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Zračenje
• Zračenje Sunca
• Ravnoteža zračenja na Zemlji
  efekt staklenika
• Prijenos topline na Zemlji
Zračenje Sunca
• Elektromagnetsko zračenje
  kratkovalno: λ ∈ (0.2 – 4 µm)
     50 % vidljivo
     40 % dulje λ (∼ IR)
     10 % kraće λ (UV)
5800K Sunce
                     Crno tijelo:
                     PLANCK : E = E(λ, T)




                                 Zemlja (288 K)




UV   Vidljivo   IR
Zračenje crnog tijela
            Wien-ov zakon:

                  λmax= a / T
                       a = 2897 µm K.


            Stefan-Boltzmann-ov zakon:

                  I = σ T4
                    I = gustoća toka
             σ = 5.67 x 10-8 W m-2 K-4
Energija koju Zemlja prima od Sunca
• Protok energije od Sunca ≈ const
• Solarna konstanta (S = 1368 W/m2)
                               S: Količina energije koja na
                               vrhu atmosfere u jedinici
                               vremena padne na jediničnu
                               površinu okomitu na ulazno
              S                zračenje, pri srednjoj
                               udaljenosti Z-S


                               Po jedinici površine Z padne:
                               S·R2π/4R2π = S/4
Diferencijalno zagrijavanje
• E = E(λ,t)           21.3            N.P.

                              Sun
                                        S.P.
                       21.6           N.P.

                              Sun
                                         S.P.
                                       N.P.
                      23.9
                              Sun
                                        S.P.
                      21.12              N.P.
                              Sun
                                     S.P.
Razdioba temperature

Meridijonalni gradijent                                              Sjever
                                                                     hladno



                                                                     Vruće




                                                                     hladno
              Srednja temperatura pri razini mora u siječnju (°C).   Jug
Migracija
temperaturnih
pojasa            Temperatura u siječnju




                Temperatura u srpnju
Diferencijalno zagrijavanje (2)
                                Kratkovalno


                           Dugovalno

       Višak energije u niskim geog.
       širinama, atmosferom i oceanima se
       prenosi u više geog. širine
Prolaz Sunčeve energije kroz A




1. raspršenje
2. absorpcija
3. refleksija
Albedo
  α= reflektirano zračenje
        upadno zračenje

   Površina         Albedo (%)
  Svježi snijeg       75 - 95
 Oblaci (debeli)      60 - 90
  Oblaci (tanki)      30 - 50
      Led             30 - 40
    Pijesak           15 - 45
     Trava            10 - 30
    Oranice            5 - 20
     Voda           10 (srednje)
     Šuma              3 - 10
Zemlja & Atmos.          30
Globalni Albedo
Ravnoteža zračenja
Energija u sustavu
A-Z u stalnoj je ravnoteži
s dolaznim Sunčevim
zračenjem



Z bez atmosfere
       Z reflektira          S/4⋅α         (α = 0.3 Albedo)
       Z apsorbira           S/4 ⋅ (1-α)
       Z se zagrijava do T,
         emitira      E = σ⋅T4
Ravnoteža           apsorbirano = emitirano
              S/4 ⋅ (1-α) = σ⋅T4 ⇒ T = -180C
Ravnoteža zračenja (2)




Z s fluidom
• Atmosfera apsorbira dio zračenja → efekt staklenika
• Atmosfera i ocean prenose toplinu s jednog mjesta na
  drugo
⇒ T = 150C
Efekt staklenika
                                                 K
• S emitira kratkvalno zračenje K
                                                  K
• staklo (A) je posve prozirno za λ<4µm,
  a djelomično apsorbira λ>4µm
                                                  K
• Z apsorbira kratkovalno, K,
  zagrijava se do Tg,                             K    D
  počinje emitirati D (4µm <λ<10µm)                           Tg


• A je mnogo manje propusna za D,                      1-eD
  apsorbira (dio eD), grije se,                   K    eD     P
  počinje emitirati dugovalno zračenje P
                                                  K    D      P
• Ravnoteža:     fluksevi ↑ = fluksevi ↓
vrh A          K = (1-e)D + P
na Z           K = D - P            ⇒ Tg viša za 19%
Ravnoteža zračenja (3)


                                              30%             70%

                    100%                                             100
                                                                     %




Zagrijavanje atm:   16+3 = 19 (kratkovalno)         15+7+23 = 45 (dugovalno)
Prijenos topline na Zemlji

•   A se više zagrijava odozdo (45) nego odozgo (19)
•   3 mehanizma
    i. apsorbcija/radijacija zračenja
    ii. konvekcija/advekcija (prenošenje) gibanjem zračnih
         masa
    iii. kondukcija (vođenje) topline


A. Zagrijavanje podloge (tla, mora)
B. Zagrijavanje zraka iznad podloge
A. Zagrijavanje podloge
Tlo                                        More
- mali toplinski kapacitet                 - veliki toplinski kapacitet
- neprozirno za radijaciju (apsorbcija)    - djelomično prozirno
- ne giba se (konvekcija)                  - giba se

1. vođenje                         1.     konvekcija
   ovisi o sastavu tla                    termička – tonjenje hladne vode
   (snijeg vrlo slabo vodi;               dinamička – turbulentna gibanja
   dobar radijator IC zračenja)    2.     apsorbcija (i u dubljim
                                          slojevima)
                                   3.     vođenje zanemarivo

                                   ⇒ spora promjena temperature
                                         rezervoar topline
Oceanske struje
              ‘conveyor belt’
B. Zagrijavanje zraka iznad podloge
     - zrak loš vodič ⇒ vođenje zanemarivo

1.   prizemni poremećeni sloj (do 2m)
     apsorbcija
     izmjena topline s podlogom; veliki ∂T/ ∂z; ∂[H2O]/∂z
     veliki dnevni hod T


2.   planetarni granični sloj (do 1500 m)
     konvekcija
     uzdizanje toplog/spuštanje hladnog zraka ⇒ konvektivne struje;
     prijenos topline i vlage
B. Zagrijavanje zraka iznad podloge (2)

3.   viši slojevi (slobodna troposfera, ...)
     - mali utjecaj podloge
     - prenošenje topline – bitno horizontalno gibanje

     advekcija, konvekcija velikih razmjera

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02 zračenje van

  • 1. Zračenje • Zračenje Sunca • Ravnoteža zračenja na Zemlji efekt staklenika • Prijenos topline na Zemlji
  • 2. Zračenje Sunca • Elektromagnetsko zračenje kratkovalno: λ ∈ (0.2 – 4 µm) 50 % vidljivo 40 % dulje λ (∼ IR) 10 % kraće λ (UV)
  • 3. 5800K Sunce Crno tijelo: PLANCK : E = E(λ, T) Zemlja (288 K) UV Vidljivo IR
  • 4. Zračenje crnog tijela  Wien-ov zakon: λmax= a / T a = 2897 µm K.  Stefan-Boltzmann-ov zakon: I = σ T4 I = gustoća toka σ = 5.67 x 10-8 W m-2 K-4
  • 5. Energija koju Zemlja prima od Sunca • Protok energije od Sunca ≈ const • Solarna konstanta (S = 1368 W/m2) S: Količina energije koja na vrhu atmosfere u jedinici vremena padne na jediničnu površinu okomitu na ulazno S zračenje, pri srednjoj udaljenosti Z-S Po jedinici površine Z padne: S·R2π/4R2π = S/4
  • 6. Diferencijalno zagrijavanje • E = E(λ,t) 21.3 N.P. Sun S.P. 21.6 N.P. Sun S.P. N.P. 23.9 Sun S.P. 21.12 N.P. Sun S.P.
  • 7. Razdioba temperature Meridijonalni gradijent Sjever hladno Vruće hladno Srednja temperatura pri razini mora u siječnju (°C). Jug
  • 8. Migracija temperaturnih pojasa Temperatura u siječnju Temperatura u srpnju
  • 9. Diferencijalno zagrijavanje (2) Kratkovalno Dugovalno Višak energije u niskim geog. širinama, atmosferom i oceanima se prenosi u više geog. širine
  • 10. Prolaz Sunčeve energije kroz A 1. raspršenje 2. absorpcija 3. refleksija
  • 11. Albedo α= reflektirano zračenje upadno zračenje Površina Albedo (%) Svježi snijeg 75 - 95 Oblaci (debeli) 60 - 90 Oblaci (tanki) 30 - 50 Led 30 - 40 Pijesak 15 - 45 Trava 10 - 30 Oranice 5 - 20 Voda 10 (srednje) Šuma 3 - 10 Zemlja & Atmos. 30
  • 13. Ravnoteža zračenja Energija u sustavu A-Z u stalnoj je ravnoteži s dolaznim Sunčevim zračenjem Z bez atmosfere Z reflektira S/4⋅α (α = 0.3 Albedo) Z apsorbira S/4 ⋅ (1-α) Z se zagrijava do T, emitira E = σ⋅T4 Ravnoteža apsorbirano = emitirano S/4 ⋅ (1-α) = σ⋅T4 ⇒ T = -180C
  • 14. Ravnoteža zračenja (2) Z s fluidom • Atmosfera apsorbira dio zračenja → efekt staklenika • Atmosfera i ocean prenose toplinu s jednog mjesta na drugo ⇒ T = 150C
  • 15. Efekt staklenika K • S emitira kratkvalno zračenje K K • staklo (A) je posve prozirno za λ<4µm, a djelomično apsorbira λ>4µm K • Z apsorbira kratkovalno, K, zagrijava se do Tg, K D počinje emitirati D (4µm <λ<10µm) Tg • A je mnogo manje propusna za D, 1-eD apsorbira (dio eD), grije se, K eD P počinje emitirati dugovalno zračenje P K D P • Ravnoteža: fluksevi ↑ = fluksevi ↓ vrh A K = (1-e)D + P na Z K = D - P ⇒ Tg viša za 19%
  • 16. Ravnoteža zračenja (3) 30% 70% 100% 100 % Zagrijavanje atm: 16+3 = 19 (kratkovalno) 15+7+23 = 45 (dugovalno)
  • 17. Prijenos topline na Zemlji • A se više zagrijava odozdo (45) nego odozgo (19) • 3 mehanizma i. apsorbcija/radijacija zračenja ii. konvekcija/advekcija (prenošenje) gibanjem zračnih masa iii. kondukcija (vođenje) topline A. Zagrijavanje podloge (tla, mora) B. Zagrijavanje zraka iznad podloge
  • 18. A. Zagrijavanje podloge Tlo More - mali toplinski kapacitet - veliki toplinski kapacitet - neprozirno za radijaciju (apsorbcija) - djelomično prozirno - ne giba se (konvekcija) - giba se 1. vođenje 1. konvekcija ovisi o sastavu tla termička – tonjenje hladne vode (snijeg vrlo slabo vodi; dinamička – turbulentna gibanja dobar radijator IC zračenja) 2. apsorbcija (i u dubljim slojevima) 3. vođenje zanemarivo ⇒ spora promjena temperature rezervoar topline
  • 19. Oceanske struje ‘conveyor belt’
  • 20. B. Zagrijavanje zraka iznad podloge - zrak loš vodič ⇒ vođenje zanemarivo 1. prizemni poremećeni sloj (do 2m) apsorbcija izmjena topline s podlogom; veliki ∂T/ ∂z; ∂[H2O]/∂z veliki dnevni hod T 2. planetarni granični sloj (do 1500 m) konvekcija uzdizanje toplog/spuštanje hladnog zraka ⇒ konvektivne struje; prijenos topline i vlage
  • 21. B. Zagrijavanje zraka iznad podloge (2) 3. viši slojevi (slobodna troposfera, ...) - mali utjecaj podloge - prenošenje topline – bitno horizontalno gibanje advekcija, konvekcija velikih razmjera