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1. 2
1
Definitions, drug nomenclature,
and sources of drugs
1.1 DEFINITIONS
Definitions
Pharmacology – Deals witheffects of
drugs on livingsystem
Drug – Any substance or product
that is used or intended to be
used to modify or explore physiological
system or pathologicalstates
for the benefit of recipient (WHO)
Pharmacokinetics
Movement of drug within the body
Includes process of absorption (A), distribution (D),
metabolism (M), and excretion(E)
Means “what the body does to the drug”
Pharmacodynamics
Study of drugs, their mechanism of action,
pharmacological actions, and their adverse effects
Means “what drug does to body”
Pharmacy
Science that deals with preparation, preservation,
standardization, compounding, dispensing
and proper utilization of drugs
Therapeutics Concerned with treatment of diseases
Toxicology
Study of poisons, their actions, detection,
prevention and treatment of poisoning
Chemotherapy
Deals with treatment of
infectiousdiseases/cancer
Clinical pharmacology
Study of drug in man, both healthy volunteers
and patients, by comparative clinical trials
Essential drugs
Satisfy the health care needs of
majority ofpopulation
Should be available at all times, in adequate amounts,
and in appropriate dosage forms (WHO)
Orphan drug
Used for diagnosis, treatment or prevention
of rarediseases
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2. Definitions, drug nomenclature, and sources of
drugs 3
1.2 DRUG NOMENCLATURE
1.3 SOURCES OF DRUGS
Drug nomenclature
Chemicalname
e.g.Acetylsalicylic acid
Not suitablefor usein
prescription
Non-proprietary name
e.g.Aspirin
Also called asgeneric
name
Sameworldwide
Assigned byU.S.Adopted
Name (USAN)council
Proprietary name
e.g.Dispirin
Also called brandname
Given bypharmaceutical
manufacturers
Adrug mayhavemany
brand names
Sourcesofdrugs
1. Natural
a.Plants
i. Alkaloids–morphine,
atropine, quinine
ii.Glycosides – digoxin,
digitoxin
b. Animals Insulin, thyroxine
c. Minerals
Ferrous sulfate,magnesium
sulfate
d. Microorganisms Penicillin,streptomycin
e. Genetic engineering
(recombinant DNAtechnology)
Humaninsulin,hepatitisB
vaccine
2. Synthetic:Aspirin,
paracetamol
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3. 4
2
Routes of drug administration
2.1 FACTORS DETERMINING ROUTES OF DRUGADMINISTRATION
Drug characteristics
Type of use –
emergency/routin
e
Patient condition –
unconscious,vomiting,
diarrhea
Factors determiningroute
ofadministration
Age
Co-morbid diseases
Patient/doctor choice
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4. Routes of drug administration
5
2.2 LOCALROUTE
2. Deeper areas arereached
by using syringe and needle
e.g. Infiltration of
localanesthesia
Local route
One of simplestroute
Givenat site of desired action
Minimal sideeffects
1. Topical
Drug applied to skin/mucous
membrane forlocal actions
a. Oral cavity
e.g. Clotrimazole troche
for oralconditions
b. GIT
Asnon-absorbable tablet
e.g. Neomycin for gut
sterilization beforesurgery
c. Rectum and analcanal
Liquid drug isadministered
in rectum
Asevacuant enema
for bowelevacuation
e.g. Soap waterenema; soap
acts aslubricant andwater
stimulates the rectum
Retention enema
e.g.Methylpredinisolone
in ulcerativecolitis
Suppository
Soliddosage form drug is
inserted inrectum
e.g. Bisacodyl for
bowelevacuation
d. Eye, ear, and nose
Asdrops, ointments,
sprays, etc.
For allergic orinfective
conditions of
eye, ear, and nose
e. Bronchi Asinhalation
e.g. Salbutamol inhalationfor
bronchial asthma,and
COPD(chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease)
f. Vagina Astablet, cream,pessary For vaginalcandidiasis
g. Urethra Asjelly e.g. Lignocaine
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5. 6 Pharmacology mind maps for medical students and allied health
professionals
2.3 SYSTEMICROUTE
(Continued)
Systemicroute
Drug reaches blood and
producessystemic effects
i.e. Enteral route
Oral,sublingual,
and rectalroute
1. Oral route
Most common andaccepted e.g. Tablets, capsules,syrups,etc.
Advantages
Safe
Cheap
Painless
Convenient forrepeat and
long-term use
Self-administered
Disadvantages
Slowonset, not usedin
emergency
Unpalatable, highlyirritant
drugs cannot begiven
Unabsorbable drugscannot
be given (e.g.neomycin)
Drugs destroyed by digestive
juices cannot be given (e.g.insulin)
Drugs with high first-pass metabolism
cannot be given(e.g. lignocaine)
Cannot be given in unconscious/
uncooperative/unreliablepatients
Cannot be given in patients with
vomiting ordiarrhea
Enteric-coating of tablets
Prevents gastric irritation
Protects drug fromgastric acid
Retards drug absorption and
 its duration of action
Done by cellulose,acetate, etc.
Sustained/controlledrelease
formulation
Consistsof different coatings
dissolvingat different time intervals
 Duration ofaction
 Dosingfrequency
 Patientcompliance
e.g. Sustained-release nifedipine
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6. Routes of drug administration
7
2. Sublingual route
Drug is keptunder
tongue
Absorbed through
the buccalmucosa
Enterssystemic
circulation
Bypassesfirst-
pass liver
metabolism
Rapidonset
e.g.Nitroglycerin,
buprenorphine
Action canbe
terminated by
spittingout drug
Disadvantages
Advantages
Bypasses first-pass
liver metabolism
Self-administration
is possible
Irritant and lipid-
insoluble drugs
cannot be given
Unpalatabledrugs
with bad smell
cannot be given
Cannot beused
in children
3. Rectal route Solids and liquid
dosage formsused
i. Enema
For
localeffect
i.e. Retention enema e.g. Methylprednisolone
Evacuant enema e.g. Soapy water
For
systemic effect
e.g. Diazepam for
febrile convulsions
in children
2.3 SYSTEMIC ROUTE(Continued)
(Continued)
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7. 8 Pharmacology mind maps for medical students and allied health
professionals
B.Parenteral route
Administered otherthan
enteral route
Injection, inhalation,and
transdermal route
Advantages
Rapid onset, and can be usedin
emergency
Also be usedin unconscious/unco-
operative/unreliablepatients
Used in presenceof vomitingand
diarrhea
Suitable for irritantdrugs
Drugs withhigh first-pass metabolism
can be given by this route
Drugs that are not absorbed orally
also can begiven
Drugs destroyed by digestive juices
can be administerdby this route
Disadvantages
Require sterilization andaseptic
conditions
Invasive technique, painful
Cancauselocal tissueinjury;
e.g. nerves, vessels,etc.
Requirestechnical experts,hence
cannot beself-administered
Expensive
2.3 SYSTEMIC ROUTE(Continued)
(Continued)
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8. Routes of drug administration
9
1.Inhalation
Volatile liquids andgases are
administered by thisroute
e.g. Generalanesthetics
Advantages
Rapidonset
Lower dose is required,
fewer systemic sideeffects
Dose regulation ispossible
Disadvantages
Local irritation can causeTrespiratory
secretions and bronchospasm
2. Transdermalroute
(adhesive patches)
Patches deliver druginto
circulation for systemiceffects
e.g.
Scopolamine formotion
sickness
Nitroglycerin forangina
Estrogen for hormone
replacement therapy(HRT)
Fentanyl for analgesia
Advantages
Self-administered
Good patient compliance
Prolonged action
Minimal sideeffects
Constant plasmaconcentration
Disadvantages
Expensive
Local irritation (itching,dermatitis)
Patchmay fall off without
being noticed
2.3 SYSTEMIC ROUTE(Continued)
(Continued)
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9. 10 Pharmacology mind maps for medical students and allied health
professionals
3.Injection
a.Intradermal Injectedinto dermal layer of skin
e.g. BCGvaccination, drug sensitivity
testing
b.Subcutaneous
Injected intosubcutaneous tissue e.g. Insulin,adrenaline
Advantages
Self-administered; e.g.insulin
Depot preparations can beused;
e.g. norplant forcontraception
Disadvantages
Unsuitable for irritantdrugs
Slow onset,unsuitable
for emergency
c.Intramuscular
Injectedinto large muscles
Deltoid, gluteus maximum,lateral
aspect of thigh in children
Advantages
Rapidonset compared to oral route
Depot preparations (used to prolong
drug action), mild irritants, soluble
substances and suspensions can be given
Disadvantages
Requires asepticcondition
Painful, may lead to abscess
Self-administration is notpossible
Local tissue injurycan occur; e.g. nerves
2.3 SYSTEMIC ROUTE(Continued)
(Continued)
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10. Routes of drug administration
11
d.Intravenous
Directinjectionof drug
into vein
Bolusadministration–single, large dose
rapidly/slowly injected assingleunit
e.g.Furosemide
SlowIVinjection e.g.Morphine
IV infusion–addition of drug into a
bottle containingdextrose/saline
e.g. Dopamine infusionin
cardiogenic shock
Advantages
100% bioavailability
Rapid onset, suitablefor
emergencies
Large volume of fluid can be
given (IVdextrose)
Highly irritant drugs can be
given(e.g. anticancer drugs)
Hypertonic solutions canbe
given (20%mannitol)
Constant plasma levels can be maintained
(dopamine in cardiogenicshock)
Disadvantages
Once drug isinjected,drugs
action cannot bestopped
Local irritation,thrombophlebitis
Strict aseptic conditionsare
mandatory
Caution
Self-administration isnot
possible
Drug extravasationcause
necrosis, slougting
Depot preparations cannot be given
Administer drugs slowly,
otherwise toxicity
Ensuretip of needle isin vein
2.3 SYSTEMIC ROUTE(Continued)
(Continued)
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11. 12 Pharmacology mind maps for medical students and allied health
professionals
2.4 SPECIALIZED DRUG DELIVERY
f. Intra-thecal
Injection ofdrug in
subarachnoid space
e.g. Spinal anesthesia(lignocaine),
antibiotics (inmeningitis)
e.Intra-arterial
Rarely usednow
Useddiagnostically e.g. Coronary angiography
Sometimesanticancer
drugs can begiven
g. Intra-articular
Directinjection of drug
into jointspace
e.g. Hydrocortisone for
rheumatoidarthritis
Requires strictaseptic
condition
Repeated usecan
damage cartilage
2.3 SYSTEMIC ROUTE(Continued)
C.Specialized drug delivery
1. Ocusert
Kept beneath lowereyelid e.g. Pilocarpine inglaucoma
Single application releases
drug for1 wk
2.Progestasert
Intrauterine contraceptive
device
Releasesprogesterone
for 1yr
3.Liposomes
Drug incorporated in minute
phospholipid vesicles
e.g. Liposomalamphotericin
for fungalinfection
4. Monoclonal antibiotics
Immunoglobulins reactwith
specificantigen
Usedfor targeteddelivery e.g. Anticancer drugs
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