7. Passageway for respiration
Receptors for smell
Filters incoming air to filter larger foreign
material
Moistens and warms incoming air
Resonating chambers for voice
Upper Respiratory Tract Functions
9. Functions:
Larynx: maintains an open airway, routes food and air
appropriately, assists in sound production
Trachea: transports air to and from lungs
Bronchi: branch into lungs
Lungs: transport air to alveoli for gas exchange
Lower Respiratory Tract
10. Summary of Functions
STRUCTURE FUNCTION
nose / nasal cavity warms, moistens, & filters air as it is inhaled
pharynx (throat) passageway for air, leads to trachea
larynx the voice box, where vocal chords are located
trachea (windpipe)
keeps the windpipe "open"
trachea is lined with fine hairs called cilia
which filter air before it reaches the lungs
bronchi
two branches at the end of the trachea, each
lead to a lung
bronchioles
a network of smaller branches leading from the
bronchi into the lung tissue & ultimately to air
sacs
alveoli
the functional respiratory units in the lung
where gases are exchanged
11. Defination
Resp is the use of O2 by the living cell for
oxidation of nutrients. This result in
production of CO2.
It can be divided into 4 main events;
1) pulmonary VE
2) gas diffusion
3) gas transport
4) regulation of resp
23. Gas transportGas transport
Most gases transported in the blood in 2 forms;
1- Dissolved in the plasma
2- Combine with Hb
Under normal circumstances, more than 98% of the O2 in a
given vol of blood is transported in RBCs, bound to Hb.
26. Gas ExchangeGas Exchange
Partial Pressure
– Each gas in atmosphere contributes to the entire
atmospheric pressure, denoted as P
Gases in liquid
– Gas enters liquid and dissolves in proportion to its
partial pressure
O2 and CO2 Exchange by DIFFUSION
– PO2 is 105 mmHg in alveoli and 40 in alveolar
capillaries
– PCO2 is 45 in alveolar capillaries and 40 in alveoli
27. Partial PressuresPartial Pressures
Oxygen is 21% of atmosphere
760 mmHg x .21 = 160 mmHg PO2
This mixes with “old” air already in
alveolus to arrive at PO2 of 105 mmHg
28. Partial PressuresPartial Pressures
Carbon dioxide is .04% of atmosphere
760 mmHg x .0004 = .3 mm Hg PCO2
This mixes with high CO2 levels from
residual volume in the alveoli to arrive at
PCO2 of 40 mmHg
29.
30.
31. Gas TransportGas Transport
O2 transport in blood
1 gm Hb carries 1.34 ml O2
Hemoglobin – O2 binds to the heme group
on hemoglobin, with 4 oxygens/Hb
PO2
PO2 is the most important factor
determining whether O2 and Hb combine or
dissociate
O2-Hb Dissociation curve
38. O2 dissociation curveO2 dissociation curve
Cyanosis appears – pO2 < 50-60 mmHg
p50 – partial pressure @ O2 saturat. is 50%
P50 not affected by aneasthesia
O2 flux
amount of O2 leaving left ventricle per min.
Its 1000ml p.m.
39. Gas TransportGas Transport
CO2 transport
7% in plasma
23% in carbamino compounds (bound to
globin part of Hb)
70% as Bicarbonate
40. Carbon DioxideCarbon Dioxide
CO2 + H2O <->H2CO3<->H+ + HCO3-
Enzyme is Carbonic Anhydrase
Chloride shift to compensate for
bicarbonate moving in and out of RBC
HALDANE EFFECT
DeO2 blood has more CO2 content at
given pCO2
41.
42. Tissue respTissue resp
It means getting energy out of glucose.
The most efficient form of resp is aerobic (require O2) and
anaerobic resp (does not require O2).
Aerobic resp: It is the normal process by which food
substances are broken down and oxidized to provide energy.
Glucose + O2 → CO2 + H2O + energy released
Anaerobic resp: It means that energy can be derived from food
substances without the simultaneous utilization of O2.
Glucose → lactic acid + much less energy released
44. Factors that influenceFactors that influence
pulmonary air flowpulmonary air flow
F = P/R
Diameter of airways, esp. bronchioles
Sympathetic & Parasympathetic NS
45. Surface TensionSurface Tension
Lung collapse
Surface tension tends to oppose alveoli
expansion
Pulmonary surfactant reduces surface
tension produced by type II pnuemocytes
48. Lung Volumes & CapacitiesLung Volumes & Capacities
Tidal Volume – vol of air insipred or expire
in each normal respirat. (500 mls) 10ml/kg
Respiratory Rate (12 breaths/minute)
Minute Respiratory Volume – TV * RR
(6000 mls/min)
49. Lung Volumes & CapacitiesLung Volumes & Capacities
Inspiratory Reserve Vol – max vol can be
inhaled after a normal inspiration (2400-
2600 mls)
Inspiratory Capacity (TV + IRV) – max vol
inhaled after a normal expiration (3000ml)
50. Lung Volumes & CapacitiesLung Volumes & Capacities
Expiratory Reserve Volume - – max vol
exhaled after a normal expiration (1200-
1500 ml)
Functional Residual Capacity (ERV + RV)
Air left in lungs after exhaling the tidal
volume quietly (2400- 2600ml)
FRC decreases by 20% in GA
51. Lung Volumes & CapacitiesLung Volumes & Capacities
Vital Capacity – max vol air exhaled after
max inhalation 75- 80 ml/kg
VC =IRV + TV + ERV = 4200-4500ml
Residual Volume – vol of air still in lungs
after max expiration(1200 mls)
Total Lung Capacity (5900, 4400)
52. Lung Volumes & CapacitiesLung Volumes & Capacities
Dead Space
Phy. Dead space = anatomical dead space +
alvoelar dead space
Anatomical dead space = 150ml or 2ml/kg
Inrease – old age , neck ext., jaw protru.,
bronchodil., masks , circuits , IPPV &
PEEP
Decrease – intubation, tracheostomy,
hypervent., neck flexion , bronchoconst.
53. Alveolar dead spaceAlveolar dead space
Ventilation (V) & perfusion (Q) is more at
base than apex
But perfusion @ base >> apex
V/Q @ apex =2.1 & @ base 0.3
This V/P mismatch produce alveolar dead
space i.e. only ventilation no perfusion
pO2 { alveolar – atrial} = 3-5 mmHg
Value = 60 – 80 ml in standing position
Increase- lung patho – pul embol., pul
edema, ARDS, GA, IPPV , PEEP ,
hypotension
54. Alveolar Ventilation EfficiencyAlveolar Ventilation Efficiency
RR X (TV-DAV) = Alveolar Ventilation =
4200 mls/min
If double RR: AV = 8400 mls/min
If double TV: AV = 10200 mls/min
55. Matching Alveolar air flow withMatching Alveolar air flow with
blood flowblood flow
Pulmonary vessels
– Vessels can constrict in areas where oxygen
flow is low
Respiratory passageways
– Airways can dilate where carbon dioxide levels
are high
56. Controls of RespirationControls of Respiration
Medullary Rhythmicity Area
– Medullary Inspiratory Neurons are main control
of breathing
Pons neurons influence inspiration, with
Pneumotaxic area (upper pons) - limiting inspiration
and Apneustic area (lower pons) -prolonging
inspiration.
Lung stretch receptors limit inspiration from being
too deep via vagus n.
57. ControlsControls
Dorsal medullary group – apnuestic
breathing or inspiratory spasm
Ventral med. Group – expiratory group
Only active with exercise and forced expiration
58.
59. Controls of rate and depth ofControls of rate and depth of
respirationrespiration
Arterial PO2
– When PO2 is VERY low, ventilation increases
Arterial PCO2
– The most important regulator of ventilation, small increases in
PCO2, greatly increases ventilation
Arterial pH
– As hydrogen ions increase, alveolar ventilation increases, but
hydrogen ions cannot diffuse into CSF as well as CO2
– ####
60. Assessment of PatientAssessment of Patient
History – smoking , asthma , TB, chronic
cough , cold or running nose
On exam. – RR, chest expansion,
clubbing, cyanosis, ascultaion of lung fields
for added sound, mouth opening,
Mallampati Grading thyromental
distance(6.5cm) , neck flex – exten. (165-
90)
Invest. – DC, AEC, X ray chest ,