This document is the February 2022 issue of a quarterly magazine published by the General Secretariat of the Arab Railway Union. The magazine contains articles on topics related to rail transport in the Arab world, including an article about the importance of land connections between Arab countries by rail, and an article about China having the world's fastest trains reaching speeds of over 300 km/h. It also lists the member organizations of the Arab Railway Union from different Arab countries.
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The document discusses homeostasis and osmoregulation in animals. It explains that animals must maintain fairly narrow concentrations of water and solutes. It then describes different mechanisms that aquatic, desert, and marine animals use for osmoregulation. These include adaptations for water uptake, conservation of solutes, and regulation of water and solute balance between internal fluids and the external environment. The document also discusses the roles of the kidneys, nephrons, and associated structures in vertebrate osmoregulation and excretion.
Cellular respiration involves a series of metabolic pathways that harvest energy from nutrients like glucose to produce ATP. It occurs in four stages: glycolysis, pyruvate oxidation, the Krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain. During these stages, electrons are transferred between electron carriers like NADH and FADH2, which release energy to power the synthesis of ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate by ATP synthase. This conserved process extracts energy from nutrients through redox reactions and stores it in ATP to fuel cellular work.
This document is the February 2022 issue of a quarterly magazine published by the General Secretariat of the Arab Railway Union. The magazine contains articles on topics related to rail transport in the Arab world, including an article about the importance of land connections between Arab countries by rail, and an article about China having the world's fastest trains reaching speeds of over 300 km/h. It also lists the member organizations of the Arab Railway Union from different Arab countries.
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The document discusses homeostasis and osmoregulation in animals. It explains that animals must maintain fairly narrow concentrations of water and solutes. It then describes different mechanisms that aquatic, desert, and marine animals use for osmoregulation. These include adaptations for water uptake, conservation of solutes, and regulation of water and solute balance between internal fluids and the external environment. The document also discusses the roles of the kidneys, nephrons, and associated structures in vertebrate osmoregulation and excretion.
Cellular respiration involves a series of metabolic pathways that harvest energy from nutrients like glucose to produce ATP. It occurs in four stages: glycolysis, pyruvate oxidation, the Krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain. During these stages, electrons are transferred between electron carriers like NADH and FADH2, which release energy to power the synthesis of ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate by ATP synthase. This conserved process extracts energy from nutrients through redox reactions and stores it in ATP to fuel cellular work.
Photosynthesis uses energy from sunlight, carbon dioxide from air, and water to produce oxygen and energy-rich organic molecules like glucose. The light reactions use sunlight to produce ATP and NADPH, providing energy and electrons. The Calvin cycle then uses ATP and NADPH to incorporate carbon from carbon dioxide into organic molecules like glucose. Oxygen is released as a byproduct of splitting water during the light reactions.
The document summarizes key aspects of the nervous system, including:
- Neurons communicate via electrical or chemical synapses to transmit signals.
- At chemical synapses, an action potential causes neurotransmitter release, which can generate graded excitatory or inhibitory postsynaptic potentials.
- Summation of multiple synaptic inputs can trigger an action potential in the receiving neuron.
- Major classes of neurotransmitters include acetylcholine, biogenic amines, amino acids, and gases.
VoIP stands for Voice over Internet Protocol. It allows users to make phone calls using an IP network rather than a traditional telephone network. VoIP works by converting voice into packets of data that travel over the internet through routers to reach the destination. While it is beginning to be used more in businesses due to lower costs, some reliability issues with lost data packets can cause jittering and lower sound quality compared to traditional phone networks.
VoIP allows users to make phone calls using an Internet connection instead of a traditional phone line. It works by converting voice signals to digital data that is transmitted in packets over the Internet. A VoIP network uses protocols like SIP and RTP to setup calls and transmit voice data. Components include VoIP protocols, gateways to interface with the PSTN, and codecs to compress voice signals. Businesses are attracted to VoIP as it can help reduce costs while improving utilization of bandwidth and network management. However, security risks like hacking and eavesdropping exist since VoIP uses the public Internet.
Photosynthesis uses energy from sunlight, carbon dioxide from air, and water to produce oxygen and energy-rich organic molecules like glucose. The light reactions use sunlight to produce ATP and NADPH, providing energy and electrons. The Calvin cycle then uses ATP and NADPH to incorporate carbon from carbon dioxide into organic molecules like glucose. Oxygen is released as a byproduct of splitting water during the light reactions.
The document summarizes key aspects of the nervous system, including:
- Neurons communicate via electrical or chemical synapses to transmit signals.
- At chemical synapses, an action potential causes neurotransmitter release, which can generate graded excitatory or inhibitory postsynaptic potentials.
- Summation of multiple synaptic inputs can trigger an action potential in the receiving neuron.
- Major classes of neurotransmitters include acetylcholine, biogenic amines, amino acids, and gases.
VoIP stands for Voice over Internet Protocol. It allows users to make phone calls using an IP network rather than a traditional telephone network. VoIP works by converting voice into packets of data that travel over the internet through routers to reach the destination. While it is beginning to be used more in businesses due to lower costs, some reliability issues with lost data packets can cause jittering and lower sound quality compared to traditional phone networks.
VoIP allows users to make phone calls using an Internet connection instead of a traditional phone line. It works by converting voice signals to digital data that is transmitted in packets over the Internet. A VoIP network uses protocols like SIP and RTP to setup calls and transmit voice data. Components include VoIP protocols, gateways to interface with the PSTN, and codecs to compress voice signals. Businesses are attracted to VoIP as it can help reduce costs while improving utilization of bandwidth and network management. However, security risks like hacking and eavesdropping exist since VoIP uses the public Internet.
4. CORPORATE FINANCE FINANCIAL INSTITUTIONS ENERGY AND INFRASTRUCTURE TRANSPORT TECHNOLOGY
ﺗﻤﻮﻳﻞ ﻣﺸﺘﺮك ﻣﺆﺳﺴﺎت ﻣﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﻃﺎﻗﺔ وﺑﻨﻰ ﺗﺤﺘﻴﺔ ﻧﻘﻞ ﺗﻘﻨﻴﺎت
Norton Rose LLP ﻧﻮرﺗﻮن روز
Regulation of Railways ﺗﻨﻈﻴﻢ اﻟﺨﻄﻮط اﻟﺤﺪﻳﺪﻳﺔ
Presentation to Arab Union of Railways
ﻋﺮض ﻟﻼﺗﺤﺎد اﻟﻌﺮﺑﻲ ﻟﻠﺴﻜﻚ اﻟﺤﺪﻳﺪﻳﺔ
30 September 2009
2009 ( 03 أﻳﻠﻮل ) ﺳﺒﺘﻤﺒﺮ
5. Norton Rose presenters ﻣﻘﺪﻣﻲ ﻋﺮض ﻧﻮرﺗﻮن روز
Introduction ﻣﻘﺪﻣـــــﺔ
Jürgen Werner ﻳﻮرﻏﻦ وﻳﺮﻧﺮ Tom Johnson ﺗﻮم ﺟﻮﻧﺴﻮن
2
6. ﻧﻮرﺗﻮن روز
Rail Regulation at the national level
اﻟﺘﻨﻈﻴﻢ اﻟﺴﻜﻜﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻮى اﻟﻮﻃﻨﻲ
• Provision and maintenance of infrastructure
ﺗﻮﻓﻴﺮ وﺻﻴﺎﻧﺔ اﻟﺒﻨﻴﺔ اﻟﺘﺤﻴﺔ
• Access to track, stations and depots اﺳﺘﺨﺪام اﻟﺨﻂ واﻟﻤﺤﻄﺎت واﻟﻤﺴﺘﻮدﻋﺎت
• Ownership of rolling stock ﻣﻠﻜﻴﺔ اﻷدوات اﻟﻤﺤﺮآﺔ واﻟﻤﺘﺤﺮآﺔ
• Operation of rolling stock ﺗﺸﻐﻴﻞ اﻷدوات اﻟﻤﺤﺮآﺔ واﻟﻤﺘﺤﺮآﺔ
• Economic regulation اﻟﻨﻈﺎم اﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎدي
• Safety regulation ﻧﻈﺎم اﻟﺴﻼﻣﺔ
• Government support دﻋﻢ اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ
3
7. ﻧﻮرﺗﻮن روز
Track access – grant of access
اﻣﺘﻴﺎز اﻻذن ﺑﺎﻻﺳﺘﻌﻤﺎل - اﻻذن ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪام اﻟﺨﻂ
• UK track access contracts : ﻋﻘﻮد اﺳﺘﺨﺪام ﺧﻄﻮط اﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ اﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪة
– Regulated by statute وﻓﻘﺎ ﻟﻠﻘﺎﻧﻮن
ً
– Require approval by ORR ORR ﺑﺤﺎﺟﺔ ﻟﻤﻮاﻓﻘﺔ
• ORR’s regulatory role: دور ﻣﻜﺘﺐ ﺗﻨﻈﻴﻢ اﻟﺨﻂ اﻟﺤﺪﻳﺪي
– Protects Operators ﺣﻤﺎﻳﺔ اﻟﻤﺸﻐﻠﻴﻦ
– Protects third parties ﺣﻤﺎﻳﺔ اﻟﻄﺮف اﻟﺜﺎﻟﺚ
– Encourages competition ﺗﺸﺠﻴﻊ اﻟﻤﻨﺎﻓﺴﺔ
• Similar regime for stations and depots
ﻧﻈﺎم ﻣﺸﺎﺑﻪ ﻣﻦ أﺟﻞ اﻟﻤﺤﻄﺎت واﻟﻤﺴﺘﻮدﻋﺎت
4
12. ﻧﻮرﺗﻮن روز
UK Franchising – generally a success
ﻣﻨﺢ اﻻﻣﺘﻴﺎزات ﻓﻲ اﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ اﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪة – اﻟﻨﺠﺎﺣﺎت اﻟﻌﺎﻣﺔ
• More premiums than subsidies
دﺧﻞ إﺿﺎﻓﻲ أآﺜﺮ ﻣﻦ اﻻﻋﺎﻧﺎت اﻟﻤﺎﻟﻴﺔ اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﻴﺔ
• Competition between private sector Operators
اﻟﻤﻨﺎﻓﺴﺔ ﺑﻴﻦ ﻣﺸﻐﻠﻲ اﻟﻘﺎﻃﻊ اﻟﺨﺎص
• Improved performance: reliability and punctuality
أداء ﻣﺤﺴﻦ : ﻣﻮﺛﻮﻗﻴﺔ ودﻗﺔ
• But: ﻟﻜـﻦ
– Bidding costs ( ﺗﻜﺎﻟﻴﻒ اﻟﻤﺰاﻳﺪة ) ﺗﻘﺪﻳﻢ اﻟﻌﺮوض
– Credit crunch أزﻣﺔ اﻻﺋﺘﻤﺎن
– Too much revenue support اﻟﺪﻋﻢ اﻟﺒﺎﻟﻎ ﻟﻠﻌﺎﺋﺪات
– Risk of Operator default: The National Express experience
ﺧﻄﻮرة ﺗﻘﺼﻴﺮ اﻟﻤﺸﻐﻞ : ﺗﺠﺮﺑﺔ اﻟﻘﻄﺎر اﻟﺴﺮﻳﻊ اﻟﻮﻃﻨﻲ
9
13. ﻧﻮرﺗﻮن روز
Safety regulation and licensing
ﺗﻨﻈﻴﻢ اﻟﺴﻼﻣﺔ وﻣﻨﺢ اﻟﺮﺧﺺ
• Dangerous, expensive, mobile assets ﺧﻄﺮ ، ﻣﻜﻠﻒ ، أﺻﻮل ﻣﺘﺤﺮآﺔ
ORR requires each Operator to have: أن آﻞ ﻣﺸﻐﻞ ﻳﺠﺐ أن ﻳﻤﻠﻚORR ﺗﻄﻠﺐ
• A railway licence رﺧﺼﺔ ﺧﻂ ﺣﺪﻳﺪي
• A safety certificate and safety management systems
ﺷﻬﺎدة ﺳﻼﻣﺔ وأﻧﻈﻤﺔ إدارة اﻟﺴﻼﻣﺔ
• Sufficient insurance ﺗﺄﻣﻴﻦ آﺎف
ٍ
• Access agreements for track, depots and stations
ﻣﻮاﻓﻘﺔ دﺧﻮل اﻟﺨﻂ واﻟﻤﺴﺘﻮدﻋﺎت واﻟﻤﺤﻄﺎت
Failure to have required authorisations: criminal offence
اﻟﻔﺸﻞ ﺑﺎﻟﺤﺼﻮل ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﺘﻔﻮﻳﻀﺎت اﻟﻤﻄﻠﻮﺑﺔ : ﻣﺨﺎﻟﻔﺔ ﺟﺮﻣﻴﺔ
• Network Rail: licence enforced by ORR
ORR ﺷﺒﻜﺔ اﻟﺨﻄﻮط اﻟﺤﺪﻳﺪﻳﺔ : ﻧﻔﺬت اﻟﺮﺧﺼﺔ ﻣﻦ ﻗﺒﻞ
10
14. ﻧﻮرﺗﻮن روز
Government support اﻟﺪﻋﻢ اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﻲ
• For infrastructure owner: Government is “lender of last resort”
for Network Rail
ﻟﻤﺎﻟﻚ اﻟﺒﻨﻴﺔ اﻟﺘﺤﺘﻴﺔ : اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ هﻲ ”اﻟﻤﻘﺮض اﻷﺧﻴﺮ ” ﻟﺸﺒﻜﺔ اﻟﺨﻂ اﻟﺤﺪﻳﺪي
• For Operators: Government provides support if Operator’s
revenue falls below specified level
ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﺸﻐﻴﻠﻦ : ﺗﺰود اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﺪﻋﻢ إذا ﻧﺰﻟﺖ ﻋﺎﺋﺪات اﻟﻤﺸﻐﻞ ﺗﺤﺖ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻮى اﻟﻤﺤﺪد
• For Owners: Government undertakes to provide replacement
Lessee on termination for default / expiry
وﺑﺎﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﺎﻟﻚ:ﺗﺘﻌﻬﺪ اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ ﺑﺘﺰوﻳﺪ اﺳﺘﺒﺪال اﻟﻤﺴﺘﺄﺟﺮ ﻓﻲ ﻧﻬﺎﻳﺔ اﻟﻤﺪة اﻟﻤﺤﺪدة ﻟﻠﺘﺨﻠﻒ / اﻟﺼﻼﺣﻴﺔ
Risk transfer to private sector? ﺧﻄﺮ اﻟﺘﺤﻮل إﻟﻰ اﻟﻘﻄﺎع اﻟﺨﺎص
11
15. ﻧﻮرﺗﻮن روز
Strengths and weaknesses of UK system
ﻧﻘﺎط اﻟﻘﻮة واﻟﻀﻌﻒ ﻟﻨﻈﺎم اﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ اﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪة
• Strong, independent regulator, effective safety regulation
ﻗﻮي ، ﺗﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﻣﺴﺘﻘﻞ ، ﻧﻈﺎم ﺳﻼﻣﺔ ﻓﻌﺎل
– but competing roles between Government and ORR
ORR ﻟﻜﻦ ﻳﺨﻠﻖ ﻣﻨﺎﻓﺴﺔ ﺑﻴﻦ اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ و
• Independent infrastructure owner ﻣﺎﻟﻚ اﻟﺒﻨﻴﺔ اﻟﺘﺤﺘﻴﺔ ﻣﺴﺘﻘﻞ
– but Government retains financial risk, lack of incentives
for Network Rail, inefficient performance
ﻧﻘﺺ اﻟﺤﻮاﻓﺰ ﻟﻠﺸﺒﻜﺔ اﻟﺤﺪﻳﺪﻳﺔ ، اﻷداء ﻏﻴﺮ ﻓﻌﺎل
ﻟﻜﻦ ﻳﺒﻘﻰ اﻟﺨﻄﺮ اﻟﻤﺎﻟﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻋﺎﺗﻖ اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﺔ
12
16. ﻧﻮرﺗﻮن روز
Strengths and weaknesses of UK system (cont.)
(ﻧﻘﺎط اﻟﻘﻮة واﻟﻀﻌﻒ ﻟﻨﻈﺎم اﻟﻤﻤﻠﻜﺔ اﻟﻤﺘﺤﺪة ) ﺗﺘﻤﺔ
• Successful franchising system ﻧﻈﺎم ﻣﻨﺢ اﻻﻣﺘﻴﺎزات اﻟﻨﺎﺟﺢ
• But: ﻟﻜﻦ
–partial risk transfer to private sector
ﺧﻄﺮ اﻟﺘﺤﻮل إﻟﻰ اﻟﻘﻄﺎع اﻟﺨﺎص
–too much Government control اﻟﻤﺮاﻗﺒﺔ اﻟﺤﻜﻮﻣﻴﺔ اﻟﺒﺎﻟﻐﺔ
–franchise lengths too short اﻟﻤﺪة اﻟﺰﻣﻨﻴﺔ ﻟﻼﻣﺘﻴﺎزات ﻗﺼﻴﺮة ﺟﺪا
ً
13
17. ﻧﻮرﺗﻮن روز
Railway regulation at the international level
اﻷﻧﻈﻤﺔ اﻟﺴﻜﻜﻴﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻮى اﻟﺪوﻟﻲ
• Cross-border transportation of goods and passengers
اﻟﻨﻘﻞ ﻋﺒﺮ اﻟﺤﺪود ﻟﻠﺒﻀﺎﺋﻊ واﻟﺮآﺎب
• Interoperability regulation أﻧﻈﻤﺔ ﻗﺎﺑﻠﻴﺔ اﻟﺘﺸﻐﻴﻞ اﻟﺪاﺧﻠﻲ
• Strengths and weaknesses of European system of
regulation
ﻧﻘﺎط اﻟﻘﻮة واﻟﻀﻌﻒ ﻟﻨﻤﺎذج اﻷﻧﻈﻤﺔ اﻷوروﺑﻴﺔ
14
