most useful to faculty when
developing or refining their philosophical statement; rather than
selecting concepts from existing theories or policy statements or
other literature, the faculty themselves generate concepts to
include in the philosophy. For example, all faculty may be
asked to list no more than five bullet items that express what
they believe about each concept in the metaparadigm: human
beings, society and environment, health, nurses and nursing,
and education and teaching–learning. The responses in each
category could then be compiled and faculty—perhaps in small
groups—could then engage in an analysis of the items listed for
each. These working groups might be asked to note the
frequency with which specific ideas were mentioned, thereby
identifying those points where there is great agreement and
those where only one or a few faculty identified an idea. The
fact that only a single faculty 126member or few faculty
identify a particular belief or value, however, does not
17. necessarily mean that it should be discarded. It is possible that
other faculty simply did not think of that idea as they were
creating their own lists, or it is possible that other faculty did
identify the idea but did not include it because they were
limited to five bullet items. The compilation from each working
group could then be shared with the entire faculty. At this point,
a discussion about the meaning and significance of the
statements in each category could ensue, or faculty could be
asked to review each list, select the three to five statements they
believe are most critical to include in the philosophy, and then
engage in dialogue about why they selected those statements,
what those statements mean to individuals, and so on. A draft
statement of philosophy—one that has evolved from an
inductive, bottom-up process—could then be written by an
individual or small group and circulated to faculty for comment
and further discussion.
Another approach that might be used combines deduction—or
drawing on existing literature, standards, or policy documents—
with induction, or generating ideas “from the ground up” by
interviewing faculty. An individual faculty member—one who is
viewed as a leader in the group, who is respected and trusted by
her or his peers, who has good writing skills, and who is
knowledgeable about curriculum development—may be asked to
talk to faculty about their beliefs about human beings, society
and environment, and so on, and use that input to draft a
statement of philosophy that incorporates what faculty
expressed. This draft could then be circulated to all faculty for
comment, editing, and revision. The original writer would then
revise the statement based on feedback from colleagues and
present the new statement to the group for discussion and
dialogue. This back-and-forth process would continue until
there is consensus about what to include in the statement.
In either of these scenarios, or when a philosophical statement
already exists but is being reviewed for possible updating and
revision, “clickers”—simple online, anonymous surveys—can
be used to get a sense of faculty agreement or endorsement.
18. With this approach, each sentence in the draft (or existing)
philosophy is listed as a separate item and faculty are asked to
indicate the extent to which they agree (e.g., Strongly Agree,
Agree, Disagree, or Strongly Disagree). Instead of using the
entire sentence as the item to be responded to, it may be more
helpful to use phrases or major concepts within each sentence as
the item. Regardless of the degree of detail in each item, the
anonymous responses can then be compiled, the results shared
with the entire faculty, and discussions held to explore the
meaning of the data obtained.
Finally, the entire process—whether it involves starting from an
existing philosophy or creating a new one—can be prompted or
stimulated by the thinking of those outside the school of
nursing. For example, faculty may be assigned to review major
contemporary documents or reports—for example, the Carnegie
study (Benner et al., 2010), the Future of Nursing report
(Institute of Medicine, 2010), accreditation standards, or
published articles about employers’ assessment of what new
graduates can and cannot do. In reviewing those reports, faculty
might identify values that are expressed or implied, beliefs
about patients and nurses, or societal expectations related to
health, health care, and the role of the nurse. Those values and
beliefs could then be compiled and faculty asked to reflect on
the extent to which they are aligned with the beliefs of the
faculty. Through an iterative process such as one of those
described previously, the group could craft its own statement of
philosophy, one that has been informed by the larger context in
which the educational programs exist.
Regardless of the process used, it is critical that all faculty be
involved and that adequate time and safe environments be
provided for faculty to disagree, struggle, contemplate, rethink,
debate, and “do philosophy.” Ending the process prematurely is
not likely to be wise. It also is important to remember that this
is an iterative process that will continue, to some extent,
throughout all of the subsequent steps of curriculum
development. For example, the statement of philosophy may
19. have been endorsed and approved-in-concept by faculty, but as
various groups work on developing course syllabi, they may
generate questions about “what we really meant” by something
in the philosophy. Should this occur, it would be worthwhile to
revisit the philosophical statement and make revisions to it, if
such revisions will lead to greater clarity about its meaning.
127
The preceding discussion has focused exclusively on the role of
faculty in the creation or revision of the school’s philosophy. It
is assumed that school administrators (e.g., dean, program
chair) are faculty who also must be involved in this process.
Additionally, consideration should be given to including
students in dialogue about beliefs and values; however, in the
end, the final document must reflect what faculty believe and
are guided by regarding human beings, society and environment,
health, nurses and nursing, and education and teaching–
learning.
The final statement of philosophy should be clearly written,
internally consistent, and easily understood, and should give
clear direction for all that follows. It should be long enough to
clearly express the significant beliefs and values that guide
faculty actions but not excessively detailed, as expressions of
detail (rather than fundamental beliefs) often are more
congruent with the work that must be done in formulating the
conceptual framework, end-of-program outcomes or
competencies, and curriculum design. Later chapters explore all
of those subsequent curriculum development steps in detail (see
Figure 7-1), so only a few examples of how the philosophy
gives direction to the development, implementation, and
evaluation of the curriculum are offered here.
Implications of the Philosophical Statement for the Curriculum
If the statements included in the school of nursing’s philosophy
reflect what the faculty truly believe—and are not merely words
on a page to “get the task done”—then those values should be
evident in how the curriculum is designed, how it is
implemented, and how it is evaluated. Examples of this
20. influence are presented in Box 7-2 as if–then statements.
Box 7-2
Examples of If–Then Statements Regarding Implications of the
Philosophical Statement for the Development, Implementation,
and Evaluation of the Curriculum
If the philosophical statement says…
Then one would expect to see…
We believe that human beings should have choices regarding
what they do…
Free, unrestricted elective courses in the curriculum, or choice
among several courses to meet a degree requirement (e.g.,
English)
We believe that human beings engage in deliberate action to
achieve goals…
Opportunities throughout the curriculum for students to write
their own learning goals and collaborate with faculty or clinical
staff to design unique learning experiences to achieve those
goals
We believe that individuals reflect unique and diverse cultural,
ethnic, experiential, and socioeconomic backgrounds…
Face-to-face or virtual experiences with a wide variety of
patient populations and within communities having a range of
resources and challenges
We believe that health can be promoted, maintained, or
regained…
Equally distributed clinical learning experiences in wellness
settings, with patients and families who are managing chronic
illnesses, and in acute care settings
We believe that nurses are scholars who practice with scientific
competence and intellectual maturity…
Courses and learning experiences that expose students to the
concept of scholarship, what it means to be a scholar, and how
one develops and maintains scientific competence
We believe that nurses must be prepared to provide leadership
within their practice settings and for the profession as a
whole…
21. Courses and learning experiences that help students appreciate
the differences between leadership and management, study
nursing leaders, and reflect on their own path toward becoming
a leader
We believe that nurses collaborate with patients and other
professionals as equal yet unique members of the health care
team…
Face-to-face or virtual experiences where nursing students learn
with students preparing for other professional roles, dialogue
with or interview members of other health care professions, or
undertake projects that call for interprofessional collaboration
to meet the health needs of a patient population or community
We believe that the goal of teaching is to awaken the learner’s
natural curiosity…
Problem-based learning experiences where students must
identify what it is they need to know to address a problem, seek
out that information, judge its quality, ask questions about
established practices, and so on
We believe that education involves nurturing students and
pulling them forth to a new place…
A program evaluation plan that incorporates open forums with
students about the extent to which they feel nurtured, supported,
and challenged by faculty; dialogue with graduates about how
their educational experience changed them as human beings;
and surveys of students and alumni regarding the contributions
they have made in their practice settings and to the profession
It is hoped that these examples, combined with the detail
provided in subsequent chapters, reinforce the importance of the
philosophy. Faculty aim to establish positive relationships with
students, clinical partners, alumni, administrators, and each
other; one way to achieve that goal is to be clear about the
values we share and, more importantly, to “live” those values in
everything we say and do.
128
Summary
22. As noted earlier, “doing philosophy” is hard work. However, it
is important and valuable work that has implications for faculty
and our practice as teachers, as well as for our students.
“Doing philosophy” may prompt us to attend more deliberately
to affective domain learning and identity formation as we
design learning experiences and interact with students, a focus
that is likely to enhance their educational experience. It may
challenge us to ask new questions about our practice as teachers
and seek answers to those questions through rigorous
pedagogical research efforts, an effort that can contribute to the
development of the science of nursing education. It also may
direct us to seek out new teaching strategies and evaluation
methods that better facilitate student learning, an outcome that
may serve to maintain the joy in teaching as we see students
become excited about their formation as nurses.
One can conclude that the philosophical foundations of the
curriculum extend far beyond mere program designs and course
syllabi. Reflections on and clarity regarding those philosophical
foundations can help us better understand who we are and how
we can best help our students, our colleagues, and ourselves to
grow and continue to learn.
Reflecting on the evidence
1. Although faculty share a commitment to the values of the
profession, they are likely to have varied beliefs about the
implications of those and other values, particularly in relation
to how they “play out” in the educational arena. What effect can
such differences have on students? How can such differences be
resolved?
2. How can faculty “track” congruence of beliefs, values, and
significant concepts from mission, vision, and values to
philosophy to framework to end-of-program outcomes and
competencies and on through specific learning experiences that
are designed for students? How can they assess the congruence
of these beliefs and values with their own personal beliefs?
3. What are some signs that a “hidden curriculum” is operating
where faculty say one thing but do another, or where beliefs
23. expressed in the philosophy (e.g., nurses must be involved in
professional associations) are not evident in what students
experience (e.g., faculty never talk about their involvement in
professional associations)? What implications might such
signals have for reexamining the school’s philosophical
underpinnings?
129
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Instructor’s Resource Manual
For
Multinational Business Finance
Fourteenth Edition
David K. Eiteman
University of California, Los Angeles
30. Interest rates. Large fiscal deficits, including the current
eurozone crisis, plague most of the major
trading countries of the world, complicating fiscal and monetary
policies, and ultimately, interest
rates and exchange rates.
Many countries experience continuing balance of payments
imbalances, and in some cases,
dangerously large deficits and surpluses, all will inevitably
move exchange rates.
Ownership, control, and governance vary radically across the
world. The publicly traded
company is not the dominant global business organization—the
privately held or family-owned
business is the prevalent structure—and their goals and
measures of performance vary
dramatically.
Global capital markets that normally provide the means to
lower a firm’s cost of capital, and even
more critically, increase the availability of capital, have in
many ways shrunk in size and have
become less open and accessible to many of the world’s
organizations.
Financial globalization has resulted in the ebb and flow of
31. capital in and out of both industrial and
emerging markets, greatly complicating financial management
(Chapters 5 and 8).
2. Globalization and the MNE. The term globalization has
become widely used in recent years. How
would you define it?
Narayana Murthy’s quote is a good place to start any
discussion of globalization:
“I define globalization as producing where it is most cost-
effective, selling where it is most
profitable, and sourcing capital where it is cheapest, without
worrying about national
boundaries.”
Narayana Murthy, President and CEO, Infosys
3. Assets, Institutions, and Linkages. Which assets play the
most critical role in linking the major
institutions that make up the global financial marketplace?
The debt securities issued by governments. These low risk or
risk-free assets form the foundation for
the creation, trading, and pricing of other financial assets like
bank loans, corporate bonds, and
equities (stock). In recent years, a number of additional
securities have been created from the existing
33. market-driven currencies and instrument rates. They are largely
unregulated and, therefore, reflect
freely traded assets whose value is set by the daily global
marketplace.
6. Theory of Comparative Advantage. Define and explain the
theory of comparative advantage.
The theory of comparative advantage provides a basis for
explaining and justifying international trade
in a model world assumed to enjoy free trade, perfect
competition, no uncertainty, costless
information, and no government interference. The theory
contains the following features:
Exporters in Country A sell goods or services to unrelated
importers in Country B.
Firms in Country A specialize in making products that can be
produced relatively efficiently,
given Country A’s endowment of factors of production: that is,
land, labor, capital, and
technology. Firms in Country B do likewise, given the factors
of production found in Country B.
In this way, the total combined output of A and B is maximized.
Because the factors of production cannot be moved freely from
Country A to Country B, the
benefits of specialization are realized through international
34. trade.
The way the benefits of the extra production are shared
depends on the terms of trade, the ratio at
which quantities of the physical goods are traded. Each
country’s share is determined by supply
and demand in perfectly competitive markets in the two
countries. Neither Country A nor
Country B is worse off than before trade, and typically both are
better off, albeit perhaps
unequally.
7. Limitations of Comparative Advantage. Key to understanding
most theories is what they say and
what they don’t. Name four or five key limitations to the theory
of comparative advantage.
Although international trade might have approached the
comparative advantage model during the
nineteenth century, it certainly does not today, for the following
reasons:
Countries do not appear to specialize only in those products
that could be most efficiently
produced by that country’s particular factors of production.
Instead, governments interfere with
comparative advantage for a variety of economic and political
reasons, such as to achieve full
employment, economic development, national self-sufficiency
in defense-related industries, and
36. for brand name goods, mineral
and raw material availability, access to capital, tax differentials,
supporting infrastructure (roads,
ports, communication facilities), and possibly others.
Although the terms of trade are ultimately determined by
supply and demand, the process by
which the terms are set is different from that visualized in
traditional trade theory. They are
determined partly by administered pricing in oligopolistic
markets.
Comparative advantage shifts over time as less developed
countries become more developed and
realize their latent opportunities. For example, during the past
150 years, comparative advantage
in producing cotton textiles has shifted from the United
Kingdom to the United States to Japan to
Hong Kong to Taiwan and to China.
The classical model of comparative advantage did not really
address certain other issues, such as
the effect of uncertainty and information costs, the role of
differentiated products in imperfectly
competitive markets, and economies of scale.
Nevertheless, although the world is a long way from the
classical trade model, the general principle of
comparative advantage is still valid. The closer the world gets
37. to true international specialization, the
more world production and consumption can be increased,
provided the problem of equitable
distribution of the benefits can be solved to the satisfaction of
consumers, producers, and political
leaders. Complete specialization, however, remains an
unrealistic limiting case, just as perfect
competition is a limiting case in microeconomic theory.
8. International Financial Management. What is different about
international financial management?
Multinational financial management requires an understanding
of cultural, historical, and institutional
differences, such as those affecting corporate governance.
Although both domestic firms and MNEs
are exposed to foreign exchange risks, MNEs alone face certain
unique risks, such as political risks,
that are not normally a threat to domestic operations.
MNEs also face other risks that can be classified as extensions
of domestic finance theory. For
example, the normal domestic approach to the cost of capital,
sourcing debt and equity, capital
budgeting, working capital management, taxation, and credit
analysis needs to be modified to
accommodate foreign complexities. Moreover, a number of
financial instruments that are used in
domestic financial management have been modified for use in
international financial management.
Examples are foreign currency options and futures, interest rate
and currency swaps, and letters of
credit.
39. Multinational is usually taken to mean a company that has
operating subsidiaries and performs a full
set of its major operations in a number of countries, i.e., in
“many nations.” “Operations” in this
context includes both manufacturing and selling, as well as
other corporate functions, and a
multinational company is often presumed to operate in a greater
number of countries than simply an
international company. A multinational company is presumed to
operate with each foreign unit
“standing on its own,” although that term does not preclude
specialization by country or supplying
parts from one country operation to another.
Global is a newer term that essentially means about the same as
“multinational,” i.e., operating
around the globe. Global has tended to replace other terms
because of its use by demonstrators at the
international meetings (“global forums?”) of the International
Monetary Fund and World Bank that
took place in Seattle in 1999 and Rome in 2001. Terrorist
attacks on the World Trade Center and the
Pentagon in 2001 led politicians to refer to the need to
eliminate “global terrorism.”
10. Ganado, the MNE. At what point in the globalization
process did Ganado become a multinational
enterprise (MNE)?
Ganado became a multinational enterprise (MNE) when it began
40. to establish foreign sales and service
subsidiaries, followed by creation of manufacturing operations
abroad or by licensing foreign firms to
produce and service Trident’s products. This multinational
phase usually follows the international
phase, which involved the import and/or export of goods and/or
services.
11. Role of Market Imperfections. What is the role of market
imperfections in the creation of
opportunities for the multinational firm?
MNEs strive to take advantage of imperfections in national
markets for products, factors of
production, and financial assets.
Imperfections in the market for products translate into market
opportunities for MNEs. Large
international firms are better able to exploit such competitive
factors as economies of scale,
managerial and technological expertise, product differentiation,
and financial strength than their
local competitors are.
MNEs thrive best in markets characterized by international
oligopolistic competition, where these
factors are particularly critical.
42. multinational firm?
A multinational firm goes beyond simply selling to or trading
with firms in foreign countries
(international), by expanding its intellectual capital and
acquiring a physical presence in foreign
countries. This allows the firm to expand and deepen its core
competitiveness and global reach to
more markets, customers, suppliers, and partners.
14. Ganado’s Phases. What are the main phases that Ganado
passed through as it evolved into a truly
global firm? What are the advantages and disadvantages of
each?
a. International trade. Two advantages are finding out if the
firms’ products are desired in the
foreign country and learning about the foreign market. Two
disadvantages are lack of control
over the final sale and service to final customer (many exports
are to distributors or other types of
firms that in turn resell to the final customer) and the
possibility that costs and thus final customer
sales prices will be greater than those of competitors that
manufacture locally.
b. Foreign sales and service offices. The greatest advantage is
that the firm has a physical presence
in the country, allowing it great control over sales and service
43. as well as allowing it to learn more
about the local market. The disadvantage is the final local sales
prices, based on home country
plus transportation costs, may be greater than competitors that
manufacture locally.
c. Licensing a foreign firm to manufacture and sell. The
advantages are that product costs are based
on local costs and that the local licensed firm has the knowledge
and expertise to operate
efficiently in the foreign country. The major disadvantages are
that the firm might lose control of
valuable proprietary technology and that the goals of the foreign
partner might differ from those
of the home country firm. Two common problems in the latter
category are whether the foreign
firm (that is manufacturing the product under license) is a
shareholder wealth or corporate wealth
maximizer, which in turn often leads to disagreements about
reinvesting earning to achieve
greater future growth versus making larger current dividends to
owners and payments to other
stakeholders.
d. Part ownership of a foreign, incorporated, subsidiary, i.e., a
joint venture. The advantages and
disadvantages are similar to those for licensing: Product costs
are based on local costs and that the
local joint owner presumably has the knowledge and expertise
to operate efficiently in the foreign
46. “rules of the game.” What did this mean?
A country’s money supply was limited to the amount of gold
held by its central bank or treasury. For
example, if a country had 1,000,000 ounces of gold and its fixed
rate of exchange was 100 local
currency units per ounce of gold, that country could have
100,000,000 local currency units
outstanding. Any change in its holdings of gold needed to be
matched by a change in the number of
local currency units outstanding.
2. Defending a Fixed Exchange Rate. What did it mean under
the gold standard to “defend a fixed
exchange rate,” and what did this imply about a country’s
money supply?
Under the gold standard, a country’s central bank was
responsible for preserving the exchange value
of the country’s currency by being willing and able to exchange
its currency for gold reserves upon
the demand by a foreign central bank. This required the country
to restrict the rate of growth in its
money supply to a rate that would prevent inflationary forces
from undermining the country’s own
currency value.
3. Bretton Woods. What was the foundation of the Bretton
Woods international monetary system, and
why did it eventually fail?
47. Bretton Woods, the fixed exchange rate regime of 1945–73,
failed because of widely diverging
national monetary and fiscal policies, differential rates of
inflation, and various unexpected external
shocks. The U.S. dollar was the main reserve currency held by
central banks and was the key to the
web of exchange rate values. The United States ran persistent
and growing deficits in its balance of
payments requiring a heavy outflow of dollars to finance the
deficits. Eventually the heavy overhang
of dollars held by foreigners forced the United States to devalue
the dollar because it was no longer
able to guarantee conversion of dollars into its diminishing
store of gold.
4. Technical Float. What specifically does a floating rate of
exchange mean? What is the role of
government?
A truly floating currency value means that the government does
not set the currency’s value or
intervene in the marketplace, allowing the supply and demand
of the market for its currency to
determine the exchange value.
5. Fixed versus Flexible. What are the advantages and
disadvantages of fixed exchange rates?
Fixed rates provide stability in international prices for the
49. fundamentals. As the structure of a nation’s economy changes,
and as its trade relationships and
balances evolve, the exchange rate itself should change.
Flexible exchange rates allow this to
happen gradually and efficiently, but fixed rates must be
changed administratively—usually too
late, too highly publicized, and at too large a one-time cost to
the nation’s economic health.
6. De facto and de jure. What do the terms de facto and de jure
mean in reference to the International
Monetary Fund’s use of the terms?
A country’s actual exchange rate practices is the de facto
system. This may or may not be what the
“official” or publicly and officially system commitment, the de
jure system.
7. Crawling Peg. How does a crawling peg fundamentally differ
from a pegged exchange rate?
In a crawling peg system, the government will make occasional
small adjustments in its fixed rate of
exchange in response to changes in a variety of quantitative
indicators, such as inflation rates or
economic growth. In a truly pegged exchange rate regime, no
such changes or adjustments are made
to the official fixed rate of exchange.
8. Global Eclectic. What does it mean to say the international
50. monetary system today is a global
eclectic?
The current global market in currency is dominated by two
major currencies, the U.S. dollar and the
European euro, and after that, a multitude of systems,
arrangements, currency areas, and zones.
9. The Impossible Trinity. Explain what is meant by the term
impossible trinity and why it is in fact
“impossible.”
Countries with floating rate regimes can maintain monetary
independence and financial
integration but must sacrifice exchange rate stability.
Countries with tight control over capital inflows and outflows
can retain their monetary
independence and stable exchange rate but surrender being
integrated with the world’s capital
markets.
Countries that maintain exchange rate stability by having fixed
rates give up the ability to have an
independent monetary policy.
10. The Euro. Why is the formation and use of the euro
considered to be of such a great
accomplishment? Was it really needed? Has it been successful?
52. currency—usually the U.S. dollar. In
dollarization, the country abolishes its own currency and uses a
foreign currency, such as the U.S.
dollar, for all domestic transactions.
12. Argentine Currency Board. How did the Argentine currency
board function from 1991 to January
2002, and why did it collapse?
Argentina’s currency board exchange regime of fixing the value
of its peso on a one-to-one basis with
the U.S. dollar ended for several reasons:
As the U.S. dollar strengthened against other major world
currencies, including the euro, during
the 1990s, Argentine export prices rose vis-à-vis the currencies
of its major trading partners.
This problem was aggravated by the devaluation of the
Brazilian real in the late 1990s.
These two problems, in turn, led to continued trade deficits and
a loss of foreign exchange
reserves by the Argentine central bank.
This problem, in turn, led Argentine residents to flee from the
peso and into the dollar, further
worsening Argentina’s ability to maintain its one-to-one peg.
53. 13. Special Drawing Rights. What are Special Drawing Rights?
The Special Drawing Right (SDR) is an international reserve
asset created by the IMF to supplement
existing foreign exchange reserves. It serves as a unit of
account for the IMF and other international
and regional organizations and is also the base against which
some countries peg the exchange rate
for their currencies.
Defined initially in terms of a fixed quantity of gold, the SDR
has been redefined several times. It is
currently the weighted value of currencies of the five IMF
members that have the largest exports of
goods and services. Individual countries hold SDRs in the form
of deposits in the IMF. These
holdings are part of each country’s international monetary
reserves, along with official holdings of
gold, foreign exchange, and its reserve position at the IMF.
Members may settle transactions among
themselves by transferring SDRs.
14. The Ideal Currency. What are the attributes of the ideal
currency?
If the ideal currency existed in today’s world, it would possess
three attributes, often referred to as the
Impossible Trinity:
55. integration. The forces of economics do not allow the
simultaneous achievement of all three.
15. Emerging Market Regimes. High capital mobility is forcing
emerging market nations to choose
between free-floating regimes and currency board or
dollarization regimes. What are the main
outcomes of each of these regimes from the perspective of
emerging market nations?
Highly restrictive regimes like currency boards and
dollarization require a country to give up the
majority of its discretionary ability over its own currency’s
value. Currency boards, like that used by
Argentina in the 1990s, restricted the rate of growth in the
country’s monetary policy in order to
preserve a fixed exchange rate regime. This proved to be a very
high price for Argentine society to
pay and, in the end, could not be maintained. Dollarization, an
even more radical extreme in the
adoption of another country’s currency for all exchange,
removes one of a government’s major
attributes of sovereignty.
A free-floating rate of exchange is, however, in many ways not
that different from the highly
restrictive choices just mentioned. In a free-floating regime, the
government allows the foreign
currency markets to determine the currency’s value, although
the government does maintain
sovereignty over its own monetary policy, which in turn has
significant direct impacts on the
56. currency’s value.
16. Globalizing the Yuan. What are the major changes and
developments that must occur for the
Chinese yuan to be considered “globalized”?
First, the yuan must become readily accessible for trade
transaction purposes. This is the fundamental
and historical use of currency. Secondly, it then needs to mature
toward a currency easily and openly
useable for international investment purposes. The third and
final stage of currency globalization is
when the currency itself takes on a role as a reserve currency,
currency held by central banks of other
countries as a store of value and a medium of exchange for their
own currencies.
17. Triffin Dilemma. What is the Triffin Dilemma? How does it
apply to the development of the Chinese
yuan as a true global currency?
The Triffin Dilemma is the potential conflict in objectives that
may arise between domestic monetary
and currency policy objectives and external or international
policy objectives when a country’s
currency is used as a reserve currency. Domestic monetary and
economic policies may on occasion
require both contraction and the creation of a current account
surplus (balance on trade surplus).
58. 1. Balance of Payments Defined. What is the balance of
payments?
The measurement of all international economic transactions
between the residents of a country and
foreign residents is called the balance of payments (BOP).
2. BOP Data. What institution provides the primary source of
similar statistics for balance of payments
and economic performance worldwide?
The primary source of similar statistics for balance of payments
and economic performance
worldwide is the International Monetary Fund, Balance of
Payments Statistics.
3. Importance of BOP. Business managers and investors need
BOP data to anticipate changes in host
country economic policies that might be driven by BOP events.
From the perspective of business
managers and investors, list three specific signals that a
country’s BOP data can provide.
The BOP is an important indicator of pressure on a country’s
foreign exchange rate and thus on
the potential for a firm trading with or investing in that country
59. to experience foreign exchange
gains or losses. Changes in the BOP may predict the imposition
or removal of foreign exchange
controls.
Changes in a country’s BOP may signal the imposition or
removal of controls over payment of
dividends and interest, license fees, royalty fees, or other cash
disbursements to foreign firms or
investors.
The BOP helps to forecast a country’s market potential,
especially in the short run. A country
experiencing a serious trade deficit is not likely to expand
imports as it would if running a
surplus. It may, however, welcome investments that increase its
exports.
4. Flow Statement. What does it mean to describe the balance of
payments as a flow statement?
The BOP is often misunderstood because many people infer
from its name that it is a balance sheet,
whereas in fact it is a cash flow statement. By recording all
international transactions over a period
such as a year, the BOP tracks the continuing flows of
purchases and payments between a country
and all other countries. It does not add up the value of all assets
and liabilities of a country on a
specific date like a balance sheet does for an individual firm.
61. usually does not occur. The imbalance is plugged by an entry
called “errors and omissions” that
makes the accounts balance.
7. BOP Accounting. If the BOP were viewed as an accounting
statement, would it be a balance sheet of
the country’s wealth, an income statement of the country’s
earnings, or a funds flow statement of
money into and out of the country?
A country’s balance of payments is similar to a corporation’s
funds flow statement in that the balance
of payments records events that cause the receipt (earnings) and
disbursement (expenditures) into and
out of the country.
8. Current Account. What are the main component accounts of
the current account? Give one debit and
one credit example for each component account for the United
States.
The main components and possible examples are:
Trade in goods
Debit: U.S. firm purchases German machine tools.
Credit: Singapore Air Lines buys a Boeing jet.
Trade in services
Debit: An American takes a cruise on a Dutch cruise line.
Credit: The Brazilian tourist agency places an ad in The New
York Times.
62. Income payments and receipts
Debit: The U.S. subsidiary of a Taiwan computer manufacturer
pays dividends to its parent.
Credit: A British company pays the salary of its executive
stationed in New York.
Unilateral current transactions
Debit: The U.S.-based International Rescue Committee pays
for an American working on the
Afghan border.
Credit: A Spanish company pays tuition for an employee to
study for an MBA in the United
States.
9. Real versus Financial Assets. What is the difference between
a “real” asset and a “financial” asset?
Real assets are goods (merchandise) and useful services.
Financial assets are financial claims, such as
shares of stock or bonds.
10. Direct versus Portfolio Investments. What is the difference
between a direct foreign investment and
a portfolio foreign investment? Give an example of each. Which
type of investment is a multinational
industrial company more likely to make?
A direct investment is made with the intent that the investor
will have a degree of control over the
64. liabilities.
12. The Financial Account. What are the primary sub-
components of the financial account?
Analytically, what would cause net deficits or surpluses in these
individual components?
The main components and possible examples follow:
Direct investment
Debit: Ford Motor Company builds a factory in Australia.
Credit: Ford Motor Company sells its factory in Britain to
British investors.
Portfolio investment
Debit: An American buys shares of stock of a European food
chain on the Frankfurt Stock
Exchange.
Credit: The government of Korea buys U.S. treasury bills to
hold as part of its foreign exchange
reserves.
Net financial derivatives
Debit: A U.S. firm purchases a financial derivative, like a
currency swap, in London
Credit: A U.S. firm sells a financial derivative, like a forward
contract on the dollar versus the
pound, to a London buyer
66. d. A U.S. university gives a tuition grant to a foreign student
from Singapore. If the student is
already in the United States, no entry will appear in the balance
of payments because payment is
between U.S. residents. (A student already in the United States
becomes a resident for balance of
payments purposes.)
e. A British Company imports Spanish oranges, paying with
eurodollars on deposit in London. A
debit to the goods part of Britain’s current account; a credit to
the goods part of Spain’s current
account.
f. The Spanish orchard deposits half the proceeds in a
eurodollar account in London. No recording
in the U.S. balance of payments, as the transaction was between
foreigners using dollars already
deposited abroad. A debit to the income receipts/payments of
the British current account; a credit
to the income receipts/payments of the Spanish current account.
g. A London-based insurance company buys U.S. corporate
bonds for its investment portfolio. A
debit to the portfolio investment section of the British financial
accounts; a credit to the portfolio
investment section of the U.S. balance of payments.
67. h. An American multinational enterprise buys insurance from a
London insurance broker. A debit to
the services part of the U.S. current account; a credit to the
services part of the British current
account.
i. A London insurance firm pays for losses incurred in the
United States because of an international
terrorist attack. A debit to the services part of the British
current account; a credit to the services
part of the U.S. current account.
j. Cathay Pacific Airlines buys jet fuel at Los Angeles
International Airport so it can fly the return
segment of a flight back to Hong Kong. Hong Kong keeps its
balance of payments separate from
those of the People’s Republic of China. Hence a debit to the
goods part of Hong Kong’s current
account; a credit to the goods part of the U.S. current account.
k. A California-based mutual fund buys shares of stock on the
Tokyo and London stock exchanges.
A debit to the portfolio investment section of the U.S. financial
account; a credit to the portfolio
investment section of the Japanese and British financial
accounts.
l. The U.S. army buys food for its troops in South Asia from
68. vendors in Thailand. A debit to the
goods part of the U.S. current account; a credit to the goods part
of the Thai current account.
m. A Yale graduate gets a job with the International Committee
of the Red Cross working in Bosnia
and is paid in Swiss francs. A debit to the income part of the
Swiss current account; a credit to the
income part of the Bosnia current account. This assumes the
Yale graduate spends her earnings
within Bosnia; should she deposit the sum in the United States,
then the credit would be to the
income part of the U.S. current account.
n. The Russian government hires a Dutch salvage firm to raise
a sunken submarine. A debit to the
service part of Russia’s current account; a credit to the service
part of the Netherlands’s current
account.
o. A Colombian drug cartel smuggles cocaine into the United
States, receives a suitcase of cash, and
flies back to Colombia with that cash. This would not get
captured in the goods part of the U.S. or
Colombian current accounts. Assuming the cash was
“laundered” appropriately, from the point of
16 Eiteman/Stonehill/Moffett | Multinational Business Finance,
70. debit a purchase of services, and
Egypt would credit a sale of services.
r. A German automobile firm pays the salary of its executive
working for a subsidiary in Detroit.
Germany would record a debit in the income payments/receipts
in its current account; the U.S.
would record a credit in the income payments/receipts in its
current account.
s. An American tourist pays for a hotel in Paris with his
American Express card. A debit would be
recorded in the services part of the U.S. current account; a
credit would be recorded in the
services part of the French current account.
t. A French tourist from the provinces pays for a hotel in Paris
with his American Express card. A
French resident most likely has a French-issued credit card,
issued by the French subsidiary of
American Express. In this instance, no entry would appear in
either country’s balance of
payments. If, later, the French subsidiary of American Express
paid a dividend back to the United
States, that would be recorded in the income part of the current
accounts.
u. A U.S. professor goes abroad for a year and lives on a
Fulbright grant. The current transfers
71. section of the U.S. current account would be debited for the
salary paid to a foreign resident.
(Even though an American, the professor is a foreign resident
during the time he lives abroad.)
The current transfers section of the host country’s current
account would be credited.
14. The Balance. What are the main summary statements of the
balance of payments accounts, and what
do they measure?
The balance on goods (also called the balance of trade)
measures the balance on imports and
exports of merchandise.
The balance on current account expands the balance on goods
to include receipts and expenses
for services, income flows, and unilateral transfers.
The basic balance measures all of the international transactions
(current, capital, and financial)
that come about because of market forces,that is, the balance
resulting from all decisions made
for private motives. (This includes international operating
expenses of the government.)