The document discusses the physiology of stress through several topics: 1) It outlines the autonomic nervous system responses to stress like increased heart rate and blood pressure. 2) It discusses psychological concepts related to stress including eustress (good stress), distress (harmful stress), and coping mechanisms. 3) Some coping mechanisms mentioned are controlling the stress source, limiting demands from others, relaxation techniques, exercise, and social support. Having support from a loved one is especially effective at reducing stress.

1. Physiology ofPhysiology of
stressstress

2.  To understand the stressTo understand the stress
response, we must possess aresponse, we must possess a
fundamental knowledge notfundamental knowledge not
only of psychologyonly of psychology
but of physiology as well. -but of physiology as well. -
George EverlyGeorge Everly

3. Lecture planLecture plan
 The Science of StressThe Science of Stress
 Etymology and historical usageEtymology and historical usage
 Autonomic Nervous System ResponsesAutonomic Nervous System Responses
 Psychological conceptsPsychological concepts
 AssessmentAssessment
 Health risk factorsHealth risk factors
 General adaptation syndromeGeneral adaptation syndrome
 Effects of chronic stressEffects of chronic stress
 Acute StressAcute Stress
 ConclusionConclusion

4.  Have you ever heard stories of people displaying almostHave you ever heard stories of people displaying almost
superhuman-like powers when confronted with ansuperhuman-like powers when confronted with an
emergency situation? Here is the story Sarah :emergency situation? Here is the story Sarah :
 Sarah told of a time when her mother and sister were outSarah told of a time when her mother and sister were out
working on their farm. Her mother was driving a big farmworking on their farm. Her mother was driving a big farm
machine designed to cut the hay that was growing in theirmachine designed to cut the hay that was growing in their
field. She didn't see the youngster playing in the tall wheatfield. She didn't see the youngster playing in the tall wheat
stocks. Accidentally, she ran over her young daughter withstocks. Accidentally, she ran over her young daughter with
this big farm machine. Noticing the unusual sensation asthis big farm machine. Noticing the unusual sensation as
she struck her daughter, she stopped the loud engine andshe struck her daughter, she stopped the loud engine and
hurried off to see what she had run over. Realizing it washurried off to see what she had run over. Realizing it was
her daughter, she panicked not knowing what to do. Thereher daughter, she panicked not knowing what to do. There
was no one around to help. In a moment of extreme alarm,was no one around to help. In a moment of extreme alarm,
she lifted the very heavy machine off her daughter andshe lifted the very heavy machine off her daughter and
pulled her out with one mighty motion. Once she pulled herpulled her out with one mighty motion. Once she pulled her
child out from underneath the machine, she picked her up,child out from underneath the machine, she picked her up,
and ran all the way back to the farmhouse to call for help.and ran all the way back to the farmhouse to call for help.
Afterwards, the mother collapsed from exhaustion, unable toAfterwards, the mother collapsed from exhaustion, unable to
generate any energy. In those few moments of hergenerate any energy. In those few moments of her
daughter'sdaughter's peril, she had become superwoman.peril, she had become superwoman.

5.  How can we explain this super-humanHow can we explain this super-human
response that releases power andresponse that releases power and
strength beyond anything we havestrength beyond anything we have
imagined or previously experienced?imagined or previously experienced?
What physical and psychological factorsWhat physical and psychological factors
are responsible for these amazingare responsible for these amazing
abilities?abilities?

6.  The brain is the key organ of the response to stress because itThe brain is the key organ of the response to stress because it
determines what is threatening and, therefore, potentiallydetermines what is threatening and, therefore, potentially
stressful, as well as the physiological and behavioral responsesstressful, as well as the physiological and behavioral responses
which can be either adaptive or damaging. Stress involves two-which can be either adaptive or damaging. Stress involves two-
way communication between the brain and the cardiovascular,way communication between the brain and the cardiovascular,
immune, and other systems via neural and endocrineimmune, and other systems via neural and endocrine
mechanisms. Beyond the "flight-or-fight" response to acutemechanisms. Beyond the "flight-or-fight" response to acute
stress, there are events in daily life that produce a type ofstress, there are events in daily life that produce a type of
chronic stress and lead over time to wear and tear on the bodychronic stress and lead over time to wear and tear on the body
("allostatic load"). Yet, hormones associated with stress protect("allostatic load"). Yet, hormones associated with stress protect
the body in the short-run and promote adaptation ("allostasis").the body in the short-run and promote adaptation ("allostasis").
The brain is a target of stress, and the hippocampus was theThe brain is a target of stress, and the hippocampus was the
first brain region, besides the hypothalamus, to be recognizedfirst brain region, besides the hypothalamus, to be recognized
as a target of glucocorticoids. Stress and stress hormonesas a target of glucocorticoids. Stress and stress hormones
produce both adaptive and maladaptive effects on this brainproduce both adaptive and maladaptive effects on this brain
region throughout the life course. Early life events influenceregion throughout the life course. Early life events influence
life-long patterns of emotionality and stress responsivenesslife-long patterns of emotionality and stress responsiveness
and alter the rate of brain and body aging. The hippocampus,and alter the rate of brain and body aging. The hippocampus,
amygdala, and prefrontal cortex undergo stress-inducedamygdala, and prefrontal cortex undergo stress-induced
structural remodeling, which alters behavioral and physiologicalstructural remodeling, which alters behavioral and physiological
responses. As an adjunct to pharmaceutical therapy, social andresponses. As an adjunct to pharmaceutical therapy, social and
behavioral interventions such as regular physical activity andbehavioral interventions such as regular physical activity and
social support reduce the chronic stress burden and benefitsocial support reduce the chronic stress burden and benefit
brain and body health and resilience.brain and body health and resilience.

7. Etymology and historical usageEtymology and historical usage
 The term "stress" had none of its contemporary
connotations before the 1920s. It is a form of
the Middle English destresse, derived via
Old French from the Latin stringere, "to draw
tight". The word had long been in use in
physics to refer to the internal distribution of a
force exerted on a material body, resulting in
strain. In the 1920s and '30s, biological and
psychological circles occasionally used the
term to refer to a mental strain or to a harmful
environmental agent that could cause illness.

8.  Walter CannonWalter Cannon used it in 1926 to refer toused it in 1926 to refer to
external factors that disrupted what he calledexternal factors that disrupted what he called
homeostasishomeostasis. But "...stress as an explanation. But "...stress as an explanation
of lived experience is absent from both lay andof lived experience is absent from both lay and
expert life narratives before theexpert life narratives before the
1930s".Physiological stress represents a wide1930s".Physiological stress represents a wide
range of physical responses that occur as arange of physical responses that occur as a
direct effect of a stressor causing an upset indirect effect of a stressor causing an upset in
the homeostasis of the body. Upon immediatethe homeostasis of the body. Upon immediate
disruption of either psychological or physicaldisruption of either psychological or physical
equilibrium the body responds by stimulatingequilibrium the body responds by stimulating
thethe nervousnervous,, endocrineendocrine, and, and immune systemsimmune systems..
The reaction of these systems causes aThe reaction of these systems causes a
number of physical changes that have bothnumber of physical changes that have both
short- and long-term effects on the body.[short- and long-term effects on the body.[
citationcitation neededneeded]]

9.  TheThe Holmes andHolmes and RaheRahe stress scalestress scale waswas
developed as a method of assessing riskdeveloped as a method of assessing risk
of disease from life changes. The scaleof disease from life changes. The scale
lists both positive and negative changeslists both positive and negative changes
that elicit stress. These include thingsthat elicit stress. These include things
such as a major holiday or marriage, orsuch as a major holiday or marriage, or
death of a spouse and firing from a job.death of a spouse and firing from a job.

10. Autonomic Nervous SystemAutonomic Nervous System
ResponsesResponses
 Some immediate physiological changes that result from autonomic nervousSome immediate physiological changes that result from autonomic nervous
system activation include:system activation include:
 vv Increased central nervous system (CNS) activityIncreased central nervous system (CNS) activity
 vv Increased mental activityIncreased mental activity
 vv Increased secretion of adrenaline (epinephrine), noradrenalinIncreased secretion of adrenaline (epinephrine), noradrenalin
(norepinephrine) and cortisol into the bloodstream and to every cell in the(norepinephrine) and cortisol into the bloodstream and to every cell in the
bodybody
 vv Increased heart rateIncreased heart rate
 vv Increased cardiac outputIncreased cardiac output
 vv Increased blood pressureIncreased blood pressure
 vv Increased breathing rateIncreased breathing rate
 vv Breathing airways dilateBreathing airways dilate
 vv Increased metabolismIncreased metabolism
 vv Increased oxygen consumptionIncreased oxygen consumption
 vv Increased oxygen to the brainIncreased oxygen to the brain
 vv Bowel and Bladder sphincter closeBowel and Bladder sphincter close

12.  vv Blood is shunted away from the digestiveBlood is shunted away from the digestive
tract and directed into the muscles and limbstract and directed into the muscles and limbs
 vv Increased muscle contraction which leads toIncreased muscle contraction which leads to
increased strengthincreased strength
 vv Increased blood coagulation (blood clottingIncreased blood coagulation (blood clotting
ability)ability)
 vv Increased circulation of free fatty acidsIncreased circulation of free fatty acids
 vv Increased output of blood cholesterolIncreased output of blood cholesterol
 vv Increased blood sugar released by the liverIncreased blood sugar released by the liver
to nourish the musclesto nourish the muscles
 vv Release ofRelease of endorphinsendorphins from thefrom the pituitarypituitary
glandgland
 vv Pupils of the eyes dilatePupils of the eyes dilate

14.  vv Hair stands on its endHair stands on its end
 vv Blood thinsBlood thins
 vv Increased brainwave activityIncreased brainwave activity
 vv Sweat glands increase secretionSweat glands increase secretion
 vv Increased secretion from Apocrine glands resulting in foul bodyIncreased secretion from Apocrine glands resulting in foul body
odorodor
 vv Capillaries under the surface of the skin constrict (whichCapillaries under the surface of the skin constrict (which
consequently increases blood pressure)consequently increases blood pressure)
 There are also several processes in the body that tend to decrease inThere are also several processes in the body that tend to decrease in
functioning when the fight-or-flight response is activated.functioning when the fight-or-flight response is activated.
 vv Immune system is suppressedImmune system is suppressed
 vv Constriction of blood vessels, except to running and fightingConstriction of blood vessels, except to running and fighting
musclesmuscles
 vv Reproductive and sexual systems stop working normallyReproductive and sexual systems stop working normally
 vv Digestive system stops metabolizing food normallyDigestive system stops metabolizing food normally
 vv Excretory system turns offExcretory system turns off
 vv Saliva dries upSaliva dries up
 vv Decreased perception of painDecreased perception of pain
 vv Kidneys decrease outputKidneys decrease output

15. PsychologicalPsychological
conceptsconcepts
 EustressEustress
 Selye published in year 1975 a model dividing stress intoSelye published in year 1975 a model dividing stress into eustresseustress
andand distressdistress.Where stress enhances function (physical or mental,.Where stress enhances function (physical or mental,
such as throughsuch as through strength trainingstrength training or challenging work), it may beor challenging work), it may be
considered eustress. Persistent stress that is not resolved throughconsidered eustress. Persistent stress that is not resolved through
coping or adaptation, deemed distress, may lead tocoping or adaptation, deemed distress, may lead to anxietyanxiety oror
withdrawal (depression) behavior.withdrawal (depression) behavior.
 The difference between experiences that result inThe difference between experiences that result in eustresseustress andand
those that result inthose that result in distressdistress is determined by the disparity betweenis determined by the disparity between
an experience (real or imagined) and personal expectations, andan experience (real or imagined) and personal expectations, and
resources to cope with the stress. Alarming experiences, eitherresources to cope with the stress. Alarming experiences, either
real or imagined, can trigger a stress response.real or imagined, can trigger a stress response.

16. EustressEustress

17. DistressDistress

20. CopingCoping
 Responses to stress include adaptation,Responses to stress include adaptation,
psychological copingpsychological coping such assuch as stress managementstress management,,
anxiety, andanxiety, and depressiondepression. Over the long term, distress. Over the long term, distress
can lead to diminished health and/or increasedcan lead to diminished health and/or increased
propensity to illness; to avoid this, stress must bepropensity to illness; to avoid this, stress must be
managed.managed.
 Stress management encompasses techniquesStress management encompasses techniques
intended to equip a person with effective copingintended to equip a person with effective coping
mechanisms for dealing with psychological stress, withmechanisms for dealing with psychological stress, with
stress defined as a person's physiological response tostress defined as a person's physiological response to
an internal or external stimulus that triggers the fight-an internal or external stimulus that triggers the fight-
or-flight response. Stress management is effectiveor-flight response. Stress management is effective
when a person uses strategies to cope with or alterwhen a person uses strategies to cope with or alter
stressful situations.stressful situations.

21.  There are several ways of coping with stress, such as controllingThere are several ways of coping with stress, such as controlling
the source of stress or learning to set limits and to say "no" tothe source of stress or learning to set limits and to say "no" to
some of the demands that bosses or family members may make.some of the demands that bosses or family members may make.
 A person's capacity to tolerate the source of stress may beA person's capacity to tolerate the source of stress may be
increased by thinking about another topic such as a hobby,increased by thinking about another topic such as a hobby,
listening to music, orlistening to music, or spending time in a wildernessspending time in a wilderness..
 A way to control stress is first dealing with what is causing theA way to control stress is first dealing with what is causing the
stress if it is something the individual has control over. Otherstress if it is something the individual has control over. Other
methods to control stress and reduce it can be: to notmethods to control stress and reduce it can be: to not
procrastinate and leave tasks for last minute, do things you like,procrastinate and leave tasks for last minute, do things you like,
exercise, do breathing routines, go out with friends, and take aexercise, do breathing routines, go out with friends, and take a
break. Having support from a loved one also helps a lot inbreak. Having support from a loved one also helps a lot in
reducing stress.reducing stress.

22.  A study was done and it showed that the power ofA study was done and it showed that the power of
having support from a loved one or just social support,having support from a loved one or just social support,
lowered stress in the individuals. They gave painfullowered stress in the individuals. They gave painful
shocks to married women's ankles. On some trialsshocks to married women's ankles. On some trials
women were able to hold their husbands hand, onwomen were able to hold their husbands hand, on
other trials they held a strangers hand, and then heldother trials they held a strangers hand, and then held
no one's hand. When the women were holding theirno one's hand. When the women were holding their
husbands hand, the response reduced in many brainhusbands hand, the response reduced in many brain
areas. When holding the strangers hand the responseareas. When holding the strangers hand the response
reduced a little but not as much as when they werereduced a little but not as much as when they were
holding their husbands hand. Social support helpsholding their husbands hand. Social support helps
reduce stress but even more if the support is from areduce stress but even more if the support is from a
loved one.loved one.

23. Cognitive appraisalCognitive appraisal
 Lazarus argued that, in order for a psychosocial situationLazarus argued that, in order for a psychosocial situation
to be stressful, it must be appraised as such. He arguedto be stressful, it must be appraised as such. He argued
that cognitive processes of appraisal are central inthat cognitive processes of appraisal are central in
determining whether a situation is potentially threatening,determining whether a situation is potentially threatening,
constitutes a harm/loss or a challenge, or is benign.constitutes a harm/loss or a challenge, or is benign.
 Both personal and environmental factors influence thisBoth personal and environmental factors influence this
primary appraisal, which then triggers the selection ofprimary appraisal, which then triggers the selection of
coping processes. Problem-focused coping is directed atcoping processes. Problem-focused coping is directed at
managing the problem, whereas emotion-focused copingmanaging the problem, whereas emotion-focused coping
processes are directed at managing the negativeprocesses are directed at managing the negative
emotions. Secondary appraisal refers to the evaluation ofemotions. Secondary appraisal refers to the evaluation of
the resources available to cope with the problem, andthe resources available to cope with the problem, and
may alter the primary appraisal.may alter the primary appraisal.

24.  In other words, primary appraisal includes theIn other words, primary appraisal includes the
perception of how stressful the problem is andperception of how stressful the problem is and
the secondary appraisal of estimating whetherthe secondary appraisal of estimating whether
one has more than or less than adequateone has more than or less than adequate
resources to deal with the problem that affectsresources to deal with the problem that affects
the overall appraisal of stressfulness. Further,the overall appraisal of stressfulness. Further,
coping is flexible in that, in general, thecoping is flexible in that, in general, the
individual examines the effectiveness of theindividual examines the effectiveness of the
coping on the situation; if it is not having thecoping on the situation; if it is not having the
desired effect, s/he will, in general, try differentdesired effect, s/he will, in general, try different
strategiesstrategies

26. AssessmentAssessment
 Because the amount of stressors in a person'sBecause the amount of stressors in a person's
life often (although not always) correlates withlife often (although not always) correlates with
the amount of stress that person experiences,the amount of stress that person experiences,
researchers combine the results of stress andresearchers combine the results of stress and
burnoutburnout self-tests. Stress tests help determineself-tests. Stress tests help determine
the number of stressors in a person's life, whilethe number of stressors in a person's life, while
burnout tests determine the degree to whichburnout tests determine the degree to which
the person is close to the state of burnout.the person is close to the state of burnout.
Combining both helps researchers gauge howCombining both helps researchers gauge how
likely additional stressors will make him or herlikely additional stressors will make him or her
experience mental exhaustionexperience mental exhaustion

27. Health risk factorsHealth risk factors
 Both negative and positive stressors can lead to stress.Both negative and positive stressors can lead to stress.
The intensity and duration of stress changesThe intensity and duration of stress changes
depending on the circumstances and emotionaldepending on the circumstances and emotional
condition of the person suffering from it (Arnold. E andcondition of the person suffering from it (Arnold. E and
Boggs. K. 2007). Some common categories andBoggs. K. 2007). Some common categories and
examples of stressors include:examples of stressors include:
 Sensory input such asSensory input such as painpain,, bright lightbright light, noise,, noise,
temperatures, or environmental issues such as a lacktemperatures, or environmental issues such as a lack
of control over environmental circumstances, such asof control over environmental circumstances, such as
foodfood, air and/or water quality,, air and/or water quality, housinghousing,, healthhealth,, freedomfreedom,,
or mobility.or mobility.

28.  Social issues can also cause stress, such as struggles withSocial issues can also cause stress, such as struggles with
conspecificconspecific or difficult individuals andor difficult individuals and social defeatsocial defeat, or relationship, or relationship
conflict,conflict, deceptiondeception, or, or break upsbreak ups, and major events such as, and major events such as birthbirth
andand deathsdeaths,, marriagemarriage, and, and divorcedivorce..
 Life experiences such asLife experiences such as povertypoverty,, unemploymentunemployment,,
clinical depressionclinical depression,, obsessive compulsive disorderobsessive compulsive disorder,, heavy drinkingheavy drinking
,,[68][68]or insufficientor insufficient sleepsleep can also cause stress. Students andcan also cause stress. Students and
workers may face performance pressure stress fromworkers may face performance pressure stress from examsexams andand
project deadlines.project deadlines.
 Adverse experiences duringAdverse experiences during developmentdevelopment (e.g. prenatal exposure(e.g. prenatal exposure
to maternal stress,poor attachment histories,to maternal stress,poor attachment histories, sexualsexual abuseabuse)are)are
thought to contribute to deficits in the maturity of an individual'sthought to contribute to deficits in the maturity of an individual's
stress response systems. One evaluation of the different stressesstress response systems. One evaluation of the different stresses
in people's lives is thein people's lives is the Holmes andHolmes and RaheRahe stress scalestress scale..

29. General adaptationGeneral adaptation
syndromesyndrome
 Physiologists define stress as how the body reacts to aPhysiologists define stress as how the body reacts to a
stressor, real or imagined, a stimulus that causesstressor, real or imagined, a stimulus that causes
stress. Acute stressors affect an organism in the shortstress. Acute stressors affect an organism in the short
term; chronic stressors over the longer term. Theterm; chronic stressors over the longer term. The
general adaptation syndrome (GAS), developed bygeneral adaptation syndrome (GAS), developed by
Hans Selye, is a profile of how organisms respond toHans Selye, is a profile of how organisms respond to
stress; GAS is characterized by three phases: astress; GAS is characterized by three phases: a
nonspecific mobilization phase, which promotesnonspecific mobilization phase, which promotes
sympathetic nervous system activity; a resistancesympathetic nervous system activity; a resistance
phase, during which the organism makes efforts tophase, during which the organism makes efforts to
cope with the threat; and an exhaustion phase, whichcope with the threat; and an exhaustion phase, which
occurs if the organism fails to overcome the threat andoccurs if the organism fails to overcome the threat and
depletes its physiological resources.depletes its physiological resources.

32. Stage 1Stage 1
 AlarmAlarm is the first stage, which is divided into two phases:is the first stage, which is divided into two phases:
thethe shockshock phase and thephase and the antishockantishock phase.phase.
 Shock phaseShock phase: During this phase, the body can endure changes such as: During this phase, the body can endure changes such as
hypovolemiahypovolemia,, hypoosmolarityhypoosmolarity,, hyponatremiahyponatremia,, hypochloremiahypochloremia,,
hypoglycemiahypoglycemia—the stressor effect. This phase resembles—the stressor effect. This phase resembles
Addison's diseaseAddison's disease. The organism's resistance to the stressor drops. The organism's resistance to the stressor drops
temporarily below the normal range and some level of shock (e.g.temporarily below the normal range and some level of shock (e.g.
circulatorycirculatory shockshock) may be experienced.) may be experienced.
 Antishock phaseAntishock phase: When the threat or stressor is identified or realized,: When the threat or stressor is identified or realized,
the body starts to respond and is in a state of alarm. During this stage,the body starts to respond and is in a state of alarm. During this stage,
thethe locuslocus coeruleuscoeruleus/sympathetic nervous system is activated and/sympathetic nervous system is activated and
catecholamines such as adrenaline are being produced, hence thecatecholamines such as adrenaline are being produced, hence the
fight-or-flight responsefight-or-flight response. The result is: increased. The result is: increased muscular tonusmuscular tonus,,
increased blood pressure due toincreased blood pressure due to peripheral vasoconstrictionperipheral vasoconstriction andand
tachycardiatachycardia, and increased glucose in blood. There is also some, and increased glucose in blood. There is also some
activation of theactivation of the HPA axisHPA axis, producing glucocorticoids (, producing glucocorticoids (cortisolcortisol, aka the, aka the
S-hormone or stress-hormone).S-hormone or stress-hormone).

33. Stage 2Stage 2
 ResistanceResistance is the second stage and increased secretionis the second stage and increased secretion
of glucocorticoids play a major role, intensifying theof glucocorticoids play a major role, intensifying the
systemic response—they have lipolytic, catabolic andsystemic response—they have lipolytic, catabolic and
antianabolic effects: increased glucose, fat and aminoantianabolic effects: increased glucose, fat and amino
acid/protein concentration in blood. Moreover, they causeacid/protein concentration in blood. Moreover, they cause
lymphocytopenia, eosinopenia, neutrophilia andlymphocytopenia, eosinopenia, neutrophilia and
polycythemia. In high doses, cortisol begins to act as apolycythemia. In high doses, cortisol begins to act as a
mineralocorticoid (aldosterone) and brings the body to amineralocorticoid (aldosterone) and brings the body to a
state similar tostate similar to hyperaldosteronismhyperaldosteronism. If the stressor. If the stressor
persists, it becomes necessary to attempt some means ofpersists, it becomes necessary to attempt some means of
coping with the stress. Although the body begins to try tocoping with the stress. Although the body begins to try to
adapt to the strains or demands of the environment, theadapt to the strains or demands of the environment, the
body cannot keep this up indefinitely, so its resources arebody cannot keep this up indefinitely, so its resources are
gradually depleted.gradually depleted.

34. Stage 3Stage 3
 The third stage could beThe third stage could be
eithereither exhaustionexhaustion oror recovery:recovery:

35.  RecoveryRecovery stage follows when thestage follows when the
system's compensation mechanismssystem's compensation mechanisms
have successfully overcome the stressorhave successfully overcome the stressor
effect (or have completely eliminated theeffect (or have completely eliminated the
factor which caused the stress). The highfactor which caused the stress). The high
glucose, fat and amino acid levels inglucose, fat and amino acid levels in
blood prove useful for anabolic reactions,blood prove useful for anabolic reactions,
restoration of homeostasis andrestoration of homeostasis and
regeneration of cells.regeneration of cells.

36.  ExhaustionExhaustion is the alternative third stage in the GASis the alternative third stage in the GAS
model. At this point, all of the body's resources aremodel. At this point, all of the body's resources are
eventually depleted and the body is unable to maintaineventually depleted and the body is unable to maintain
normal function. The initialnormal function. The initial autonomic nervous systemautonomic nervous system
symptoms may reappear (sweating, raised heart rate,symptoms may reappear (sweating, raised heart rate,
etc.). If stage three is extended, long-term damageetc.). If stage three is extended, long-term damage
may result (prolonged vasoconstriction results inmay result (prolonged vasoconstriction results in
ischemiaischemia which in turn leads to cell necrosis), as thewhich in turn leads to cell necrosis), as the
body's immune system becomes exhausted, and bodilybody's immune system becomes exhausted, and bodily
functions become impaired, resulting infunctions become impaired, resulting in
decompensationdecompensation..

37.  The result can manifest itself in obviousThe result can manifest itself in obvious
illnesses, such asillnesses, such as peptic ulcerpeptic ulcer andand
general trouble with thegeneral trouble with the digestive systemdigestive system
(e.g.(e.g. occult bleedingoccult bleeding,, melenamelena,,
constipationconstipation/obstipation),/obstipation), diabetesdiabetes, or, or
eveneven cardiovascularcardiovascular problems (problems (
angina pectorisangina pectoris), along with), along with
clinical depressionclinical depression and other mentaland other mental
illnessesillnesses

38. Effects of chronicEffects of chronic
stressstress
 Chronic stress is a term sometimes used to differentiate betweenChronic stress is a term sometimes used to differentiate between
acute stress. Definitions differ, and may be along the lines of continualacute stress. Definitions differ, and may be along the lines of continual
activation of the stress response, stress that causes anactivation of the stress response, stress that causes an allostaticallostatic shiftshift
in bodily functions,or just as "prolonged stress". For example, resultsin bodily functions,or just as "prolonged stress". For example, results
of one study demonstrated that individuals who reported relationshipof one study demonstrated that individuals who reported relationship
conflict lasting one month or longer have a greater risk of developingconflict lasting one month or longer have a greater risk of developing
illness and show slower wound healing. Similarly, the effects thatillness and show slower wound healing. Similarly, the effects that
acute stressors have on the immune system may be increased whenacute stressors have on the immune system may be increased when
there is perceived stress and/or anxiety due to other events. Forthere is perceived stress and/or anxiety due to other events. For
example, students who are taking exams show weaker immuneexample, students who are taking exams show weaker immune
responses if they also report stress due to daily hassles.Whileresponses if they also report stress due to daily hassles.While
responses to acute stressors typically do not impose a health burdenresponses to acute stressors typically do not impose a health burden
on young, healthy individuals, chronic stress in older or unhealthyon young, healthy individuals, chronic stress in older or unhealthy
individuals may have long-term effects that are detrimental to healthindividuals may have long-term effects that are detrimental to health

40. ImmunologicalImmunological
 Acute time limited stressors, or stressors that lasted lessAcute time limited stressors, or stressors that lasted less
than two hours, results in an up regulation ofthan two hours, results in an up regulation of
natural immunitynatural immunity and down regulation ofand down regulation of specific immunityspecific immunity..
This type of stress saw in increase inThis type of stress saw in increase in granulocytesgranulocytes,,
natural killer cellsnatural killer cells,, IgAIgA,, Interleukin 6Interleukin 6, and an increase in cell, and an increase in cell
cytotoxicity. Brief naturalistic stressors elicit a shift fromcytotoxicity. Brief naturalistic stressors elicit a shift from
Th1(cellular) to Th2(humoral) immunity, while decreasedTh1(cellular) to Th2(humoral) immunity, while decreased
T-cellT-cell proliferation, and natural killer cell cytotoxicity.proliferation, and natural killer cell cytotoxicity.
Stressful event sequences did not elicit a consistentStressful event sequences did not elicit a consistent
immune response, however some observations such asimmune response, however some observations such as
decreased T-Cell proliferation and cytotoxicity, increase ordecreased T-Cell proliferation and cytotoxicity, increase or
decrease in natural killer cell cytotoxicity, and an increasedecrease in natural killer cell cytotoxicity, and an increase
in mitogen PHA. Chronic stress elicited a shirt toward Th2in mitogen PHA. Chronic stress elicited a shirt toward Th2
immunity, as well as decreased interleukin 2, T cellimmunity, as well as decreased interleukin 2, T cell
proliferation, and antibody response to theproliferation, and antibody response to the
influenza vaccineinfluenza vaccine. Distant stressors did not consistently. Distant stressors did not consistently
elicit a change in immune function.elicit a change in immune function.

41. InfectiousInfectious
 Some studies have observed increasedSome studies have observed increased
risk ofrisk of upper respiratory tract infectionupper respiratory tract infection
during chronic life stress. In patients withduring chronic life stress. In patients with
HIV, increased life stress and cortisolHIV, increased life stress and cortisol
was associated with poorer progressionwas associated with poorer progression
of HIV.of HIV.

42. Chronic diseaseChronic disease
 A link has been suggested between chronic stress andA link has been suggested between chronic stress and
cardiovascular disease. Stress appears to play a role incardiovascular disease. Stress appears to play a role in
hypertensionhypertension, and may further predispose people to other, and may further predispose people to other
conditions associated with hypertension. Stress may alsoconditions associated with hypertension. Stress may also
precipitate a more serious, or relapse into abuse of alcohol. Stressprecipitate a more serious, or relapse into abuse of alcohol. Stress
may also contribute to aging and chronic diseases in aging, suchmay also contribute to aging and chronic diseases in aging, such
asas depressiondepression and metabolic disorders. The immune system alsoand metabolic disorders. The immune system also
plays a role in stress and the early stages ofplays a role in stress and the early stages of wound healingwound healing. It is. It is
responsible for preparing the tissue for repair and promotingresponsible for preparing the tissue for repair and promoting
recruitment of certain cells to the wound area.Consistent with therecruitment of certain cells to the wound area.Consistent with the
fact that stress alters the production of cytokines, Graham et al.fact that stress alters the production of cytokines, Graham et al.
found that chronic stress associated with care giving for a personfound that chronic stress associated with care giving for a person
with Alzheimer's disease leads to delayed wound healing. Resultswith Alzheimer's disease leads to delayed wound healing. Results
indicated that biopsy wounds healed 25% more slowly in theindicated that biopsy wounds healed 25% more slowly in the
chronically stressed group, or those caring for a person withchronically stressed group, or those caring for a person with
Alzheimer's disease.Alzheimer's disease.

43. DevelopmentDevelopment
 Chronic stress has also been shown to impairChronic stress has also been shown to impair
developmental growthdevelopmental growth in children by loweringin children by lowering
thethe pituitary glandpituitary gland's production of growth's production of growth
hormone, as in children associated with ahormone, as in children associated with a
home environment involving serious maritalhome environment involving serious marital
discord,discord, alcoholismalcoholism, or, or child abusechild abuse..
 More generally, prenatal life, infancy,More generally, prenatal life, infancy,
childhood, and adolescence are critical periodschildhood, and adolescence are critical periods
in which the vulnerability to stressors isin which the vulnerability to stressors is
particularly high.particularly high.

44. PsychopathologyPsychopathology
 Chronic stress is seen to affect the parts of the brain whereChronic stress is seen to affect the parts of the brain where memoriesmemories
are processed through and stored. When people feel stressed, stressare processed through and stored. When people feel stressed, stress
hormones get over-secreted, which affects the brain. This secretion ishormones get over-secreted, which affects the brain. This secretion is
made up ofmade up of glucocorticoidsglucocorticoids, including, including cortisolcortisol, which are steroid, which are steroid
hormones that the adrenal gland releases, although this can increasehormones that the adrenal gland releases, although this can increase
storage of flashbulb memories it decreases long-term potentationstorage of flashbulb memories it decreases long-term potentation
(LTP). The hippocampus is important in the brain for storing certain(LTP). The hippocampus is important in the brain for storing certain
kinds of memories and damage to the hippocampus can cause troublekinds of memories and damage to the hippocampus can cause trouble
in storing new memories but old memories, memories stored beforein storing new memories but old memories, memories stored before
the damage, are not lost. Also high cortisol levels can be tied to thethe damage, are not lost. Also high cortisol levels can be tied to the
deterioration of the hippocampus and decline of memory that manydeterioration of the hippocampus and decline of memory that many
older adults start to experience with age.older adults start to experience with age.
 Chronic stress also shifts learning, forming a preference for habitChronic stress also shifts learning, forming a preference for habit
based learning, and decreased task flexibility and spatial workingbased learning, and decreased task flexibility and spatial working
memory, probably through alterations of the dopaminergicmemory, probably through alterations of the dopaminergic
systems. Stress may also increase reward associated with food,systems. Stress may also increase reward associated with food,
leading to weight gain and further changes in eating habits. Stressleading to weight gain and further changes in eating habits. Stress
may contribute to various psychosomatic disorders, suchmay contribute to various psychosomatic disorders, such
as fibromyalgia, chronic fatigue syndrome, depression, and functionalas fibromyalgia, chronic fatigue syndrome, depression, and functional
somatic syndromes.somatic syndromes.

45. Acute StressAcute Stress
 You can probably think of times when your body has responded to aYou can probably think of times when your body has responded to a
danger Here are other examples ofdanger Here are other examples of acute stressacute stress in which thein which the
demand, danger or threat is quick, immediate, very real, and usuallydemand, danger or threat is quick, immediate, very real, and usually
does not last very long:does not last very long:
 ·· Giving birth to a babyGiving birth to a baby
 ·· Driving down the highway and your tire blowsDriving down the highway and your tire blows
 ·· Hiking down a trail when you trip and start to tumble down aHiking down a trail when you trip and start to tumble down a
steep declinesteep decline
 ·· During an earthquakeDuring an earthquake
 ·· When lightning strikesWhen lightning strikes
 You get the point. Acute stress does happen and in the very short runYou get the point. Acute stress does happen and in the very short run
and in the right amounts, an appropriate amount of tension is helpful,and in the right amounts, an appropriate amount of tension is helpful,
beneficial, and may even save your life. However, in reality, thesebeneficial, and may even save your life. However, in reality, these
types of experiences are a rare occurrence in daily life. Unless youtypes of experiences are a rare occurrence in daily life. Unless you
happen to work in a high-risk occupation such as a policeman in thehappen to work in a high-risk occupation such as a policeman in the
inner city, fireman, or a whitewater rafting guide, the percentage ofinner city, fireman, or a whitewater rafting guide, the percentage of
our days that include actual threats to our lives is less than 1% of theour days that include actual threats to our lives is less than 1% of the
time. Contrary to how it may look from watching the evening news, fortime. Contrary to how it may look from watching the evening news, for
most of us our society today is not one where acute threat or dangermost of us our society today is not one where acute threat or danger
is a daily occurrence.is a daily occurrence.

47. ConclusionConclusion
 Your body is designed to respond to acute stress in a predicableYour body is designed to respond to acute stress in a predicable
manner for one outcome, your survival. This response, the fight-or-manner for one outcome, your survival. This response, the fight-or-
flight, or stress response, is critical for your ability to survive the life-flight, or stress response, is critical for your ability to survive the life-
threatening situations in life. Through the actions of the autonomicthreatening situations in life. Through the actions of the autonomic
nervous system, your body is programmed for a response that willnervous system, your body is programmed for a response that will
protect you from harm.protect you from harm.
 In today's world however, many of our challenges are not acute,In today's world however, many of our challenges are not acute,
physical challenges. Today we are faced with psychological andphysical challenges. Today we are faced with psychological and
social stressors like too much to do, financial debt, concern for asocial stressors like too much to do, financial debt, concern for a
loved one, loneliness, or unhealthy relationships. Our physiologicalloved one, loneliness, or unhealthy relationships. Our physiological
response is not well suited to deal with these types of stressors.response is not well suited to deal with these types of stressors.
There are negative health consequences when our bodies stay in aThere are negative health consequences when our bodies stay in a
state of physiological hyperarousal without release.state of physiological hyperarousal without release.
 Understanding concepts such as the fight-or-flight stress responseUnderstanding concepts such as the fight-or-flight stress response
and the general adaptation syndrome provide you with the foundationand the general adaptation syndrome provide you with the foundation
for understanding how relaxation techniques have the ability tofor understanding how relaxation techniques have the ability to
intercept the stress response. In chapter four you will learn moreintercept the stress response. In chapter four you will learn more
about the powerful mind/body connection and its impact on healthabout the powerful mind/body connection and its impact on health
and disease.and disease.

48. Have a nice day!!!Have a nice day!!!

49. But don’t forget aboutBut don’t forget about
PHARMACOLOGY!!!PHARMACOLOGY!!!