Handbook_of_herbs_and_spices.pdf

© Woodhead Publishing Limited, 2012
Handbook of herbs and spices

Related titles:
Second edition, Volume 2
(ISBN 978-0-85709-040-9)
Herbs and spices are among the most versatile and widely-used ingredients in food
processing. As well as their traditional roles as flavourants and colourants, they have
increasingly been used as natural preservatives and for their potential health-promoting
properties, for example as antioxidants. Handbook of herbs and spices is an essential
reference work for manufacturers wishing to make the most of these important ingredients.
The three volumes of the handbook’s first edition have been condensed into two
indispensable volumes. Comprehensively-updated, they focus on products of commercial
significance. Introductory chapters cover fundamental issues such as quality specifications
for herbs and spices and their use as antimicrobials in foods. Subsequent chapters each
focus on a different herb or spice crop. New chapters on important products such as basil,
fennel seeds, mint, kaffir lime leaves and tarragon have been added.
Volume 3, First edition
(ISBN 978-1-84569-017-5)
The third volume of this comprehensive and authoritative reference continues coverage of
key herbs and spices for the food industry. Ensuring the safety of herbs and spices, their
use as flavourings and functional benefits are covered in introductory chapters. Just as in
Volumes 1 and 2, chapters on individual plants, their production, chemical structure and
properties and uses in food processing then follow.
Postharvest biology and technology of tropical and subtropical fruits
Volume 1 (ISBN 978-1-84569-733-4)
Volume 2 (ISBN 978-1-84569-734-1)
Volume 3 (ISBN 978-1-84569-735-8)
Volume 4 (ISBN 978-0-85709-090-4)
While products such as bananas, pineapples, kiwifruit and citrus have long been available
to consumers in temperate zones, new fruits such as lychee, longan, carambola, and
mangosteen are now also entering the market. Confirmation of the health benefits of
tropical and subtropical fruit may also promote consumption further. Tropical and
subtropical fruits are particularly vulnerable to postharvest losses, and are also transported
long distances for sale. Therefore maximising their quality postharvest is essential and
there have been many recent advances in this area. Many tropical fruits are processed
further into purees, juices and other value-added products, so quality optimization of
processed products is also important. These books cover current state-of-the-art and
emerging post-harvest and processing technologies. Volume 1 contains chapters on
particular production stages and issues, whereas Volumes 2, 3 and 4 contain chapters
focused on particular fruit.
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Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition:
Number 227
Second edition
Volume 1
Edited by
K. V. Peter
Oxford Cambridge Philadelphia New Delhi

Published by Woodhead Publishing Limited,
80 High Street, Sawston, Cambridge CB22 3HJ, UK
www.woodheadpublishing.com
www.woodheadpublishingonline.com
Woodhead Publishing, 1518 Walnut Street, Suite 1100, Philadelphia,
PA 19102-3406, USA
Woodhead Publishing India Private Limited, G-2, Vardaan House, 7/28 Ansari Road,
Daryaganj, New Delhi – 110002, India
www.woodheadpublishingindia.com
First edition 2001, Woodhead Publishing Limited
Second edition 2012, Woodhead Publishing Limited
The authors have asserted their moral rights.
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Library of Congress Control Number: 2012942830
ISBN 978-0-85709-039-3 (print)
ISBN 978-0-85709-567-1 (online)
ISSN 2042-8049 Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition
(print)
ISSN 2042-8057 Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition
(online)
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Contributor contact details....................................................................................... xiii
Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology
and Nutrition............................................................................................................. xix
1 Introduction to herbs and spices: definitions, trade and applications....... 1
K. V. Peter, World Noni Research Foundation, India and M. R. Shylaja,
Kerala Agricultural University, India
1.1 Definitions............................................................................................. 1
1.2 Trade in herbs and spices and trends in their use ........................... 3
1.3 Herbs and spices in traditional medicine.......................................... 4
1.4 Herbs and spices in the food and beverage industries ................... 6
1.5 Herbs and spices in the cosmetics and perfumery industries ........ 9
1.6 Modern research into the medicinal and nutraceutical
properties of herbs and spices............................................................ 9
1.7 Production of quality herbs and spices ............................................. 13
1.8 The structure of this book................................................................... 16
1.9 Sources of further information........................................................... 18
1.10 References............................................................................................. 19
Appendix 1........................................................................................................ 20
Appendix 2........................................................................................................ 24
2 Quality specifications for herbs and spices................................................... 25
S. Clemenson, Camstar Ingredients Ltd and Seasoning and Spice Association,
UK, M. Muggeridge, Lion Foods, UK and M. Clay, European Spices Association
2.1 Introduction: defining quality ............................................................. 25
2.2 Major international quality specifications......................................... 26
2.3 Product-specific quality parameters................................................... 29
2.4 World spice organisations ................................................................... 30
Contents

vi Contents
2.5 Quality management system (QMS)................................................. 36
2.6 Environmental safety: ISO 14001 ...................................................... 39
2.8 References............................................................................................. 40
Appendix 1: Recommended analytical methods.......................................... 41
3 Quality indices for spice essential oils........................................................... 42
M. G. Sajilata and R. S. Singhal, Institute of Chemical Technology, India
3.1 Introduction .......................................................................................... 42
3.2 Major chemical constituents of spice essential oils......................... 44
3.3 The problem of adulteration .............................................................. 47
3.4 Future trends ........................................................................................ 51
3.5 References............................................................................................. 52
4 Basil.................................................................................................................... 55
P. Pushpangadan, Amity Institute for Herbal and Biotech Products
Development, India, and V. George, Amity Institute of Phytochemistry
and Phytomedicine, India
4.1 Introduction: the origin of basil ......................................................... 55
4.2 Chemical composition of the basil plant........................................... 56
4.3 Production of basil............................................................................... 57
4.4 Post-harvest handling and production of basil................................. 60
4.5 Main uses of basil................................................................................. 63
4.6 Functional properties of basil............................................................. 65
4.7 Quality issues and toxicity .................................................................. 68
4.8 References............................................................................................. 70
5 Bay leaves.......................................................................................................... 73
A. Sharma, J. Singh and S. Kumar, Central Institute of Medicinal and
Aromatic Plants (CSIR), India
5.1 Introduction .......................................................................................... 73
5.2 Cultivation, production and processing of bay leaves..................... 74
5.3 Chemical composition of bay leaves ................................................. 75
5.4 Functional properties of bay leaves................................................... 79
5.5 Quality issues........................................................................................ 80
5.6 References............................................................................................. 81
6 Black pepper..................................................................................................... 86
P. N. Ravindran, Tata Global Beverages, India, and J. A. Kallupurackal,
Indian Institute of Spices Research, India
6.1 Introduction .......................................................................................... 86
6.2 Production and international trade of black pepper....................... 86
6.3 The black pepper plant and its varieties........................................... 90
6.4 Cultivation of black pepper................................................................ 91
6.5 Chemical composition of black pepper............................................. 94
6.6 Quality issues........................................................................................ 96
6.7 Industrial processing and value addition .......................................... 99

Contents vii
6.8 Functional properties of black pepper.............................................. 102
6.9 Use of black pepper in food............................................................... 104
6.10 Conclusion............................................................................................. 112
6.11 Source of further information ............................................................ 113
6.12 References............................................................................................. 113
7 Capsicum cultivars............................................................................................ 116
T. G. Berke, Seminis Vegetable Seeds, USA, and S. C. Shieh, AVRDC:
The World Vegetable Center, Taiwan
7.1 Introduction .......................................................................................... 116
7.2 Production of capsicum cultivars ....................................................... 119
7.3 Main uses in food processing.............................................................. 121
7.4 Functional properties and toxicity..................................................... 123
7.5 Quality issues........................................................................................ 124
7.6 References............................................................................................. 129
8 Cardamom......................................................................................................... 131
V. A. Parthasarathy and D. Prasath, Indian Institute of Spices Research,
India
8.1 Introduction .......................................................................................... 131
8.2 Classification of cardamom................................................................. 134
8.3 Genetic improvement and varieties................................................... 137
8.4 Production of cardamom: horticultural technologies and
nursery management............................................................................ 142
8.5 Production of cardamom: planting and aftercare............................ 143
8.6 Harvesting and post-harvest processing............................................ 147
8.7 Other value-added products from cardamom.................................. 150
8.8 Chemical structure and characteristics.............................................. 154
8.9 Major uses of cardamom..................................................................... 158
8.10 Quality standards and grade specifications ...................................... 160
8.11 Conclusion............................................................................................. 164
8.12 References............................................................................................. 164
9 Chives................................................................................................................. 171
H. Chen, Beijing Vegetable Research Centre, China
9.1 Introduction .......................................................................................... 171
9.2 Chemical composition and nutritional value.................................... 172
9.3 Cultivation and production................................................................. 174
9.4 Varieties................................................................................................. 178
9.5 References and further reading ......................................................... 179
10 Cinnamon .......................................................................................................... 182
J. Thomas, Rubber Board, India, and K. M. Kuruvilla,
Indian Cardamom Research Institute, India
10.1 Introduction .......................................................................................... 182
10.2 Description of cinnamon..................................................................... 183
10.3 Harvesting and production of cinnamon .......................................... 185

viii Contents
10.4 Quality issues........................................................................................ 188
10.5 Main uses in the food industry........................................................... 191
10.6 Functional properties and toxicology................................................ 192
10.7 References............................................................................................. 194
11 Cloves................................................................................................................. 197
N. Nurdjannah and N. Bermawie, Indonesian Agency for Agriculture
Research and Development (IAARD), Indonesia
11.1 Introduction .......................................................................................... 197
11.2 Production and post-harvest processing ........................................... 198
11.4 Functional properties of cloves.......................................................... 205
11.5 Toxicology of cloves............................................................................. 209
11.6 Quality and regulatory issues ............................................................. 210
11.7 References............................................................................................. 212
12 Coriander........................................................................................................... 216
M. M. Sharma and R. K. Sharma, Swami Keshwananda Rajasthan
Agricultural University, India
12.1 Introduction .......................................................................................... 216
12.2 Chemical composition ......................................................................... 219
12.3 Cultivation of coriander ...................................................................... 224
12.4 Post-harvest management and processing ........................................ 227
12.5 Main uses of coriander........................................................................ 228
12.6 Modern research into the medicinal properties of coriander........ 231
12.7 Quality issues........................................................................................ 235
12.8 References............................................................................................. 244
Appendix 1........................................................................................................ 248
Appendix 2........................................................................................................ 249
13 Cumin................................................................................................................. 250
Gh. Amin, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Iran
13.1 Introduction .......................................................................................... 250
13.2 Production of cumin ............................................................................ 252
13.3 Main uses of cumin in food processing............................................. 254
13.4 Quality specifications........................................................................... 255
14 Curry leaf........................................................................................................... 260
J. Salikutty, Kerala Agricultural University, India, K. V. Peter,
World Noni Research Foundation, India and M. Divakaran,
Providence Women’s College, India
14.1 Introduction .......................................................................................... 260
14.2 Cultivation and production of curry leaves...................................... 263
14.3 Functional properties and uses of curry leaves................................ 266
14.4 Conclusion............................................................................................. 271
14.5 References............................................................................................. 272

Contents ix
15 Dill...................................................................................................................... 275
R. Gupta, Zandu Pharmaceuticals, India, M. M. Anwer and
Y. K. Sharma, National Research Centre on Seed Spices, India
15.1 Introduction .......................................................................................... 275
15.2 Production and cultivation of dill ...................................................... 277
15.4 Main uses of dill ................................................................................... 281
15.5 Quality issues and standards............................................................... 283
15.6 References............................................................................................. 283
16 Fenugreek.......................................................................................................... 286
R. K. Kakani and M. M. Anwer, National Research Centre on Seed
Spices, India
16.1 Introduction .......................................................................................... 286
16.2 Production and cultivation of fenugreek .......................................... 287
16.4 Functional properties and main uses of fenugreek......................... 291
16.5 Quality issues and standards............................................................... 294
16.6 References............................................................................................. 295
17 Garlic.................................................................................................................. 299
U. B. Pandey, Jain Irrigation Systems Ltd., India
17.1 Introduction .......................................................................................... 299
17.2 Chemical structure of garlic................................................................ 301
17.3 Production and processing of garlic .................................................. 303
17.4 Functional properties and toxicology................................................ 308
17.5 Quality issues of dehydrated garlic.................................................... 309
17.6 References............................................................................................. 314
18 Ginger ................................................................................................................ 319
P. A. Vasala, Kerala Agricultural University, India
18.1 Introduction .......................................................................................... 319
18.2 Products of ginger rhizomes ............................................................... 321
18.3 Main uses and functional properties of ginger ................................ 324
18.5 References............................................................................................. 333
19 Marjoram........................................................................................................... 336
V. Krishnakumar and S. N. Potty, Central Plantation Crops Research
Institute (ICAR), India
19.1 Introduction .......................................................................................... 336
19.2 Production, harvesting and post-harvest management ................... 338
19.3 Marjoram essential oil......................................................................... 341
19.4 Main uses of marjoram........................................................................ 345
19.5 Functional properties........................................................................... 347
19.6 Quality issues........................................................................................ 352
19.7 References............................................................................................. 357

x Contents
20 Mint.................................................................................................................... 366
S. C. Taneja and S. Chandra, Indian Institute of Integrative
Medicine (CSIR), India
20.1 Introduction .......................................................................................... 366
20.2 Production, cultivation and harvesting.............................................. 372
20.3 Production of mint essential oil and menthol crystals.................... 379
20.4 Main uses of mint................................................................................. 382
20.5 Improvement in quality and the impact of biotechnology............. 385
20.6 References............................................................................................. 385
21 Mustard.............................................................................................................. 388
J. Thomas, Rubber Board, India, K. M. Kuruvilla and T. K. Hrideek,
Indian Cardamom Research Institute, India
21.1 Introduction .......................................................................................... 388
21.3 Production and cultivation.................................................................. 392
21.4 Main uses of mustard........................................................................... 393
21.5 Functional properties of mustard....................................................... 395
21.7 References............................................................................................. 397
22 Nutmeg and mace............................................................................................. 399
J. Rema and B. Krishnamoorthy, Indian Institute of Spices
Research, India
22.1 Introduction .......................................................................................... 399
22.2 Production and chemical structure.................................................... 399
22.3 Main uses of nutmeg and mace.......................................................... 405
22.4 Modern research into the functional properties of nutmeg
and mace................................................................................................ 406
22.5 Quality issues and toxicity .................................................................. 410
22.6 References............................................................................................. 412
23 Onion ................................................................................................................. 417
K. E. Lawande, National Research Centre for Onion and Garlic, India
23.1 Introduction .......................................................................................... 417
23.2 Chemical structure and influences on flavour.................................. 419
23.3 Production and functional properties of onion................................ 421
23.4 Quality issues........................................................................................ 425
23.5 References............................................................................................. 427
24 Parsley................................................................................................................ 430
D. J. Charles, Frontier Natural Products Co-op, USA
24.1 Introduction and description .............................................................. 430
24.2 Production and cultivation.................................................................. 432
24.3 Organic farming.................................................................................... 435

Contents xi
24.4 Environmental management systems................................................ 438
24.5 Chemical composition of parsley....................................................... 439
24.6 Main uses of parsley ............................................................................ 443
24.8 References............................................................................................. 447
25 Rosemary........................................................................................................... 452
B. Sasikumar, Indian Institute of Spices Research, India
25.1 Introduction .......................................................................................... 452
25.2 Production and cultivation of rosemary............................................ 454
25.3 Post-harvest technology and further processing .............................. 457
25.4 Main uses of rosemary......................................................................... 459
25.5 Toxicology and quality control........................................................... 463
25.6 Conclusion............................................................................................. 463
25.7 References............................................................................................. 463
26 Saffron................................................................................................................ 469
G. L. Alonso, A. Zalacain and M. Carmona, Universidad Castilla-La
Mancha, Spain
26.1 Introduction .......................................................................................... 469
26.3 Production and distribution................................................................ 477
26.4 Functional properties and uses of saffron ........................................ 484
26.5 Quality issues........................................................................................ 488
26.6 References............................................................................................. 491
27 Thyme ................................................................................................................ 499
E. Stahl-Biskup, University of Hamburg, Germany and R. P. Venskutonis,
Kaunas University of Technology, Lithuania
27.1 Introduction .......................................................................................... 499
27.2 Chemical composition of thyme......................................................... 500
27.3 Production of thyme ............................................................................ 504
27.6 Quality issues........................................................................................ 515
27.7 References............................................................................................. 518
28 Turmeric............................................................................................................. 526
B. Sasikumar, Indian Institute of Spices Research, India
28.1 Introduction .......................................................................................... 526
28.2 Production of turmeric ........................................................................ 530
28.4 Functional properties and uses of turmeric...................................... 540
28.5 Future trends ........................................................................................ 543
28.6 References............................................................................................. 543

xii Contents
29 Vanilla ................................................................................................................ 547
C. C. de Guzman and R. R. Zara, University of the Philippines
Los Baños, Philippines
29.1 Introduction and description .............................................................. 547
29.2 Cultivation of vanilla ........................................................................... 553
29.3 Harvesting and post-production activities........................................ 559
29.4 Main products and functional properties of vanilla........................ 565
29.5 Quality issues and adulteration.......................................................... 570
29.6 Conservation and alternative methods for natural
vanillin production............................................................................... 575
29.7 Future trends ........................................................................................ 579
29.8 References............................................................................................. 579
Index........................................................................................................................... 591

(* = main contact)
Editor
K. V. Peter
World Noni Research Foundation
Chennai – 600 096
Tamil Nadu
India
Email: kvptr@yahoo.com
Chapter 1
K. V. Peter*
Chennai – 600 096
Tamil Nadu
India
M. R. Shylaja
Kerala Agricultural University
P O KAU
Thrissur – 680 651
India
Email: mrshylaja@rediffmail.com
Contributor contact details
Chapter 2
S. Clemenson
Seasoning and Spice Association
6 Catherine Street
London WC2B 5JJ
UK
Email: steve.clemenson@btinternet.com
M. Muggeridge
Kerry Ingredients and Flavours Ltd
Equinox South
Great Park Road
Bradley Stoke
Bristol
BS32 4QL
UK
Chapter 3
M. G. Sajilata and R. S. Singhal*
Institute of Chemical Technology
Matunga
Mumbai – 400 019
India
Email: rs.singhal@ictmumbai.edu.in

xiv Contributor contact details
Chapter 4
P. Pushpangadan*
Amity Institute for Herbal and Biotech
Products Development
Thiruvananthapuram – 695 005
Kerala
India
Email: palpuprakulam@yahoo.co.in
V. George
Amity Institute of Phytochemistry and
Phytomedicine
Thiruvananthapuram – 695 005
Kerala
India
Chapter 5
Dr Ashok Sharma*, Dr J Singh and
Prof. Sushil Kumar
Biotechnology Division
Central Institute of Medicinal and
Aromatic Plants
P.O. CIMAP
Kukrail Picnic Spot Road
Lucknow – 226 015
India
Email: ashoksharma@cimap.res.in;
ashok_sh58@yahoo.com
Chapter 6
Dr P. N. Ravindran*
Manasom, Major Santhosh Road
West Nadakkav, Kozhikode-673 011
Kerala
India
Email: ravinair.pn@gmail.com
Johny A. Kallupurackal
Indian Institute of Spices Research
Calicut – 673 012
Kerala
India
Chapter 7
T. G. Berke*
Seminis Vegetable Seeds
37437 State Highway 16
Woodland
CA 95695-9353
USA
Email: terry.berke@seminis.com
S. C. Shieh
AVRDC: The World Vegetable Center
P.O. Box 204
Shanhua
Tainan 74199
Taiwan
Chapter 8
Dr V. A. Parthasarathy*
P. B. No. 1701
P. O. Marikunnu
Calicut – 673 012
Kerala
India
Email: parthasarathy@spices.res.in
Dr D. Prasath
P. B. No. 1701
P. O. Marikunnu
Calicut – 673 012
Kerala
India
Email: prasath@spices.res.in

Contributor contact details xv
Chapter 9
Dr H. Chen
Beijing Vegetable Research Centre
(BVRC)
Banjing West Suburb
P. O. Box 2443
Beijing 100089
China
Email: rlzong@yahoo.com
Chapter 10
J. Thomas* and K. M. Kuruvilla
Indian Cardamom Research Institute
Spices Board of India
Myladumpara
Idukki – 685 553
Kerala
India
Email: jtkotamala@gmail.com
Chapter 11
N. Nurdjannah* and N. Bermawie
Ministry of Agriculture
Indonesian Agency for Agriculture
Research and Development
(IAARD)
Indonesia Center for Agricultural
Post-harvest Research and
Development
Jl Tentara Pelajar No. 12
Bogor, 16114
West Java
Indonesia
Email: nanan_july@yahoo.com;
bb_pascapanen@yahoo.com;
Bb_pascapanen@litbang.deptan.go.id
Chapter 12
M. M. Sharma* and R. K. Sharma
Swami Keshwananda Rajasthan
Agricultural University
Bikaner – 334 006
Rajasthan
India
Email: mmohanrau@yahoo.com
Chapter 13
Gholamreza Amin
Faculty of Pharmacy
Tehran University of Medical Sciences
Tehran
Iran
Email: amin@tums.ac.ir
Chapter 14
Minoo Divakaran*
Providence Women’s College
Calicut – 673 009
Kerala
India
Email: minoo10@yahoo.com
K. V. Peter
Chennai – 600 096
Tamil Nadu
India

xvi Contributor contact details
J. Salikutty
P O KAU
Kerala
India
Email: salikutty_joseph@rediffmail.com
Chapter 15
R. Gupta
Zandu Pharmaceuticals
India
Professor M. M. Anwer* and
Dr Y. K. Sharma
National Research Centre on Seed
Spices
Tabiji
Ajmer – 305 206
Rajasthan
India
Email: mmanwer1951@yahoo.com;
yksharma.nrcss@yahoo.co.in
Chapter 16
Dr R. K. Kakani and Prof
M. M. Anwer*
National Research Centre on Seed
Spices
Tabiji
Ajmer – 305 206
Rajasthan
India
Email: mmanwer1951@yahoo.com;
rkkakani.nrcss@rediffmail.com
Chapter 17
U. B. Pandey
Jain Irrigation Systems Ltd
Jain Plastic Park
P.O. Box 72
Jalgaon – 425 001
Maharashtra
India
Email: pandey.udaibhan@jains.com
Chapter 18
P. A. Vasala
P O KAU
Kerala
India
Email: pavalsala@rediffmail.com
Chapter 19
V. Krishnakumar
Central Plantation Crops Research
Institute (ICAR)
Regional Station
Krishnapuram
Kayamkulam
Kerala – 690 533
India
Email: dr.krishnavkumar@gmail.com

Contributor contact details xvii
Chapter 20
Subhash C. Taneja* and Suresh
Chandra
Indian Institute of Integrative Medicine
(CSIR)
Canal Road
Jammu Tawi – 180 001
India
Email: sctaneja@iiim.ac.in;
schandra@iiim.ac.in
Chapter 21
J. Thomas,* K. M. Kuruvilla and
T. K. Hrideek
Indian Cardamom Research Institute
(ICRI) Spices Board
Kailasanadu PO
Kerala – 685 553
India
Email: jtkotamala@gmail.com
Chapter 22
J. Rema and B. Krishnamoorthy*
P. O. Marikunnu
Calicut – 673 012
Kerala
India
Email: bkmoorthy@spices.res.in;
rema@spices.res.in
Chapter 23
Dr K. E. Lawande, Vice, Chancellor
Dr Balasaheb Sawant Konkan Krishi
Vidyapeeth
PO Dapoli Ratnagiri
Maharashtra – 415 712
India
Email: kelawande2011@gmail.com
Chapter 24
Dr Denys J. Charles
Director of Research
Aura Cacia
Frontier Natural Products Co-op
5398 31st Street
Urbana
IA-52345
USA
Email: Denys.Charles@frontiercoop.
com
Chapters 25 and 28
Dr B. Sasikumar
P. O. Marikunnu
Calicut – 673 012
Kerala
India
Email: bhaskaransasikumar@yahoo.
com

xviii Contributor contact details
Chapter 26
Gonzalo Luis Alonso, Amaya Zalacain,
Manuel Carmona*
Cátedra de Química Agrícola
E.T.S.I.A
Universidad Castilla-La Mancha
E-02071 Albacete
Spain
Email: Manuel.Carmona@uclm.es
Chapter 27
Prof. Dr Elisabeth Stahl-Biskup*
University of Hamburg
Institute of Pharmacy
Department of Pharmaceutical Biology
and Microbiology
Bundesstrasse 45
D-20146 Hamburg
Germany
Email: elisabeth.stahl-biskup@uni-
hamburg.de
Prof. Rimantas P. Venskutonis
Kaunas University of Technology
Radvilenu pl. 19
Kaunas
LT-50254
Lithuania
Email: rimas.venskutonis@ktu.lt
Chapter 29
Dr C. C. De Guzman* and
Ms R. R. Zara
Crop Science Cluster
College of Agriculture
University of the Philippines Los
Baños
College, Laguna 4031
Philippines
Email: tansdg2000@yahoo.com;
rosezara33@yahoo.com

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D. A. Bender
5 Determination of veterinary residues in food Edited by N. T. Crosby
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228 Handbook of herbs and spices Second edition Volume 2 Edited by
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239 Encapsulation technologies and delivery systems for food ingredients and
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240 Case studies in food safety and authenticity Edited by J. Hoorfar

1
Introduction to herbs and spices: definitions,
trade and applications
K. V. Peter, World Noni Research Foundation, India and M. R. Shylaja,
Kerala Agricultural University, India
Abstract: This chapter discusses the definition and classification of herbs and spices. It also
discusses the trade of spices and, in particular, the role of India. The applications of
different spices in medicine, the food and beverage industry (including health foods),
cosmetics, perfumery and nutraceuticals are summarized. The use of spices as a source of
natural colour, flavouring, antioxidants and antimicrobials is commented on. This chapter
also highlights the importance of producing high quality, clean spices, by minimizing the
use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides. The use of biocontrol agents is also briefly
touched upon.
Key words: spices, classification, spice trade, uses of spices, medicine, foods, beverages,
nutraceutical, health food, cosmetics, perfumery, natural colour, natural flavour, natural
antioxidants, natural antimicrobials, quality clean spices.
1.1 Definitions
The Geneva-based International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) defines
spices and condiments as:
vegetable products or mixtures thereof, free from extraneous matter, used for flavour-
ing, seasoning and imparting aroma to foods.
Though the term spice can also be used to refer to herbs, the distinction between
herbs and spices is usually as follows:
• Herbs may be defined as the dried leaves of aromatic plants used to impart
flavour and odour to foods.The leaves are commonly traded separately from the
plant stems and leaf stalks.
• Spices may be defined as the dried parts of aromatic plants with the exception
of the leaves. This definition is wide-ranging and covers virtually all parts of the
plant.
The taxonomic classification of spices is presented in Table 1.1 and a conventional
classification in Table 1.2. The various parts of plants used to produce the range of
herbs and spices are illustrated in Table 1.3. Herbs and spices have been used in

2 Handbook of herbs and spices
Table 1.2 Conventional classification of spices
Classes Spices
Hot spices Capsicum (chillies), cayenne pepper, black and white peppers, ginger
Mild spices Paprika, coriander
Aromatic spices Allspice (pimento), cardamom, cassia, cinnamon, clove, cumin, dill,
fennel, fenugreek, mace, nutmeg
Herbs Basil, bay leaves, dill leaves, marjoram, tarragon, thyme
Aromatic vegetables Onion, garlic, shallot, celery
Table 1.1 Taxonomic classification of spices
Angiospermae
Dicotyledoneae
Sympetalae
Solanaceae chilli, paprika, red pepper
Pedaliaceae sesame
Campalunatae Compositae camomile, chicory, tarragon
Archichlamydaeae
Piperales Piperaceae cubeba, long pepper, pepper
Ranales Myristicaceae mace, nutmeg
Lauraceae bay leaf, cassia, cinnamon
Magnoliaceae star-anise
Rhoeadales Cruciferae mustard, wasabi
Myrtiflorae Myrtaceae allspice, clove
Umbelliflorae Umbelliferae anise, caraway, celery, chervil, coriander,
cumin, dill, fennel, parsley
Monocotyle-
doneae
Liliiflorae Liliaceae garlic, onion
Iridaceae saffron
Scitamineae Zingiberaceae cardamom, ginger, turmeric
Orchidales Orchidaceae vanilla
Table 1.3 Plant organs as spices
Plant organs Spice crops
Aril Mace or nutmeg
Barks Cassia, cinnamon
Berries Allspice, black pepper, chilli
Buds Clove
Bulbs Onion, garlic, leek
Pistil Saffron
Kernel Nutmeg
Leaf Basil, bay leaf, mint, marjoram, sage, curry leaf
Rhizome Ginger, turmeric
Latex Asafoetida
Roots Angelica, horse-radish
Seeds Ajowan, aniseed, caraway, celery, coriander, dill, fennel, fenugreek, mustard,
poppy seed

Introduction to herbs and spices: definitions, trade and applications 3
foods since antiquity. ISO document 676 lists 109 herb and spice plant species useful
as ingredients in food (see Appendix 1).
1.2 Trade in herbs and spices and trends in their use
Some of the main spice-producing areas are listed inAppendix 2.The current annual
global trade in spices is 0.6–0.7 million tonnes valued at US $3–3.5 billion.The value
of the spice trade is particularly dependent on pepper prices as pepper remains the
main spice in international trade. The global trade in spices is expected to increase
with growing consumer demand in importing countries for more exotic, ethnic tastes
in food.About 85% of spices are traded internationally in whole form, with import-
ing countries processing and packaging the final product for the food industry and
the retail market. The trade in processed and value-added spice ingredients is,
however, growing rapidly as importers look for cheaper global sourcing of spice
products and exporting businesses develop the appropriate technologies and quality
systems.There is limited competition from synthetic products, with the exception of
vanilla, particularly given consumer preferences for ‘natural’ ingredients in food
products.The USA is the biggest importer of spices and spice products, followed by
Germany and Japan. The total value of spice imports in to the USA increased from
US $426 million in 1998 to $597 million in 2007 (www.ers.usda.gov). Germany is the
largest consumer of spices and herbs in the EU. The annual consumption of herbs
and spices in Germany amounted to 62000 tonnes with an annual average growth
rate of 9.7% between 2004 and 2008 (www.cbi.eu). Other major importing regions
are the Middle East and Africa.
1.2.1 India: the land of spices
India is known the world over as the ‘land of spices’. Cultivation of spices started
in India in ancient times and it was Indian spices, famous across the globe, that
attracted explorers, invaders and traders from various lands to Indian shores.
India, with its varied climatic and soil conditions, was the original home of
many spices and produces spices of high intrinsic quality. Spices play a vital role in
the national economy of India. India is the largest producer, consumer and exporter
of spices in the world, contributing 86% of global spice production followed
by China (4%), Bangaladesh (3%), Pakistan (2%), Turkey (2%) and Nepal
(1%) (FAOstat).The domestic market in India absorbs 90% of the spices produced
in the country and the rest is exported. India enjoys a formidable position in
world spice trade with a 48% share in terms of volume and 44% share in terms of
value. India has the monopoly in the supply of spice oils and oleoresins and is a
major supplier of curry powders, spice powders, spice mixes and spices in consumer
packs. Spices exports have registered substantial growth during the last 5 years,
registering an annual average growth rate of 21% in value and 8% in volume.
During the year 2010–11, spices export from India has registered an all time
high both in terms of quantity and value. In 2010–11 the export of spices from
India was 525750 tonnes valued at Rs. 6840.71 crores (US $1502.85 million)
as compared to 502750 tonnes valued at Rs. 5560.50 crores (US $1173.75 million)

in 2009–10, registering an increase of 28% in dollar terms of value and 5% in
volume.
Spices from India are mainly exported to the USA, followed by the EU, Eastern
Europe, East and West Asia and Africa. The highest export earning was registered
for mint products (Rs. 169679.00 lakhs) followed by chilli (Rs. 153554.00 lakhs),
turmeric (Rs. 70285.15 lakhs), cumin (Rs. 39597.75 lakhs) and black pepper
(Rs. 38318.50 lakhs) (www.indianspices.com).
1.2.2 Uses of herbs and spices
Spices played a prominent role in all the ancient civilizations that prevailed in
China–India, Greece–Rome and Babylon–Egypt, and they have long been valued
for their medicinal properties. The first authentic record on the uses of spices dates
back to the pyramidal age in Egypt. During the period, onion and garlic were fed
to workers to preserve their health and cinnamon was used to embalm the dead.
Medicinal uses of spices are mentioned in Charaka Samhita and Sushruta Samhita.
The first use of spices in food was for meat preservation, due to their antimicrobial
properties.With the advent of refrigeration, the demand for spices as a preservative
in the western world decreased. However, with the passing of time, spices had
become indispensable in the culinary art of cooking to enhance flavour and taste of
foods and beverages, so their use did not cease in the West. With the development
of procedures for the extraction of spice extracts, spices were extensively used in
the perfumery, cosmetics and pharmaceutical industries. In the globalization era,
due to consumer resistance to chemical additives, spices have become all the more
important as sources of natural colours, flavours, antimicrobials and antioxidants for
the food industry. There has also been a tremendous growth in the use of herbal
and natural plant products in the cosmetics industry and spices like turmeric,saffron,
coriander, basil, fenugreek, etc. have become more important in this sector. In the
emerging nutraceutical industry, herbs and spices could play a pivotal role, since for
many applications,their therapeutic use has been proven and scientifically validated,
and the necessary safety evaluations have been performed.
1.3 Herbs and spices in traditional medicine
The medicinal properties of spices have been known to mankind from time imme-
morial. Spices are used extensively in traditional systems of medicines such as
Ayurveda, Sidha and Unani. Long pepper, black pepper and ginger are the widely
used spices in the Ayurvedic system of medicine, for example. Spices not only have
their own therapeutic role, but also enhance the absorption and utilization of other
therapeutic substances administered along with them. They are prepared in a
number of ways to extract their active ingredients for internal and external uses.
Extracts from herbs and spices are used as infusions, decoctions, macerations, tinc-
tures, fluid extracts, teas, juices, syrups, poultices, oils, ointments and powders and
many spices used are thought to have multiple bioactive principles. The most com-
monly used spices and their medicinal properties are given in Table 1.4.

The essential oils of many herbs and spices are used nowadays in aromatherapy
to relieve symptoms of various ailments such as aches and pains and emotional
problems such as depression, stress and anxiety. For example, the essential oil of
coriander and pepper mint is analgesic, dill and anise oils are antipyretic, coriander,
celery, parsely, cumin and ginger oils are anti-inflamatory. Recently, anticarcinogenic
properties have been reported for essential oils of cumin and basil suggesting their
Table 1.4 Medicinal properties of spices
Spices Medicinal properties
Black pepper Carminative, antipyretic, diuretic, antihelminthic, anti-
inflammatory, anti-epileptic
Cardamom Antidepressive, carminative, appetizer, diuretic
Ginger Carminative, anti-nauseant, diuretic, antiflatulence, antihistaminic,
aphrodisiac, cholesterol lowering
Turmeric Carminative, antibiotic, antiflatulence, antiseptic,
anti-inflammatory
Garlic Antimicrobial, diuretic, diaphoretic, antiflatulence, cholesterol
lowering, anti-inflammatory
Clove Antiflatulance, anlagesic, stimulant, carminative, antinauseant
Nutmeg Stimulant, carminative, astringent, aphrodisiac, anti-inflammatory
Cinnamon Stimulant, carminative, astringent, aphrodisiac, anti-inflammatory
Chilli Carminative, antirheumatic
Saffron Stimulant, stomachic, anticarcinogenic
Allspice Stimulant, digestive, carminative
Basil, sweet Stomachic, antihelminitic, diaphoretic, expectorant, antipyretic
carminative, stimulant, diuretic, demulcent
Bayleaves (laurel) Stimulant, narcotic
Caraway Stomachic, carminative, antihelminitic, lactagogue
Celery Stimulant, tonic, diuretic, carminative, emmenagogue,
anti-inflammatory
Chive Stimulant, diuretic, expectorant, aphrodisiac, emmenegogue,
anti-inflammatory
Coriander Carminative, diuretic, tonic, stimulant, stomachic, refrigerent,
aphrodisiac, analgesic, anti-inflammatory
Cumin Stimulant, carminative, stomachic, astringent, antiseptic
Dill Carminative, stomachic, antipyretic
Fennel Stimulant, carminative, stomachic, emmenagogue
Fenugreek Carminative, tonic, aphrodisiac
Leek Stimulant, expectorant
Marjoram Carminative, expectorant, tonic, astringent
Mint (peppermint) Stimulant, stomachic, carminative, antiseptic
Mint (spearmint) Stimulant, carminative, antispasmodic
Oregano Stimulant, carminative, stomachic, diuretic, diaphoretic,
emmenagogue
Parsley Stimulant, diuretic, carminative, emmenagogue, antipyretic,
anti-inflammatory
Rosemary Mild irritant, carminative, stimulant, diaphoretic
Sage Mild tonic, astringent, carminative
Tarrgon Aperient, stomachic, stimulant, febrifuge
Thyme Antispasmodic, carminative, emmenagogue, antihelmintic,
spasmodic, laxative, stomachic, tonic, vermifuge

potential use as protective agents against carcinogenesis.Also, methanol extracts of
allspice, marjoram, tarragon and thyme strongly inhibited platelet aggregation
induced by collagen in human beings.
1.4 Herbs and spices in the food and beverage industries
In the food and beverage industries, spices find application as sources of natural
colour and flavour and as antimicrobials and antioxidants.
1.4.1 Spices as a source of natural colour
The food sector is now experiencing a return to the use of natural colours due to
changes in legislation and consumer preferences. Low tinctorial power, poor stabil-
ity (to changes in pH, oxygen, heat and light), low solubility, off-flavour issues and
high cost limit the use of natural colours. However, these problems can be overcome
by using alternatives to traditional extraction and preparation methods, such as
methods involving enzymes, supercritical CO2, membrane processing and encapsu-
lation techniques. Before synthetic colours came into existence, spices like chilli,
saffron, turmeric, etc. were used in Indian cuisines to add colour. The Central Food
Technological Research Institute of India (CFTRI) has developed technologies for
the manufacture of certain natural food colours such as kokum (red) and chillies
(red). Kokum contains 2–3% anthocyanin and is regarded as a natural colour source
for acidic foods. Garcinol is the fat-soluble yellow pigment isolated from rind of
kokum fruit. Garcinol is added at a 0.3% level to impart an acceptable yellow colour
to butter. Colour components present in spices and natural shades available with
spices are presented in Table 1.5.
Table 1.5 Colour components in spices
Colour component Tint Spice
Carotenoid
β-Carotene Reddish orange Red pepper, mustard, paprika, saffron
Cryptoxanthin Red Paprika, red pepper
Lutin Dark red Paprika, parsley
Zeaxanthin Yellow Paprika
Capsanthin Dark red Paprika, red pepper
Capsorubin Purple red Paprika, red pepper
Crocetin Dark red Saffron
Neoxanthin Orange yellow Parsley
Violaxanthin Orange Parsley, sweet pepper
Crocin Yellowish orange Saffron
Flavonoids Yellow Ginger
Curcumin Orange yellow Turmeric
Chlorophylls Green Herbs
Source: Ravindran et al. (2006).

1.4.2 Herbs and spices as a source of natural flavours
The increasing demand in developed countries for natural flavours means there is
tremendous potential to increase the trade in spices. Spices are added to foods in
several forms, such as whole spices, ground spices and spice extracts. As spice
extracts are highly concentrated, they are either encapsulated or emulsified in edible
bases like salt or dextrose to obtain a uniform dispersion of the extracts in food
materials.Extraction of oils and oleoresins is accomplished using a range of methods,
including steam distillation, hydrocarbon extraction, chlorinated solvent extraction,
enzymatic treatment and fermentation,supercritical CO2 extraction.Carbon dioxide
extraction from solid botanicals is now adopted on a commercial scale.The resulting
extracts have no solvent residues and fewer terpenes. Enzymatic treatment and
fermentation of raw botanicals also result in higher yields and improved quality of
essential oil. More recently, the use of genetic engineering and recombinant DNA
technology has resulted in in vitro production of natural esters, ketones and other
flavouring materials. Cloning and single cell culture techniques are also of benefit
to the flavourist. The recovery of essential oils and oleoresins from spices is pre-
sented in Table 1.6 and the main flavour compounds present in herbs and spices are
presented in Table 1.7.
1.4.3 Herbs and spices as a source of natural antioxidants
Antioxidants are added to foods to preserve the lipid components from quality
deterioration. Synthetic antioxidants like butylated hydroxy anisole (BHA),
butylated hydroxy toluene (BHT), propyl gallate (PG) and tert-butyl hydroquinone
(TBHQ) are the ones commonly used. Due to the suspected action of these com-
pounds as promoters of carcinogenesis, there is growing demand for natural anti-
oxidants. Antioxidants also play a role in defence mechanisms of the body against
cardiovascular diseases, cancer, arthritis, asthma and diabetes. Many herbs and
spices are known as excellent sources of natural antioxidants, and consumption of
fresh herbs in the diet may therefore contribute to the daily antioxidant intake.
Phenolic compounds are the primary antioxidants present in spices, and a linear
relationship exists between the total phenolic content and the antioxidant proper-
ties of spices. Essential oils, oleoresins and even aqueous extracts of spices possess
Table 1.6 Recovery of essential oil and oleoresin from spices
Spice Essential oil (%) Oleoresin (%)
Black pepper 1–4.0 10–13
Cardamom (small) 6–10 10–12
Cardamom (large) 1–3 –
Ginger 1–3 5–10
Turmeric 2–6 8–10
Nutmeg 7–16 10–12
Clove 16–18 20–30
Cinnamon 1–3 10–12
Allspice 1–3 (leaf oil)
3–4.5 (berry oil)
–

antioxidative properties. The plants of the lamiaceae family are universally consid-
ered as important sources of natural antioxidants. Rosemary is widely used as
antioxidant in Europe and the USA. Oregano, thyme, marjoram, sage, basil, fenu-
greek, fennel, coriander and pimento also possess antioxidant properties better than
those of the synthetic antioxidant BHT. Important natural antioxidants and compo-
nents responsible for the property are presented in Table 1.8.
1.4.4 Herbs and spices as a source of natural antimicrobials
Herbs and spices are important sources of antimicrobials, and the use of spices, their
essential oils or active ingredients for controlling microbial growth in food materials
constitutes an alternate approach to chemical additives. Some of the spice essential
oils (either used individually or in combinations) are highly inhibitory to selected
pathogenic and spoilage microorganisms.The fractionation of essential oils helps to
Table 1.7 Important flavour compounds in spices
Spice Important flavour compounds
Allspice Eugenol, β-caryophyllene
Anise (E)-anethole, methyl chavicol
Black pepper Piperine, S-3 Carene, β-caryophyllene
Caraway d-Carvone, crone derivatives
Cardamom α-Terpinyl acetate, 1-80-cineole, linalool
Cinnamon, cassia Cinnamaldehyde, eugenol
Chilli Capsaicin, dihydro capsacin
Clove Eugenol, eugeneyl acetate
Coriander d-Linalool, C10-C14-2-alkenals
Cumin Cuminaldehyde, p-1,3-mentha-dienal
Dill d-Carvone
Fennel (E)-anethole, fenchone
Ginger Gingerol, shogaol, neral, geranial
Mace α-Pinene, sabinene, 1-terpenin-4-ol.
Mustard Ally isothiocynate
Nutmeg Sabinene, α-pinene, myristicin
Parsley Apiol
Saffron Safranol
Turmeric Turmerone, zingeberene, 1,8-cineole
Vanilla Vanillin, p-OH-benzyl-methyl ether
Basil, sweet Methylchavicol, linalool, methyl eugenol
Bay laurel 1,8-Cineole
Marjoram e- and t-Sabinene hydrates, terpinen-4-ol
Oregano Carvacrol, thymol
Origanum Thymol, carvacrol
Rosemary Verbenone, 1,8-cineole, camphor, linanool
Sage, clary Salvial-4 (14)-en-1-one, linalool
Sage, Dalmatian Thujone, 1,8-cineole, camphor
Sage, Spanish e- and t-Sabinylacetate, 1,8-cineole, camphor
Savory Carvacrol
Tarragon Methyl chavicol, anethole
Thyme Thymol, carvacrol
Peppermint 1-Menthol, menthone, menthfuran
Spear mint 1-Carvone, carvone derivatives

improve the level of activity in some cases. The optical isomers of carvone from
Mentha spicata and Anethum sowa (Indian dill) were found to be highly active
against a wide spectrum of human pathogenic fungi and bacteria than the essential
oils, for example. Mixing compounds like carvacrol and thymol at different propor-
tions may totally inhibit the growth of Psuedomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus
aureus.The inhibition is due to loss of membrane integrity which further affects pH
homeostasis and equilibrium of inorganic ions. Knowledge of the mode of action of
natural antimicrobials helps to inform the application of spice extracts/ingredients
in foods.Also, application of active ingredients instead of essential oil will not cause
much flavour change to the foodstuff. Of the various herbal spices, oregano and
thyme show the highest antimicrobial activity. Carvacrol present in essential oils of
oregano and thyme has been proven to be the most important fungitoxic compound.
The activity of herbs and spices against fungi and bacteria and the mode of applica-
tion is given in Table 1.9.
1.5 Herbs and spices in the cosmetics and perfumery industries
The importance of spices in cosmetics, perfumery and personal care is well known
from ancient times.The cosmetics and perfumery industries employ the oils of many
spices for blending with other volatile and fixed oils to make high-quality perfumes.
The toiletries and allied industries also make use of spices and their fragrant oils
for manufacture of soaps, toothpastes, talcum powder, aftershave lotions, freshness
sachets, toilet waters, powders and hair oils.The uses of spices in the cosmetic indus-
try are outlined in Table 1.10.
1.6 Modern research into the medicinal and nutraceutical
properties of herbs and spices
In the nutraceutical and health food industry, the antidiabetic, antihypercholestero-
lemic, anticarcinogenic and anti-inflammatory effects of spices are of paramount
Table 1.8 Antioxidants isolated from herbs and spices
Spice Antioxidants
Black pepper Phenolic amides, flavonoids
Ginger Gingerol
Tumeric Curcumin
Red pepper Capsaicin
Chilli pepper Capsaicin, capsaicinol
Clove Eugenol
Rosemary Carnosic acid, carnosol, rosemarinic acid, rosmanol
Sage Carnosol, carnosic acid, rosmanol, rosmarinic acid
Oregano Derivatives of phenolic acid, flavonoids, tocopherols
Thyme Carvacrol thymol, p-cymene, caryophyllene, carvone borneol
Summer savory Rosmarinic acid, carnosol, carvacrol, thymol
Marjoram Flavanoides
Allspice Pimentol

Table 1.9 Antimicrobial properties of herbs and spices
Spice Mode of application Activity against bacteria Activity against fungus
Basil Essential oil Ascophaera apis
Basil Methyl chavicol Aeromonas hydrophylla,
Pseudomonas
fluorescens
Coriander Essential oil A. apis
Fenugreek Seed saponins Fusarium oxysporum
f. sp. lycopersici
Fenugreek Essential oil Bordetella bronchiseptica,
Bacillus cereus,
B. pumilus, B. subtilis,
Micrococcus flavus,
Staphylococcus aureus,
Sarcinia lutea,
Escherichia coli,
Proteus vulgaris
Cumin Essential oil Penicillium notatum,
Aspergillus niger,
A. fumigatus,
Microsporum canis
Fennel Essential oil S. aureus, B. subtilis
Ajowan Seed extracts Pythium
aphanidematum,
Macrophomina
phaseolina,
Rhizactonia solani
Allspice Plant extract Fusarium spp.,
Alternania spp.,
Cladosporium spp.
Oregano,
coriander,
basil
Essential oil Listeria monocytogenes,
S. aureus, E. coli,
Yersinia enterocolitica,
Psuedomonas
aeruginosa,
Lactobacillus
plantarum
A. niger
Anethum
graveolens,
coriander
Seed diffusates Alternaria alternata,
F. solani,
Macrophomina
phaseolina
Peppermint,
thyme,
caraway
Essential oil Agrobacterium
tumefaciens,
Rhizactonia
solanacearum, Erwinia
carotovora
Spearmint,
basil, parsley
Essential oil S. aureus, E. coli Candida albicans,
A. niger
Oregano, mint Essential oil A. ochraceus
Oregano Essential oil or
carvacrol
C. albicans
Oregano,
thyme
Essential oil or
carvacrol
Streptococcus
pneumoniae R36 A, B.
cereus

importance, as diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, arthritis and cancer are key health
problems currently facing mankind. Extensive investigations undertaken at the
CFTRI among many other research centres, have revealed the multiple health ben-
eficial effects of spices. Safety evaluation studies conducted in animal models also
indicate that spices could be consumed at higher dietary levels without any adverse
effects on growth, organ weight, food efficiency ratio and blood constituents. Spices
or their active principles could thus be used as possible ameliorative or preventive
agents for various health disorders. Spices do not contribute significantly to the
nutritional makeup of our food per se because of the small quantities added to food
stuffs. However, due to promising health beneficial physiological effects, spices have
immense potential in the nutraceutical industry. Spices like turmeric, ginger, fenu-
greek, garlic and red pepper are important in the nutraceutical industry due to their
promising biological effects.
Turmeric is reported to have antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticarcinogenic,
antidiabetic and hypocholesterolemic properties. The anti-inflammatory, anticarci-
nogenic and antioxidant activities are clinically exploited to control rheumatism,
cancer and oxidative stress related pathogenesis. Curcumin, derivatives of curcumin,
aqueous and organic solvent extracts of turmeric, turmeric powder, essential oil
and Ar-turmerone were found to be biologically active. Of the various forms/
compounds,the colouring pigment curcumin is responsible for most of the medicinal
properties. Safety evaluation studies indicate that both turmeric and curcumin are
well tolerated at very high doses without any toxic effects.
Ginger played an important role in primary healthcare in ancient India,China and
Japan. In traditional medicine, ginger finds a wide range of applications. Because of
its carminative, stimulant and digestive properties, ginger is commonly used in fever,
cough, vomiting, cardiac complaints, constipation, flatulence, colic, swelling, diar-
rhoea, cholera, diabetes and neurological disorders. Ginger powder, aqueous and
ethanol extracts of ginger, oleoresin and active principles of ginger like gingerol,
shogaol, paradol, zingiberine, zingerone and zingerol have been found to be biologi-
cally active.The efficacy of ginger extracts or active principles of ginger like gingerol
and shogaol in lowering serum cholesterol level in relation to atherosclerosis and
coronary heart diseases have been investigated by several workers.Dietary intake of
ginger reduced the risk of atherosclerosis by virtue of its hypolipidemic and anti-
atherogenic effects. Ginger is used as an anti-inflammatory drug in the treatment of
arthritis.Patients receiving 3–7 g of powdered ginger daily for 56 days had significant
reduction in pain and swelling associated with either rheumatoid or osteoarthritis.
Table 1.10 Spices in cosmetics
Spice Beauty care
Turmeric Improves skin glow and complexion
Basil Improves skin complexion
Fenugreek Removes wrinkles on skin
Coriander Skin tonic
Cinnamon Removes skin blemishes
Saffron Improves skin colour and complexion

Fenugreek seeds are traditionally considered to a carminative and a galactagogue
and are used to treat dysentery, diarrhoea, dyspepsia, cough and enlargement of
liver and spleen, ricket and gout. Fenugreek seed, sprouted seed, seed powder,
sprouted seed powder, decoction of seed, methanol extract of seed, diosgenin, fibre
and 4-hydroxy isoleucine, an amino acid extracted from seeds, have been found to
be biologically active. The hypoglycaemic activity of fenugreek seed has been well
documented by several workers. Fenugreek reduces fasting and post-prandial blood
glucose levels in diabetic patients. Supplementation of the diet with fenugreek seeds
has been found to reduce total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein (LDL) choles-
terol and triglycerides. Oxidative stress plays a key role in diabetes and fenugreek
seed extract also exhibits antioxidant properties.
Garlic, the bulbous spice, is known for its spicy flavour and medicinal properties.
It acts as a stimulant, carminative, emmenagogue, antirheumatic, antihelminthic and
vermifuge. Garlic lowers cholesterol in the blood and is recommended for heart
diseases and artherosclerosis. Daily use of garlic in the Mediteranean diet is thought
to lower incidence of heart disease in these areas.The active therapeutic compounds
present in garlic are S-containing compounds like allicin, iso-allicin, dially/disul-
phide, S-allylcysteine and ajoene. Garlic, garlic powder, garlic oil, aqueous, garlic
extract, alliin, allicin, diallyldisulphide, S-allyl cysteine, isoallicin and ajoene have
been found to be biologically active.
Aged garlic extract (AGE) has widespread use against cardiovascular diseases.
Extracts of fresh garlic that are aged over a prolonged period will have unique
water-soluble organosulphur compounds, lipid-soluble organosulphur components
and flavanoids.AGE exerts antioxidant action by scavenging reactive oxygen species
(ROS) enhancing the activity of cellular antioxidant enzymes, superoxide dismutase,
catalase and glutathione peroxidase and increasing glutathione in the cells. AGE
has cholesterol lowering and blood pressure reducing effects. AGE also inhibits
platelet aggregation adhesion to collagen but only at higher intake levels.The repu-
tation of garlic as an effective remedy for tumors extend back to the Egyptian Codex
Ebers of 1550 BC. Several garlic compounds, including allicin and its corresponding
sulphide,inhibit proliferation and induce apoptosis in several human non-leukaemia
malignant cells including breast, bladder, colorectal, hepatic, prostate cancer, lym-
phoma and skin-tumour cell lines.
Capsaicin, the pungent principle of chillies, is a potent anti-inflammatory and
analgesic agent. Chillies are used for the treatment of headaches, toothaches and
muscular sprains. Capsaicin has cholesterol lowering effects and is used as an anti-
obesity agent. It is effective against gaseous irritant induced pulmonary damages. It
is digestive and has potent antimicrobial properties.Capsaicin treatment significantly
reduces tissue damage, induces certain cells to undergo apoptosis and has putative
role in cancer chemoprevention. Capsaicin can induce body heat and enhance blood
flow and increase energy expenditure and prevent oxidative stress. Capsaicin is a
potent antioxidant and can lower LDL even when consumed for a short period.
The phytochemicals present in spice crops hold promise for preventing or amel-
iorating various health disorders. India, the land of spices, could exploit the
fast-growing nutraceutical sector with her high intrinsic quality spices. Proven thera-
peutic uses of spices in traditional systems of medicine and safety of spices for
consumption without side-effects are the basic strengths in this field. Numerous in

vitro evaluation studies, in vivo studies in animal models and clinical validation
studies conducted on the health beneficial effects of spices are the stepping stones
on the way to exploiting spices in the nutraceutical and health food industry.
On the other hand, most of the evaluation studies conducted on the health ben-
eficial effects of spices are short-term and clinical studies are lacking in the majority
of spices, with the exception of fenugreek. The mode of action nutraceuticals, bio-
availability of nutraceuticals and interaction of nutraceuticals with drugs need thor-
ough investigations. The quality of raw materials for the nutraceutical industry
should be ensured and quality and quantity of bioactive compounds in the raw
material should be ascertained. The importance of good agricultural practices
(GAP) and good manufacturing practices (GMP) could be emphasized in this
context. ‘Clean spices production, not cleaned spices production’ is the slogan.
Quality clean spices could thus make a major breakthrough in the nutraceutical and
health food industry.
1.6.1 Bioprospection
Bioprospection of herbs and spices could isolate new and novel therapeutic
molecules. This area of research has high impetus around the world. A classical
example of such a study is the Piperine alkaloid isolated from black pepper and
marketed as Bioperine (98% pure piperine). This alkaloid could increase bioavail-
ability of certain drugs and nutrients like β-carotene. Bioinformatics plays an essen-
tial role in the in silico analysis of active compounds from herbs and spices,screening
of new drugs and studies on their biological activities.The bioinformatic approaches
consequently provide a new insight for treatment of various diseases using tradi-
tional drugs from spices and herbs. Further, creation of a database on the topic
through bioinformatic tools will help to strengthen the research and development
activities in this field.
1.7 Production of quality herbs and spices
Production of quality clean spices without any pesticide/chemical residues is impor-
tant in this era of free international trade resulting from globalization.Organic spices,
which fetch 20–50% higher prices than spices from conventional farms, are devoid
of pesticides and chemical residues and are superior in quality.The adoption of good
agricultural practices helps to reduce the above contaminants. Quality assurance
systems such as hazard analysis critical control point (HACCP) are highly relevant
in the production of quality spices. Decontamination techniques and proper packag-
ing and storage techniques also play a major role in maintaining the quality of spices.
1.7.1 The use of pesticides and chemicals in herb and spice production
The world over, people are becoming more and more concered about the health
problems that may arise due to consumption of foods contaminated with pesticide
residues. Promotion of a farming technique adopting ecologically sound plant pro-
tection measures, organic recycling and biowaste management would go a long way

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