Presentations for aspiring Biology students

1. Kingdom
Plantae

2. • Carlous Linnaeus identified 5,900
species & 4200 species of animal --
‘Species Plantarum’ (1753) .
• He is called ‘Father of Taxonomy’ &
he proposed two kingdom system of
classification.
Plant kingdom
(Kingdom Plantae)
Introduction
Kingdom Plantae
Animal kingdom
(Kingdom Animalia)

3. Gymnosperms Angiosperms
Sub – Kingdom – Cryptogams Sub-Kingdom - Phanerogams
Plant Kingdom
Thallophyta Bryophyta Pteridophyta
Dicotyleclons Monocotyledons
Algae
Kingdom Plantae
This classification is based on absence/presence of vascular tissues,
differentiation of plant body, etc.
Seed producing plants,
special reproductive
structures are visible
(phaneros -- visible).
Spore producing plants, do not
produce seeds & flowers
reproduce via gametes but sex
organs are concealed.
(kryptos – hiddens gamos -- marriage)
Phanerogams Cryptogams

4. • Occurrence -- universal aquatic (marine/freshwater) to terrestrial, snow
peaks to hot water springs & from rock surfaces to the inner tissues of
plants.
• Plant body is thalloid, they
are unicellular
(Chlamydomonas) or
multicellular.
• They may be colonial (Volvox) or filamentous.
• Multicellular may be branched (Chara,
Batrachospermum) or unbranched
(Spirogyra).
Kingdom Plantae
A. Division Thallophyta - Salient features
• Some epiphytes, symbiotic & epizoic (non parasitic)
• The submerged algae are attached to the Substratum by hold fast.
• Some Algae (Sargassum) are differentiated into stipe (stalk-like) & lamina
(leaf-like), huge, macroscopic (60m in length)

5. • Cell wall is made up of cellulose/glucose and variety of proteins.
• The cell wall encloses vacuolated cytoplasm & single nucleus
Cellular composition
Kingdom Plantae
• Reserve food is Starch and other forms. (Laminarin, Mannitol and Floridian
starch stored in pyrenoids).
• Vegetative reproduction
(fragmentation & regeneration)
• Asexual reproduction
(motile & non-motile spores)
• Sexual reproduction
(conjugation/ gametes)
Reproduction
• The latter may be isogamous, unisogamous or oogamous.
• Sexual reproduction result in zygote formation but embryo stage is
absent.

6. Kingdom Plantae
• In some algae haplontic life cycle is dominant & diploid phase is
represented only by zygote.
• Algae show isomorphic /heteromorphic alternation of generations.
Life Cycle

7. • Mostly fresh water, (few
brackish/marine).
Classification
Kingdom Plantae
a. Chlorophyceae (green algae)
• Plant body unicellular,
colonial, filamentous.
• Cell wall contains cellulose
• Chloroplasts are discoid, plate
like, reticulate, cup shaped,
ribbon shaped or spiral.
• Chlorophyll a & b, stored food
is in the form of starch.
• Pyrenoids are located on
chloroplasts.
• Members are rich in proteins
hence used as food.
• Eg. Chlorella,
Chlamydomonas, Spirogyra,
Chlorella
Volvox Chlamydomonas
Chara

8. Kingdom Plantae
b. Phaeophyceae (brown algae)
• Mostly marine, (rarely fresh water).
• Plant body simple, branched,
profusely branched.
• Cell wall contains cellulose,
fucans & algins
• Chlorophyll a, c & fucoxanthin
are photosynthetic pigments.
• Mannitol, Laminarin, starch
are reserve food.
• Members are used as food, some are used for production of
hydrocolloids (Ectocarpus, Fucus).
• Eg. Porphyra, Laminaria, Sargassum
• The submerged algae are attached to the Substratum by hold fast.
• Plant body is differentiated into stipe (stalk-like) & frond (leaf-like), huge,
macroscopic (60m in length)
Sargassum Laminaria

9. c. Rhodophyceae (red algae)
Kingdom Plantae
• Found in marine & fresh
water, on the surface, deep
sea & brackish water.
• Plant body is thalloid.
• Cell wall contains cellulose,
pectin
• Chlorophyll a, d &
phycoerythrin.
• Floridean starch are reserve
food.
• Agar-agar a solidifying agent
is obtained from red algae.
• Eg. Chondrus, Batrachospermum, Gelidium, Gracillaria, Polysiphonia.
Porphyra Chondrus
Batrachospermum Gellidium
Gracillaria Polysiphonia

10. Usually grow on moist, dead &
decaying organic matter or tree
trunks.
Unicellular forms show either single, large, multinucleate protoplast without cell
wall (plasmodium) or single uni-nucleate cell with cell wall (yeast).
They are unicellular / multicellular.
A few fungi are aquatic, either marine
or fresh water.
•General Characters of Fungi
In multi-cellular forms, fungal body is called mycelium

11. Fungi are achlorophyllous hence
heterotrophic, either parasitic or
saprophytic.
When present, the fungal cell wall is
made up of fungal cellulose or fungal
chitin (true cellulose is absent)
Some fungi are predaceous and fed on nematodes & protozoans.
The hyphae are multinucleate protoplast
without cell wall.
Mycelium is composed of profusely branched, inter woven, delicate, thread like
structures called hyphae.

12. Asexual reproduction takes place by
formation of motile zoopores or non-motile
spores called conidia.
Sexual reproduction takes place by fusion of
gametes/gametangia or even by fusion of
somatic hyphae.
E.g. Rhizopus, Penicillum, Polyporus,
Cercospora.
Some fungi form symbiotic association with
algae or roots of higher plants. called lichen
& mycorrhiza respectively.

13. • Terrestrial plants, generally
grow in moist and shady
places.
• The plant body is called Gametophyte & differentiated into rhizoids
(root-like) caulloid (stem-like) & phylloids (leaf-like).
• Plant body is thalloid (not differentiated into roots, stem and leaves) as in
Liverworts/ Mosses.
B. Bryophyta (Bryon : moss; phyton : plants)
Kingdom Plantae
• They need water for
fertilization, hence called
amphibious plants.
• Includes 960 genera & 25000
species.

14. • Bryophytes are classified on
into namely; Liverworts &
Mosses
• Lower members,
primitive group
Classification
a. Liverworts (Hepaticeae)
• Gametophyte is thalloid,
green dorsiventral, prostrate
with unicellular rhizoids. Eg.
Riccia, Marchantia.
• Members have flattenned
thallus, produces horny
structures called
sporophytes hence termed
hornworts. Eg. Anthoceros.
Horn worts (Anthocerotae)
Kingdom Plantae
Riccia
Anthoceros

15. Kingdom Plantae
b. Mosses (Musci)
• Advanced members have erect
plant body.
• Gametophytic stage shows
protonema and leafy stage.
• Protonema stage is prostrate,
green, branched and filamentous
(juvenile gametophyte) bears many
buds.
• Leafy stage is produced from each bud.
It is erect, slender, stem like (cauloid), leaf
like (phylloid) and fixed to soil by root like
(rhizoids).
• This stage bears sex organs, vegetative
reproduction takes place by
fragmentation and budding in secondary
protonema.
• Eg. Funaria, Polytrichum, Sphagnum.
Moss

16. Kingdom Plantae

17. The Gametophyte is the dominant, green, long-lived & independent phase.
The veg. reproduction is by vegetative reproductive bodies called
gemmae/tubers/adventitious buds.
The sexual reproduction is by production of multicellular, jacketed sex organs
produced by gametophyte.
The male sex organs called antheridia produce biflagellate, coiled male
gametes called antherozoids.
The female sex organs called archegonia produce non-motile female gametes
called eggs.
Water is essential for fertilization; hence, bryophytes are called amphibian
plants.
The antherozoid fertilizes the egg and produces the diploid zygote.
The zygote divides and gives rise to the diploid sporophyte, while still on the
gametophyte. Therefore it is dependent of the gametophyte.
Gametophyte is dominant, autotrophic, independent generation while
sporophyte is small, parasite or semiparasite on the gametophyte.
Additional Reading

18. Byrophytes are further classified into
Hepaticeae Liverworts E.g. Riccia
Anthoceroteae Hornworts E.g. Anthoceros
Musci Mosses E.g Funaria.

19. • Pteridophytes are terrestrial,
herbaceous annual/perrenial,
vascular, cryptogams
• The plant body called
sporophyte is well
differentiated into roots, stem
& leaves
• They are shade-lovers & grow
in moist & shady places.
C. Pteridopyhta (pteron : feather, phyton : plant)
Kingdom Plantae
• They have well developed
vascular tissue differentiated
into xylem & phloem.
• Xylem lacks vessels & phloem
lacks sieve tubes &companion
cells.
• They have 400 genera &
11000 species.

20. • Primary root is short lived & is
soon replaced by adventitious
roots.
• The stem may be aerial or
underground
C. Pteridopyhta (pteron : feather, phyton : plant)
Kingdom Plantae
• The leaves may be scaly
(Equisetum), simple & sessile
(Lycopodium) or large &
pinnately compound (ferns).
• Pteridophytes are of two types
Megaphyllous (large leaves) &
Microphyllous (small leaves)
• Secondary growth is not seen
in Pteridophytes due to
absence of cambium

21. • Spores are haploid (meiosis),
germinate and give rise to the
gametophyte.
• Fertilization needs water.
• Gametophyte/Prothallus is
green, autotrophic &
independent, it bears male
sex organs called antheridia
& female sex organs called
archegonia.
C. Pteridopyhta (pteron : feather, phyton : plant)
Kingdom Plantae
• Sporophyte is dominant,
autotrophic generation while
gametophyte is insignificant
but autotrophic generation.
• Both the generations are
independent of each other.

22. • They produce each other alternately, exhibiting alternation of
generations.
• However, they are advanced over the
bryophytes & hence show distinct two
characteristic properties
• 2.Sporophyte is well developed,
dominant stage & gametophyte is
reduced.
• 1.They possess true vascular system
(differentiated in to xylem & phloem)
• Like bryophytes, they also show multi-
cellular, jacketed reduced sex organs
called antheridia & archegonia & distinct
alternation of generations as well.
C. Pteridopyhta (pteron : feather, phyton : plant)
Kingdom Plantae

23. •Philopsida e.g. Psilotum
•Lycopsida
e.g.Club mosses
like Selaginella.
•Sphenopsida
e.g.horse tails
Equisetum
Pteridophytes are divided into four classes:
•Pteropsida
e.g. ferns like
Nephrolepis

24. PHANEROGAM
S (flowering plants)
Gymnosperms
&
Angiosperms

25.  They are perennial, woody, un-
branched (branches if present only at
apices), evergreen trees shrubs or
lianas (woody climbers).
 Sporophyte well differentiated into
root, stem & leaves
 Foliage leaves are usually pinnately
compound, evergreen & crowded
at the apex with sunken stomata.
 Leaves are dimorphic (Foliage &
Reproductive -- sporophylls)
 Reproductive leaves are also
dimorphic (microsporophylls on male plant
& megasporophylls on female plants)
Gymnosperms (gymnos: naked, sperma: seed)
Kingdom Plantae

26.  Vascular tissue shows well developed xylem & phloem. (xylem lacks
vessels & phloem lacks sieve tubes, companion cells)
 They are heterosporous, produce
microspores in microsporangia
(microsporophylls) & megaspores in
megasporangia (megasporophyll).
 In Cycas microsporophylls form male cone & is at apex, female cone
is not formed.
 Roots form extensive tap-root system, mycorrhizic (Pinus) & coralloid
roots (Cycas) are also present.
 Gametophytes are not separate,
independent like pteridophytes they are
endosporic (develop within microspores &
megaspores).
Gymnosperms (gymnos: naked, sperma: seed)
Kingdom Plantae

27.  Ovules are exposed (without ovary) & usually are unitegmic.
 They produce seeds but not fruits.
 Antheridia are totally reduced & archegonia are partially reduced.
 The pollination is anemophilous (wind pollination) & direct (pollen grains are
received by the pollen chamber directly)
 Fertilization is achieved through a pollen tube & is called
siphonogamy
 Vegetative reproduction takes place with the help of bulbils.
Gymnosperms (gymnos: naked, sperma: seed)
Kingdom Plantae
 Gymnosperms show distinct heteromorphic alternation of
generations. Sometimes poly-embryony is observed ( e.g. Pinus)
 Number of cotyledons varies from one to many.
Endosperm formation takes place before fertilization, hence, it is
haploid.

28. Gymnosperms are classified into
Cycasosida e.g. Cycas
Coniferopsida e.g Pinus
Gentopsida e.g. Gnetum
Gymnosperms (gymnos: naked, sperma: seed)
Kingdom Plantae

29.  The angiosperms are a group of highly evolved plants, primarily
adapted to terrestrial habitat.
 Predominant diploid sporophyte, haploid
gametophyte is highly reduced &
transitory.
 Vascular system is well developed,
xylem made up of vessels & phloem of
sieve tubes & companion cells.
Angiosperms (Angios: enclosed, sperma: seed)
Kingdom Plantae
 Angiosperms are heterosporous
Microspores (pollens) are formed in
microsporangia, develop on highly
specialized microsporophylls/stamens
while megaspores are found in
megasporangia/ovules borne on highly
specialized megasporophylls called
carpels.

30.  Besides the essential whorls
of microsporophylls and
megasporophylls, there are
accessory whorls of sepals
and petals, clustered together
into flowers.
Angiosperms (Angios: enclosed, sperma: seed)
Kingdom Plantae
 The pollination is indirect and may be self or cross.
 Gametophyte is much reduced. Male
gametophyte is represented by pollen tube
with two male gametes while female
gametophyte is represented by an embryo
sac containing female gamete called egg.
Antheridia and archegonia are totally
absent.

31.  Endosperm is triploid and
formed only after fertilization.
 Double fertilization is
characteristic feature.
Angiosperms (Angios: enclosed, sperma: seed)
Kingdom Plantae
 Fertilization is
siphonogamous (male gametes
are non-motile).

32. Life cycle

33.  Two cotyledon
 Tap root system
 Leaves are with reticulate
venation.
 Flowers shows tetramerous
or pentamerous symmetry.
 Single cotyledon.
 Adventitious /fibrous root
system.
 Leaves with sheathing leaf
bases & parallel venation.
 Flowers are in spike or spadix
inflorescence & trimerous.
DICOT MONOCOT
Angiosperms (Angios: enclosed, sperma: seed)
Kingdom Plantae
 Vascular bundles are
conjoint, collateral & open,
arranged in a ring.
 Vascular bundles are conjoint,
collateral, closed & scattered.
 As cambium is present,
secondary growth is seen in
stem.
 As cambium is absent, there is
no secondary growth.
 Example: Helianthus,
Hibiscus
 Examples : Zea, Sorghum

34. Characters Bryophyta
Habitat
Reproduction
Vegetative
Asexual(Spori
c)
Sexual
Damp places
Gemmae or
Tubers
Spores (I type)
Gametes
(male gametes
motile)
Algae
Aquatic
Fragmentation
In many ways
Iso/Anisogamy
or Oogamy
Fungi
Terrestrial
Common
Conidia
Trends
towards
specialized
sexual
reproduction
Habit
Thalloid,
leafy
miniature
plant like
Unicellular
Colonial
Filamentous
Flat thalli
Mycelium
Fruiting
bodies may
be large

35. Characters Bryophyta
Gametophytic
generation
Water for
fertilisation
Algae
Dominant
Yes
Fungi
Subordinate
Transitional Ephermal
Dominant Dominant
Sporophytic
generation
Yes Yes
Embryo Quick meiosis Quick meiosis Nourished by
gametophyte
Heterospory Absent Absent Absent
Tissues Absent Absent Absent
Sec. growth Absent Absent Absent

36. Characters Angiosperms
Habitat
Reproduction
Vegetative
Asexual(Spori
c)
Sexual
In few taxa
only
Bisporic
Both gametes
non-motile
Pteridophyta
Moist/humid
area
Less common
Mostly
unisporic
Gymnosperms
Terrestrial
Rare bulbils
Bisporic
Distinct
dimorphic
gametes
(motile male
gametes in
primitive
plants)
Habit Different
habits
Creeping/exa
ct herbs
Unbranched/
branched
trees
Mainly
Terrestrial

37. Characters
Gametophytic
generation
Water for
fertilisation
Subordinate
Yes
Dominant
Much
reduced
Parasitic
Sporophytic
generation
No No
Embryo Presence of
root, shoot &
Cotyledon
Formed from
part of zygote
Seed shows
radicle,
plumule &
cotyledons
Heterospory Absent Present Present
Tissues
Sec. growth Absent
Angiosperms
Pteridophyta Gymnosperms
Dominant Dominant
Present Present
Present
Present Present

38. HERBARIA

39. Collection or deposition of dried plant material by using
various techniques of preservation & their arrangement
in the sequence of an accepted classification forms
herbaria.
Preservation techniques are pressing & drying whereas
for succulent plants liquid preservatives like acetic
alcohol, formaldehyde are used.
A herbarium technique involves collection, drying,
poisoning, mounting, stitching, labeling and deposition.
Herbaria are classified into Regional herbaria, Local
Herbaria and Herbaria of educational institutes including
schools, colleges and universities.
Herbaria preserves national, local, regional plant wealth.
It facilitates exchange of preserved plant materials for
exhibitions, research etc. It fulfils public demand by

40. Botanical Gardens are important for their records of flora
and also provide facilities for collecting living plant
material for studies.
They also supply seeds for botanical investigations. The
botanical garden may contain herbaria, green houses,
research laboratory and library.
BOTANICAL GARDENS