THE ILIADINFORMATION ABOUT.docx

THE ILIAD
INFORMATION ABOUT:
WHY ARE WE READING SELECTIONS FROM THE ILIAD?
The study of Humanities considers human beings’ reaction to
the human struggle… archaeological sites provide a few clues.
As soon as writing is invented and we have actual records of the
stories people told about themselves, there’s a much clearer
picture.

Some of the stories are versions of myths that had already been
passed down by word of mouth for centuries.
Some of the stories are accounts of historical events.
Sometimes we’re not sure which is which –
We already read Gilgamesh, which is clearly mythic – but it
may dimly reflect some real historical events.
There was an ancient city named Uruk. There were earthquakes
in the region that may have produced stories of “The Bull of
Heaven” trampling the earth.
The entirely fantastic aspects of the story (like the
transformation of Enkidu, the slaying of Humbaba,
and the journey across the Waters of Death to meet
Utnapishtim, the man who would live forever) still
imply a wrenching transition as human beings shift-
ed from wilderness living to cities , and the growing
self-consciousness that forced them to confront their
own mortality. Most of these old stories include a
character attempting to outwit Death.

The Iliad is a natural next step in this series.
It’s not as old as Gilgamesh, but still very ancient – about 600
years older than the familiar version of the Hebrew Bible.
It is not a written version of garbled oral traditions, but a poem
apparently composed by a single literary artist.
Supposedly, this writer was Homer, according to tradition a
blind poet who lived “sometime between” the 12th and 8th
centuries BCE – but there is no real proof that this person ever
existed.
It involves the Trojan War, which was long considered a myth
– but now there is growing archaeological evidence
that it may actually have happened .
However, if The Iliad has one foot in history, it
has the other foot in sheer mythology and the
antics of the Greek gods.
And it has a hero who, like Gilgamesh, is half god,
but confronts the fact that he will one day die. Homer:
portrait of a man who may
never have lived.

DID THE TROJAN WAR REALLY HAPPEN?
The ancients believed the Trojan War had really happened, and
the date they gave was 1184 BCE.
In the 1870s, Heinrich Schliemann, a very wealthy German
businessman who was fascinated with the legend of Troy,
sponsored an archaeolog-cal dig in the area of Turkey where the
city was supposed to have been.
Problem: they found the ruins of nine Troys, one on top of the
other… number seven, which showed evidence of destruction by
fire, is the strongest candidate for an actual Troy that
corresponds to the legend.
More recently, a mass burial site has been uncovered on the
nearby coast, possibly the remains of a Greek army. Hmmm.
We’re still not sure.

Supposedly the War lasted for ten years – the Iliad only covers
a few weeks of the final, tenth year.
There were probably other writings dealing with the rest of the
War, but they have been lost.
The Iliad is 24 “books” (actually, more like chapters) long…
our Course Reader includes only 3 of those “books,” just a
sampling.
The ancient Greeks were familiar with the whole story and, to
put your reading in context, you should be too, so here we go –
Whether or not the War is historic fact, the story begins with
myth –

The Myth that Turned into War
There once was a goddess named Thetis. She was so beautiful
that all the gods desired her, but (as is often the case in Greek
mythology) there was a curse attached.
Thetis was fated to give birth to a son who
would be greater than his father.
None of the Greek gods wanted to touch
that, especially Zeus, King of the gods.
Finally Zeus decided to relieve the tension
by marrying Thetis off to a mortal (the
gods reasoned that mortals were odd –
they didn’t mind if their children turned
out to be more successful).
This wasn’t just any mortal – he was a King
called Peleus – but Thetis was resistant:
what if she had a mortal child by him? Someday that child
would die!

Thetis’ Wedding Day
In order to bring the marriage off as quickly and smoothly as
possible, Zeus arranged a huge, lavish wedding to flatter Thetis.
He decreed that it be a day of joy attended by all the gods and
goddesses , free of discord.
This being Greek mythology, discord was an actual person – a
goddess named Eris, who brought dissatisfaction and conflict
wherever she went.
Eris was barred from attending the wedding, and she was very
insulted.
She rolled a golden apple along the ground right into the
wedding party she hadn’t been allowed to join. On the apple
was inscribed, “To the fairest.” This immediately created
discord!!
Eris takes action.

The Controversy
Right
away, an argument flared up
about
who deserved this apple
inscribed “To the fairest” –
Hera, the
Queen of the gods and wife
to Zeus
,thought it was for her.
Athena,
the goddess of warfare, felt
she
should have it.
And
Aphrodite, the goddess of love
and
beauty, thought it obviously
was
hers.
Zeus was
too smart to get mixed up
in
THAT.
Zeus decided that the argument should be settled by an
impartial judge, a mortal, a young Trojan Prince named Paris.

Background on Paris
Paris was a son of Priam and Hecuba, the King and Queen of
Troy, and he had a curse of his own that fit right in.
When she was pregnant with him, Hecuba had dreamed that she
gave birth to a flaming torch. An oracle told her that meant that
she would have a son who would bring destruction on Troy.
When Paris was born, Priam decreed that he would have to be
left in the wilderness to die… this never works. Some
shepherds found the baby, rescued him and raised him… and
when he was a young man his regret-ful parents recognized him
and welcomed him back into the royal family.
And then came that surprise assignment from Zeus…
Who Gets the Apple?
Young Paris was presented with an impossible task. No matter
which goddess he decided was “the fairest,” the other two
would be angry and vengeful. The goddesses appeared and
immediately tried to bribe him.
Hera said if he chose her, she would

give him power over all Europe.
Athena said that she would make
him a mighty warrior. (Ironically,
Paris replied, “What would be the
point? Troy is so peaceful.”) – It
didn’t stay that way…
Aphrodite said she would give him
the most beautiful woman in the world. Guess which
goddess he chose.
But there was a catch to it, as there always is …
And Here Comes the War --
The most beautiful
woman in the world was
Helen, and she was already married to the
King of Sparta, Menelaus.
Paris went to visit them,
and he and Helen hit it
off just fine.
When Menelaus had to
go away on a brief business trip,
Paris kidnapped Helen and took her home to
Troy!

Naturally, Menelaus
was not pleased.
Menelaus appealed to his brother, Agamemnon, the King of
Mycenae (who happened to be married to Helen’s sister,
Clytemnestra) for help.
Agamemnon roused all the other Greek kings and their armies to
the cause, and the Greeks declared war on the Trojans. They
demanded that Helen be returned to her husband.
Background on Achilles
Meanwhile, don’t forget Thetis, the lovely goddess who was
forced to
marry the Greek king Peleus.
Thetis did give birth to a mortal baby, Achilles, and she
immediately became frantic because one day he would die. She
began trying various ways to make him immortal.
She tried to purify him in fire, but Peleus caught her and
stopped it.
She then dipped the baby in the River Styx, the mythical river
that flows round the Underworld, to endow him with eternal
life.
It would have worked, but
she held baby
Achilles by the heel,

and his heel never
touched the magic
water.
Achilles grew up to become
Greece’s mightiest
warrior, the son of a
King and a goddess, and
entirely immortal,
except for that heel.
Guess what’s going to happen.

The Armies Assemble
The various Greek Kings with their armies assembled to sail to
Troy to fight to get Helen back.
Achilles was by now the Greeks’ most valuable warrior,
stronger and more skilled than anyone else. Of course, they
needed him along.
Thetis, afraid that her son might die despite all her efforts,
disguised him as a girl and installed him as a companion to the
princesses of Skyros.
He wasn’t a huge success as a girl… he got one of the
princesses pregnant, was discovered, and had
to report for duty anyway.
Note: these myths aren’t very logical
… the War arises from an incident
(the golden apple) at Thetis’
wedding. Suddenly, Thetis’ child from
that marriage is all grown
up and fighting in the same War!
Never mind.

The Story of Iphigenia
Here comes another subplot! Agamemnon was in charge, and
the armies were all ready to go – but there was no wind. The
warships traveled by sail and could not get to Troy on a
becalmed sea.
Agamemnon consulted an oracle, and was told that the goddess
Artemis was angry and would not let the winds blow.
The only way to appease Artemis would be a sacrifice:
Agamemnon would have to sacrifice his own daughter, the
Princess Iphigenia.
Agamemnon decided he had no choice.
He sent a message to Iphigenia and her
mother, Clytemnestra, to come
down to the harbor for a great honor
– she was going to be married to the
famed warrior, Achilles!
Thrilled, Iphigenia appeared in her best
wedding regalia, but…

… she arrived just to find out that her father intended to kill
her.
Queen Clytemnestra was outraged at her husband’s trick, but
there was nothing she could do. He was King. (She never
forgave him – ten years later, when he returned from Troy, she
murdered him in his bath.)
Achilles was outraged that his name had been used this way; he
swore he would fight Agamemnon and rescue Iphigenia.
However, Iphigenia came to terms with it. “If I have to be
sacrificed so that my country will be victorious in war, then so
be it,” she said, “history will remember and honor me because I
gave my life for Greece.”
She got that right – there is now a famous
play and a grand opera about her. Many
artists have de- picted the story; in this
painting, Agamemnon leads his resigned
daughter and his grieving wife to
the sacrificial altar, as Achilles
threatens him.
Agamemnon sacrificed his daughter, Artemis allowed the winds
to rise, and the Greek army was able to sail to Troy.
Note in this artist’s depiction, Agamemnon is grieving too, and

holds his daughter’s hand as he stabs her.
As Mary Lefkowitz states in
your Reader (p. 101-107),
the gods pursued their
interests without much
concern for humans. Art-
emis had no reason to
pun-
ish poor Iphigenia.
Note also that, unlike Gilga-
mesh, Achilles acts honor-
ably toward women from
the very beginning. We’ll
see more examples of this.
Fast Forward! Fast Forward!
We now jump ahead to the point at which the Iliad begins – the
Trojan War has been raging for ten years; we don’t know much
about the first nine.
Things have reached a stalemate: the Greeks have had a few
victories, and in some of them have captured Trojan girls to be
forced companions for the officers.
Agamemnon has taken a girl named Chryseis as his concubine.
Chryseis’ father Chryses – a priest of Apollo – comes to plead
for her release.

Agamemnon refuses. Again, Achilles acts honorably toward a
mistreated girl: he denounces King Agamemnon for his
selfishness and tries to hurl a spear at him (the goddess Athena
invisibly stops the spear – the gods are always interfering).
The priest Chryses appeals to the god Apollo and Apollo rains
down such suffering and calamity on the Greeks that
Agamemnon relents – he’s forced to release Chryseis to her
father.
Then what does Agamemnon do? He seizes Briseis, Achilles’
Trojan girl-friend, to take Chryseis’ place in his bed.
Even though
Briseis was a
captive, she liked
living
with Achilles and weeps
when she’s taken
away.
Achilles loved her, and
is
inconsolable. He con-
jures up his goddess
mother and complains.
Thetis is very

indulgent,
because she knows that
someday her beloved
mortal son must die.
Thetis takes the case to
Zeus, and he rains
down
suffering and calamity
on the Trojans so the
Greeks begin winning.
However, Achilles is a bit of a diva and refuses to fight. He is
still angry that Briseis was taken from him, and he won’t do
anything to benefit Agamemnon. (Notice that Homer says at the
start of the Iliad that his theme is “the wrath of Achilles” – the
star warrior’s explosive tempera-ment.) Of course, the other
soldiers are discouraged that Achilles is not in the battlefield
with them.

Achilles has a close companion named
Patroclus (perhaps they’re lovers –
the Greeks were very versatile about
their romantic relationships – but we
don’t know; anyway, they’re like
Gilgamesh and Enkidu)… Patroclus
says, “Look, let me put on your
armor and step out into battle. The
soldiers will think it’s you and feel
encouraged.”
Achilles says OK.
What could possibly go wrong?
The Trojan Royal Family
We need a moment to catch up with some other characters who
will be important. You know that Priam and Hecuba are King
and Queen of Troy and parents of Paris. Paris was not their
only child.
They had a large family (one account says 99 sons, which is
pushing it), but there are two other children who will be
important.
They have a son named Hector,
who is Crown Prince. He is a
good man, is happily married to

Andromache, and they have a baby son.
Hector is also the Trojans’
champion
warrior, their equivalent of
Achilles.
Priam and Hecuba also have a
daughter, t the Princess Cassandra.
Cassandra has an interesting back story. The
god Apollo once fell in love with her, and
as a courtship gift, he endowed her with
the ability to see the future.
Cassandra still said, “No thanks.” (You already
know from the Gilgamesh/Ishtar story
that it’s a bad idea to reject a god or
goddess.)
Apollo said, “All right, I can’t take back my gift,
but I’ll add something else. You will
always be able to see the future and
know what must be done, but no one
will ever believe you.”
And throughout the War, Cassandra is continu-
ally warning what the Greeks will do
next and how they should be countered,

but nobody ever listens and the city is
destroyed. It nearly drives her insane.
Meanwhile, Back on the Battlefield
As battle rages between the Greeks and Trojans, Patroclus goes
out in Achilles’ armor to encourage their fellow Greeks. He
had promised Achilles he would stay at the back, but the god
Apollo makes him forget that promise. (Notice that the
ancients believed that every-thing happening was because of
the gods – most of their inter-ference was done invisibly, but
they caused everything.)
Of course, Hector recognizes the armor, thinks
it’s the great Achilles, and he kills Patroclus.
Hector strips him of the armor to keep it as
proof and a trophy.
One of the soldiers carries Patroclus’ body
back to Achilles, who (like Gilgamesh
with Enkidu) goes wild with grief.
Achilles feels guilty for giving him the armor,
just as Gilgamesh felt guilty for
angering Ishtar, which led to the Bull of
Heaven’s attack and Enkidu’s death.

Thetis is distressed to know her son is grieving, and she rushes
to the god Hephaestos, the craftsman of the gods, and convinces
him to make Achilles a new suit of armor.
She delivers it in person,
hoping to please her son, even
though she realizes it may inspire
him to return to war, and die all
the sooner.
She and Achilles have had long
talks about his mortality. The
gods have given him the
choice of a long, ordinary life or a short,
glorious one. He chooses the latter.
Achilles puts on his new armor
and goes back to the battlefield with
a vengeance.

Consumed with anger over Patroclus’ death, Achilles fights like
a maniac and single-handedly begins winning the War. One
river becomes so clogged with bodies that the god of the river,
Scamander, overflows his banks in rage and tries to drown
Achilles.
The Trojans have retreated to the safety of the city walls, but
Hector refuses to go. His brother Deiphobus appears beside him
and says, “I will fight with you –” but as Achilles comes roaring
toward them, Deiphobus turns into Athena and vanishes – it
was just a trick. (Note: “Deiphobus” means “fear the gods.”)
Hector stands alone.

After an intense fight, Achilles kills Hector. The correct thing
to do would be to treat his body with honor – Hector is after all
a Prince and a great warrior – but Achilles is still furious over
Patroclus’ death. He ties Hector’s body to the back of his
chariot and drags it round and round the city as the Trojans
watch from the walls in horror.
This goes on for seven days. Every night, the god Apollo
restores Hector’s mangled body, and every day, Achilles drags
him again.
Finally, the old King Priam

comes bravely into the
Greek camp and pleads with
Achilles to release his son’s
body so that he may give it a decent
burial.
Achilles has started to mellow.
He knows that his own life
will end soon and he thinks
of his own elderly father,
Peleus, and how grieved he will be to
hear of his death.
He allows Priam to take
Hector’s body.
(Note that the Iliad begins with
the plea of a father, and it
ends the same way.)
Pretending to Retreat
But the story’s not quite over. The Greeks announce that they
have had enough, and are returning home.
They leave behind a colossal
statue of a horse… a parting
gift, they say, for the Trojans.
The Trojans are delighted.

Cassandra warns them of the
danger, but they ignore her.
They haul the horse inside the city walls. You
probably know the rest: it is filled with the
Greek army. That night they come pouring
out, and they wreck the city.
A Victory Gone Wrong
This is where the Greeks spoil their own victory. Elated to see
the ten years of War finally come to an end, they behave very
badly.
They ruin the city.
Cassandra has run into a temple of Athena
for refuge, and thrown her arms around
Athena’s statue, which should guaran- tee
safety – but the Greeks drag her out and
rape her in the streets.
Hector’s wife, Andromache, is sent into slavery
and their baby son is thrown off the city
walls.
There are rules that a triumphant army is

supposed to follow, but the Greeks act dishonorably,
and it angers the gods.
Of course there will be consequences.
Old Priam has withdrawn with his family to a private altar, to
pay sacrifice and pray for rescue – the Greek soldiers burst into
this holy place and kill him in full sight of the gods.

And– you knew this was coming – Achilles is ambushed by the
brothers Paris and Deiphobus, and is shot with an arrow in his
heel.
It was the only part of him that was mortal, and Achilles dies.
Thetis, ever the sensitive Mom, places his ashes in the same urn
as those of Patroclus, so they can be comrades
for eternity.
Yet another child of Priam and Hecuba,
their daughter Polyxena, is sacrificed
over Achilles’ grave.
So – this epic account of a great War not
only begins and ends with a father
grieving for a child (Chryses, Priam) ,but
with an innocent girl sacrificed (Iphigenia,
Polyxena). We’re no longer dealing with
a tangle of long-repeated stories – we’re dealing
with one of the world’s first great literary masterpieces.

Homer – or whoever it was we now know as “Homer” – wrote a
sequel, The Odyssey, which follows one of the Greek kings,
Odysseus, and his attempts to return home.
It took Odysseus another ten years. The gods – especially
Poseidon, god of the seas – were very angry at the Greeks and
caused terrible storms that sank most of their ships.
Agamemnon made Cassandra his concubine
and took her back to Mycenae; as they approached
the palace, Cassandra calmly remarked, “And
this is where I will be killed” – as usual,
her prophecy was right; Clytemnestra , still bitter
about her daughter’s death, welcomed her
husband home by murdering both him and
his mistress.
Paris was wounded in the last days of the
battle and later died.

Helen and Menelaus were reunited and apparently worked it all
out. They returned to Sparta and in The Odyssey make an
appearance as a cheerful couple hosting Odysseus’ son, who is
searching for his still-lost father.
* * * * * * *
The pages you were assigned cover only a fragment of all this,
but won’t make enough sense unless you understand the other
parts of the story. For the quiz, you should be able to recognize
names and remember the roles they played.
Try googling almost any name or incident from the Iliad and
clicking “images” – you’ll find an infinite number of works of
art that were inspired by this story. The Greeks believed that
the human struggle was entirely governed by the gods – for
selfish and obscure reasons of their own – but through their
artful attempts to make sense of it all, the Greeks had a massive
impact on Western culture.
See the next page for a quick study guide –

Here Are Some Important Names:
GREEKS TROJANS GODS/GODDESSES
Achilles Andromache Aphrodite
Agamemnon Cassandra Apollo
Clytemnestra Deiphobus Artemis
Helen Hector Athena
Iphigenia Hecuba Hephaestos
Menelaus Paris Hera
Patroclus Polyxena Hermes
Peleus Priam Poseidon
Scamander
Thetis
Zeus
The gods and goddesses are color-coded to show which side
each one sympathized with (and interfered on behalf of) – the
ones in grey were fairly neutral.
BEOWULF

A QUICK INTRODUCTION
Some facts about Beowulf:
Gilgamesh and the Iliad are both much older than Beowulf, but
somehow Beowulf seems more distant.
It is apparently an old Danish legend that was passed down
orally by minstrels for generations, and brought to England
when the Danish began settling there in the 5th century AD.
Scholars believe it was written down for the first time in the
700s AD, and it was written in Anglo-Saxon, a very old form of
English.
It was probably kept for centuries in the Catholic monasteries
which (during a time when most people could not read) tried to
preserve what there was of world “literature.”
In the 1500s King Henry VIII ended the Catholic presence in
England and destroyed a lot of the monasteries’ holdings.
Some of those manuscripts went into the hands of wealthy
private collectors.
One aristocrat, Sir Robert Bruce Colton (1571-1631) had an
extensive collection.
In 1700, nearly 70 years after his death, this library was moved
to what was considered a safer location.
However, in 1731 that library caught fire and many of the old
manuscripts were burned.
Beowulf – the only copy that existed – was saved, but it was
damaged by the fire and parts were left unreadable forever.
In 1753, the British Museum was established, and the
manuscript was brought there, but nothing was done
to repair it… pages continued to crumble.
In 1786, a Danish scholar traveled to England and

made a copy of the manuscript but the original
disintegrated further.
It was not until 1833 that it was finally translated into
modern English.
Here is the interesting point about that: as Sapiens mentions,
the British were very good during this period about
investigating the history of other cultures – they brought
scientists and archaeologists to Egypt, to India, etc. –
However, they showed much less interest in their own ancient
history. Beowulf is written in a form of English that is
unrecog-nizable to us and for a long time, nobody cared very
much.
It’s older than Shakespeare’s 16th century English. It’s older
than Chaucer’s 14th century English. It’s a form of the
language that existed before the Norman Conquest in 1066.
Take a look: Symle ic him on fedan beforan
wolde
ana on orde. Ond swa to aldre sceall
Luckily, you’ll be reading a modern translation, and only a
small part of the story! -- but, as you read, be aware of the
alternate version on the left side of the page… that shows what
the original is like.
Problems…
It remains very odd and distant, even though it is 1000 years
closer to us than the Iliad!
People still name their children Helen or Hector or even Paris –
but it’s very unlikely you would call your baby Wiglaf or
Hrothgar. At least I hope it’s unlikely!

Not only is it an old Viking tale copied in English, but it is a
pagan tale copied by early Christian monks – and there is
definite evidence they messed with it.
Scholars can only speculate about how much of what we have is
original and how much was added to support Christian beliefs.
When it was finally translated, researchers had to go back to the
Danish copy made in 1786, because parts of the original had
become unreadable. It still remains fragmentary, and sections
of the story are lost forever.
There are three main parts to the story we have, and you will be
reading the third… here, quickly, is a rundown of the first two:
Beowulf: first part
As usual, we have a young hero:
he comes to the Geats (the Danes)
from “across the water” (possi-
bly Sweden); he is an orphan
and never marries or has child-
ren. Like Gilgamesh and
Achilles, he is far stronger than
any other men. He is Beowulf.
``````````````````````````````````````````` The Vikings meet every
night in the Mead Hall to dine and
drink, and Beowulf emerges as a
leader.
There has been a problem: a
monster named Grendel, who
hates the sounds of merriment,
has been invading the Mead
Hall when the men are asleep.

Grendel tears the mens’ bodies
apart and eats them alive!
We can speculate about what this
monster may represent --
disease? the bitter Northern
European winters? or simply
death, a constant presence for
ancient people?
Of course, Beowulf promises to
slay the monster.
A And of course he does, in a very
messy way: he tears off one of
Grendel’s arms, and hangs it on
the wall of the Mead Hall.
As pathetic as a small injured
child, Grendel limps away weeping
to his lair, where he dies.
Beowulf is a hero.
But there’s more--

Beowulf: Second Part
Grendel has a mother (also a
monster) and she’s not happy!
She comes to the Mead Hall and
retrieves Grendel’s arm. She
is unhurt by the men’s swords.
She lives at the bottom of a swamp,
and the men run away terrified,
as she stirs up the water. But of
course Beowulf dives right in.
At the bottom, he sees the only
sword that can kill Grendel’s
mother and he slays her!
There is never a clear description
of what Grendel or his Mom look
like – in the 2007 movie (which
had very little to do with the
original story) she was played
by Angelina Jolie!!

Beowulf: And on to the Third Part --
Scholars are intrigued to find
one more example of a male hero
overcoming a female adversary
(like Cronos replacing Gaia, or
Marduk killing Tiamat), which
suggests an ancient female-
dominated cult that was replaced.
Beowulf had also seen Grendel’s
corpse at the bottom of the
swamp, so (as Gilgamesh and
Enkidu did with Humbaba) he
cuts off the head and brings it
home.
Unlike Gilgamesh or Achilles, Beowulf seems to have no
romances nor any special companion whose death upsets
him…but in the third part (which you will read) he finally
confronts his death. He is by then an old man, and has ruled the
Geats (Danes) for many years.

In the third part, Beowulf has to
fight a dragon!!
That’s your reading assignment…
`````````````````````````````````````
THE TEMPEST AND BEYOND
April 23, 2020

SOME HISTORICAL CONTEXT
As mentioned earlier, the first tentative attempts to colonize and
explore the New World were a focus of great public curiosity in
Shakespeare’s London.
Crossing the ocean was an enormously dangerous undertaking,
impossible at certain times of the year, and
complicated by an ongoing war between
England and Spain as well as wars among native
tribes in America.
If a colony was established, it required support
and supplies from the mother country and, at best,
these arrived every two years.
News of the success or failure of voyages was delayed by many
months and eagerly awaited in London – Shakespeare
capitalized on this fascination when he constructed his story of
castaways on a magical island coming to grips with all the
issues of the human struggle.

A quick survey of early colonial efforts:
- 1585: Roanoke, the first English colony in America, was
established in Virginia.
A quick survey of early colonial efforts:
1585: Roanoke, the first English colony in America, was
- 1587: a ship with people planning to colonize Chesapeake
Bay stopped by Roanoke and found it utterly deserted. There
was no hint of what had happened to the settlers, except for the
word “Croatoan” carved on a fence.

There was no hint of what had happened to the settlers, except
for the word “Croatoan” carved on a fence.
This became the first, and most
enduring mystery of the English
presence in America and the
cryptic inscription has been a magnet
for strange conspiracy theories.
Ambrose Bierce, the writer
who vanished in Mexico dur-
ing a Civil War in 1914, is said to have left
“Croatoan” carved on his bedpost. Amelia Earhart, the aviator
who vanished during a trans-Pacific flight in 1937, is said to
have uttered “Croatoan” as her last radio message!
There were no graves to indicate the settlers’ fate. It is
probable that they had become absorbed into the local Native
population.
There were no graves to indicate the settlers’ fate. It is

probable that they had become absorbed into the local Native
population.
Roanoke was on an island; there
were various tribes in the area.
There are scattered anecdotal records
of explorers during the next century coming
across Native tribes, some of
whose members had blue eyes.
One adventurer in the mid-1700s
wrote of being taken prisoner by a Native tribe and fearing he
would be put to death, when one of the Natives approached him
and said in Welsh, “Don’t worry, you will not be harmed. You
speak the same language some of my grandparents spoke.”
(Are you thinking what I am? Now that we have DNA
technology, why not test some descendants of the local tribes
and see if they have traces of British heritage? Mystery
possibly solved.)
Continuing our survey of early colonial efforts:
1587: a ship with people planning to colonize Chesapeake Bay
stopped by Roanoke and found it utterly deserted. There

- 1587: the settlers bound for Chesapeake were left off at
Roanoke instead, to re-populate the settlement.
Continuing our survey of early colonial efforts:
1587: a ship with people planning to colonize Chesapeake Bay
stopped by Roanoke and found it utterly deserted. There
1587: the settlers bound for Chesapeake were left off at
Roanoke instead, to re-populate the settlement.
1590: when the next boat came by three years later, all of those
settlers were gone.
Shakespeare’s contemporaries believed in witches, ghosts
and magic – small wonder that the New World was acquiring a
reputation as a dangerous, mystical place!

The first (somewhat) successful colonial effort:
- 1607: Jamestown was established with 500 settlers.
1607: Jamestown was established with 500 settlers.
- 1609: When the next ship arrived two years later, only 60
of those 500 settlers were still alive. Life was tough in early
America! Still, this was considered the beginning of the British
Empire.

1607: Jamestown was established with 500 settlers.
1609: When the next ship arrived two years later, only 60 of
those 500 settlers were still alive. Life was tough in early
America! Still, this was considered the beginning of the British
Empire.
One of the problems was the fact that the people put in charge
of the colonies were chosen for their aristocratic rank, rather
than for any knowledge of surviving in the wilderness. Little
known historical fact: one of the reasons Jamestown did endure
was that second voyage brought a team of several dozen tough
Polish men who knew about life in the woods, and they got the
settlement in shape! Such actual individuals as Michal Lowicki,
Zbigniew Stelanski, Jan Mata, and Stanislaw Sadowski get
virtually zero credit for their role in establishing the American
colonies and the British Empire.
than for any knowledge of surviving in the wilderness.
With The Tempest and the material that comes after that, our
study of The Human Struggle is moving toward the New World
and the tremendous upheaval in rank and power shifts that

came with that.
than for any knowledge of surviving in the wilderness.
With The Tempest and the material that comes after that, our
study of The Human Struggle is moving toward the New World
and the tremendous upheaval in rank and power shifts that
came with that.
You get a hint of that in the first scene of The Tempest when,
during a storm at sea, the Royals and Aristocrats come up from
their cabin to give orders to the Captain and he basically tells
them, “You’re not royal here – get out of the way and let me do
my job!”
The first scene of a Shakespearean play is like the Introductory
Para-graph in an essay, like a Thesis Statement letting us know
what the play will be about. In this play, as soon as we get to
the island, all the traditional power hierarchies are turned
around.
And so! – on to The Tempest –

THE TEMPEST
Make sure you know the names: 3 major groups of characters:
ON THE ISLAND:
Prospero, former Duke of Milan, who was banished by his own
brother and castaway her with his baby daughter and his thirst
for magic
Miranda, his daughter, who has grown up here in seclusion and
embodies innocence, knowing nothing of the world outside
Ariel, who is “but air—” a spirit who embodies inspiration and
genius and does Prospero’s magic for him
Caliban, the spawn of a witch and a demon, he embodies
corruption and the basest instincts (his name is a playful
rearrangement of “cannibal”). Prospero forces Caliban to do
physical labor for him while Ariel does magic – Prospero has to
keep both of these under control, balancing genius with animal
instinct.
THE TEMPEST

ON THE ISLAND: FROM MILAN:
Prospero Antonio, Prospero’s treacherous brother, who
Miranda made himself Duke in Prospero’s place.
Ariel Gonzago, a kind old advisor who made sure
Caliban Prospero at least had his magic books
when
he was cast out to sea
THE TEMPEST
ON THE ISLAND: FROM MILAN: FROM NAPLES:
Prospero Antonio King Alonso, who had
Miranda Gonzago helped Antonio
Ariel overthrow Prospero
Caliban Sebastian, Alonso’s
brother
Ferdinand, Alonso’s
young son
Stephano, a servant
Trinculo, a servant

THE TEMPEST
Prospero Antonio King Alonso,
Miranda Gonzago Sebastian
Ariel Ferdinand
Caliban Stephano
Once on the island, all these power structures Trinculo
begin shifting: Ferdinand, who was a Prince, finds himself
enslaved by Prospero, and doesn’t mind because he loves
Miranda; Sebastian, thinking his nephew has drowned, plots to
kill his brother so that he can be King of Naples; Stephano and
Trinculo join forces with Caliban planning to kill Prospero and
start new kingdom on the island…and Prospero, after planning
this for 12 years, finds he doesn’t really want revenge or magic
after all – but is willing just to be human.

THE TEMPEST
Prospero Antonio King Alonso,
Miranda Gonzago Sebastian
Ariel Ferdinand
Caliban Stephano
So, all the plots unravel… Stephano and Trin- Trinculo
culo drink too much and get excited trying on fancy clothes,
and lose their chance to overthrow Prospero; Alonso, grieving
that his son has drowned, finds him still alive and Sebastian’s
plot is foiled; Prospero forgives them all and Miranda, who has
never been curious before about life beyond the island, gazes at
this shifty band of reprobates and exclaims, “How beauteous
mankind is! O brave new world, that has such people in it!”
THE TEMPEST
The forces Prospero has to balance: Ariel
Every production has to decide how to represent Ariel. He’s
not a mischievous elf – he seems just to be pure possibility, that

spark of the divine that is in humanity but disengaged from
everyday life. He serves Prospero out of a sense of honor
because Prospero rescued him from a witch’s spell – he doesn’t
even seem to take delight in his skills except in the fact they
will please Prospero and buy his freedom. He has watched
Miranda grow up, but never refers to her and seems to have no
interest… Prospero’s big turning point comes when Ariel
(“which art but air”) feels a pang of sympathy for the rebels
imprisoned in a magic grove – which shames Prospero into
deciding he should sympathize and forgive. When Ariel is
finally dismissed, he says nothing, just vanishes. It is
interesting that this is Shakespeare’s last known play, after
which he allowed his own genius to waft away, and returned to
his home town to live quietly the rest of his life.
THE TEMPEST
The forces Prospero has to balance: Ariel
Various versions of Ariel from various productions:

I once saw a production with a listless, vacant
Ariel who endlessly, compulsively performed
card tricks he didn’t even care to look at. It
was surprisingly compelling.
THE TEMPEST
The forces Prospero has to balance: Caliban
The script makes Caliban sound like a kind of sea monster –
Trinculo and Stephano aren’t sure if he’s a person or a fish
when they see him and, as with Ariel, it’s up to each production
how they represent him.
He does seem to embody disowned human impulses, and
Prospero treats him with stern disgust – Prospero’s final
reference (“This thing of darkness I acknowledge mine –”)
implies that all Caliban symbolizes must also be absorbed into
the human experience.
Recently, it has become fashionable to make Caliban a symbol
of the victims of colonialism – after all, it was

his island that Prospero took over – but that can
take on an unintended racist tone because
Caliban is described so often as something
nasty and sub-human. Like Ariel, Caliban at
last goes free and the island is his again.
THE TEMPEST
Various versions of Caliban from various productions:
THE TEMPEST
Various versions of Caliban from various productions:

I saw a production where Caliban was played by two very
acrobatic actors made to look like conjoined twins, roaring their
lines in unison!
Great production! I wish I had it on video to show you!
THE TEMPEST
So – Prospero really does achieve magic, but when we meet him
it has made him a complete control freak (he loves his daughter,
but will conjure her into a deep sleep rather than simply telling
her he needs some time alone) and we see him evolve to a
forgiving human being ready to tolerate even his own mortality.
Even his effort to manipulate Miranda and Ferdinand into a
relationship is eclipsed by the fact that they fall genuinely in

love.
Prospero discovers that Miranda and
Ferdinand have bypassed him, while Ariel
stares, puzzled by the spectacle of human
love.
THE TEMPEST
If we were having this class in its usual format, I would spend
most of this evening showing you parts of a film version (the
one I mentioned in last week’s notes). If you haven’t looked at
it, I urge you to watch now, as there will be a few questions
about this specific production on next week’s quiz. Here is the
link:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IsAlO994niA
If that doesn’t work, you can simply search “Taymor The
Tempest” on YouTube (Julie Taymor was the director). We
never have time in class for the whole film, so here is what I
do:
Watch from the beginning to the point where Prospero (Prospera
in this production!) is leading Miranda and Ferdinand along a
ridge and says, “Come, follow – speak not for him” – then jump
to the point (about 1:20:20) where we are moving toward the
conclusion. You will miss a lot of Stephano and Trinculo’s

lowbrow comedy, but that’s not our focus!
THE TEMPEST
“AND BEYOND” … THE READINGS
FOR NEXT WEEK
WILL TAKE US SOLIDLY INTO
THE NEW WORLD
AND SOME OF ITS EARLY WRITERS,
AS THEYCOPE WITH THE
HUMAN STRUGGLE ISSUES
OF THEIR TIMES

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