INTRODUCTION | 319 too emotional to be good leaders) are also labeled a s "natural" and unchangeable, making any attempt to Identify and challenge them almost impossible. Fortunately, by shedding light on the social construction of gender, the feminist, L G B , transgender, and intersex communities have disproven the assumption that biology determines gender, thereby disentangling it from the notion that gender is "natural" (see vi/ebsite for further resources). For example, if gender roles were "natural," they would manifest similarly in societies all over the world, but a global a n a l y s i s reveals a rather diverse understanding and expression of gender a c r o s s societies (Nanda, 2000). Similarly, if these roles were set and unchangeable they would be consistent throughout history, and yet within U.S. history alone the notion of what it m e a n s to be a man or woman has changed over time due to political, economic, and social influences. A s s u c h , what is perceived a s "real" regarding gender roles is actually a manifestation of certain rules and expectations put on all of u s by the macro gendered power structure. A s e c o n d core characteristic of gender roles is that they are based on heteronormativity, which refers to the normalizing of heterosexuality and the pathologizing of being lesbian, gay, bisexual, or queer. In my c l a s s e s I often conduct an exercise where we divide into groups and develop lists of what it m e a n s to "act like a ' m a n ' " or "act like a 'lady.'" For the nineteen years I have been doing this exercise, every element of what it h a s meant to "act like a 'lady'" has been connected to the heterosexual male g a z e . Looking pretty, acting feminine, knowing how to cook, wanting children, etc. are not at all problematic of and by themselves, but w h e n analyzed through a lens of gender critique it is apparent that they are consistently tied to heterosexual relationships and the need for women to appeal to heterosexual men. T h e connection between heterosexuality and what it m e a n s to be a real w o m a n implies that lesbians and bisexual women are not actually w o m e n , are a threat to these gender roles for their lack of compliance, and therefore should be met with contempt and even violence. S u z a n n e Pharr (1988) suggests that homophobia is a w e a p o n of s e x i s m precisely b e c a u s e of the relationship between gender role conformity and what Adrienne Rich (1986) termed "compulsory heterosexuality." T h e powerful connection between gender roles and homophobia is d i s c u s s e d by Blumenfeld in the next section (selection 77 and Introduction to Section 6 ) . A third important characteristic of gender roles is that masculine and feminine roles are diametrically opposed, a s opposites in a binary, and hierarchically positioned, a s superior or inferior. For every characteristic that students defined a s "masculine," for example being tou.

1. INTRODUCTION | 319
too emotional to be good leaders) are also labeled a s "natural"
and unchangeable, making any
attempt to Identify and challenge them almost impossible.
Fortunately, by shedding light on the social construction of
gender, the feminist, L G B ,
transgender, and intersex communities have disproven the
assumption that biology determines
gender, thereby disentangling it from the notion that gender is
"natural" (see vi/ebsite for further
resources). For example, if gender roles were "natural," they
would manifest similarly in societies
all over the world, but a global a n a l y s i s reveals a rather
diverse understanding and expression
of gender a c r o s s societies (Nanda, 2000). Similarly, if these
roles were set and unchangeable
they would be consistent throughout history, and yet within
U.S. history alone the notion of what
it m e a n s to be a man or woman has changed over time due to
political, economic, and social
influences. A s s u c h , what is perceived a s "real" regarding
gender roles is actually a manifestation
of certain rules and expectations put on all of u s by the macro
gendered power structure.
A s e c o n d core characteristic of gender roles is that they are
based on heteronormativity, which
refers to the normalizing of heterosexuality and the
pathologizing of being lesbian, gay, bisexual,
or queer. In my c l a s s e s I often conduct an exercise where

2. we divide into groups and develop
lists of what it m e a n s to "act like a ' m a n ' " or "act like a
'lady.'" For the nineteen years I have been
doing this exercise, every element of what it h a s meant to "act
like a 'lady'" has been connected
to the heterosexual male g a z e . Looking pretty, acting
feminine, knowing how to cook, wanting
children, etc. are not at all problematic of and by themselves,
but w h e n analyzed through a lens
of gender critique it is apparent that they are consistently tied to
heterosexual relationships and
the need for women to appeal to heterosexual men. T h e
connection between heterosexuality
and what it m e a n s to be a real w o m a n implies that lesbians
and bisexual women are not actually
w o m e n , are a threat to these gender roles for their lack of
compliance, and therefore should
be met with contempt and even violence. S u z a n n e Pharr
(1988) suggests that homophobia
is a w e a p o n of s e x i s m precisely b e c a u s e of the
relationship between gender role conformity
and what Adrienne Rich (1986) termed "compulsory
heterosexuality." T h e powerful connection
between gender roles and homophobia is d i s c u s s e d by
Blumenfeld in the next section (selection
77 and Introduction to Section 6 ) .
A third important characteristic of gender roles is that
masculine and feminine roles are
diametrically opposed, a s opposites in a binary, and
hierarchically positioned, a s superior or
inferior. For every characteristic that students defined a s
"masculine," for example being tough
and strong (superior), they defined "feminine" a s the exact
opposite, weak and docile (inferior).
Looking even further, all human attributes labeled a s feminine

3. were found to be consistently
devalued in this society and used to insult or h a r a s s men,
thus speaking volumes about the true
status of w o m e n in this society. A s evidence, the two worst
things a man c a n be called in this
society is a "fag" (tied into the heteronormativity d i s c u s s e
d above) and a "woman," and the worst
thing a man c a n do is to act like a w o m a n in any way. Of
course, while most people transgress
gender roles on a daily b a s i s , the existence of these roles
and the rules that s h a p e them are well
known by all a s demonstrated by the fact that it never takes
students more than ten minutes to
generate multiple examples.
A fourth characteristic in the creation and maintenance of
socially constructed gender roles
is the u s e of violence to punish those who defy them. T h i s
violence c a n take innumerable forms
but its purpose is single-minded: to make sure that no one
deviates (too far) from their expected
gender role performance. For cisgendered (see the introduction
to the "Transgender Oppression"
section for an explanation of this term) w o m e n , this violence
c a n more obviously range from
verbal harassment, to physical violence, to s e x u a l assault,
but it c a n also take slightly more subtle
forms s u c h a s "ideal female beauty" (Jhally and Kilbourne,
2010), economic marginalization and
poverty, and the constant pressure to "be a good girl." For
cisgendered men the violence looks
like bullying in our s c h o o l s , ever-increasingly violent
performances of masculinity in our media,
and the ruthless policing of gender that men foist upon e a c h
other through verbal, emotional and
physical taunts and confrontations in everyday life. While the

4. impact of the violence is devastating
I N T R O D U C T I O N
Upon the foundation of a gender binary and the exercising of
patriarchal power on individual,
cultural, and institutional levels, the day-to-day structural
mechanisms used to keep sexism in place
take many forms. For example, if gender roles state that women
are to be "feminine" and look
attractive to men, then the creation of limiting and
dehumanizing notions of "ideal female beauty"
for women is an effective tool for keeping women powerless,
especially in the public domain.
Caroline Heldman's article on body image (selection 65) aptly
describes the societal impact of these
fabricated images of beauty on women and how they conspire to
disempower women economi-
cally, psychologically, and politically. The Chernik reading
(selection 67) adds to this discussion
by demonstrating the deadly effects of this imagery on women
in the form of eating disorders and
the illusory power that the cult of thinness (Nagy Hesse-Biber,
2007) creates in this society. Other
mechanisms of sexism s u c h a s the wage gap discussed in
Aaron Bernstein's piece (selection 66),
violence against women discussed in the Katz article (selection
64), or the use of language a s s e e n
in both the Morgan and Kirk and O k a z a w a - R e y pieces
(selections 68 and 69) should be understood
a s both products of sexism and tools used to maintain it in our
society.
HISTORY AND INTERSECTIONALITY

5. Acquiring a b a s i c understanding of the ideological and
structural dynamics of sexism in society
begs the question of what to do about it. In my teaching and
training throughout the y e a r s , I
have encountered many people who suggest that while s e x i s
m is wrong, it is just too pervasive
and there is nothing we c a n do about it. I am sure there are a
range of r e a s o n s for their thinking
this, but one that warrants highlighting is the often complete
lack of knowledge about the long
history of w o m e n ' s (and some men's) organizing, resistance,
and social change movements in
this country. While complicated and often problematic, the
history of the w o m e n ' s movements in
the United States demonstrates powerful and effective w a y s to
challenge both the manifestations
of s e x i s m and the foundations that give rise to it. From the
first "women's rights convention" in
S e n e c a Falls, NY, in 1848 to the presidential, congressional,
and local elections of 2012, we have
s e e n examples of women making history through their
challenges to the limiting gender roles
and power structures that marginalize them. At its best, this
history demonstrates the need for a
broad-based platform addressing w o m e n ' s rights, the power
of consciousness-raising groups,
the transformational power of claiming voice, and the necessity
for c r o s s - i s s u e organizing. There
were also a range of mistakes made along the way and in
particular the first and s e c o n d w a v e s '
inaccurate, simplifying assumptions concerning a single,
uniform, universal w o m a n ' s experience.
In the first w a v e , while the a g e n d a called for "women's
rights," the needs of women of color,
and poor and working-class w o m e n , were marginalized in

6. favor of the eventual limited a g e n d a
of suffrage for white, middle-class women. In the s e c o n d
wave, these s a m e groups a s well a s
lesbians and bisexual w o m e n , women with disabilities, and
women who were not Christian were
also pushed to the side in favor of the white, middle-class a g e
n d a for "equal rights."
Due to s p a c e limitations, this section cannot d i s c u s s the
many important l e s s o n s gleaned
from these movements and the value of knowing this history
(see section website for resources).
It does, however, take these l e s s o n s seriously and highlights
how w e c a n actualize them in this
current moment of fighting for w o m e n ' s rights—the "third w
a v e . " T h e Next S t e p s part of this
section includes R o s s Neely's explanation of why, a s a
cisgendered man, he believes all men
have a personal investment in feminism and a responsibility to
end s e x i s m (selection 70). T h i s
selection, along with J a c k s o n Katz's list of "ten things men
c a n do to prevent gender violence"
(Katz, 1999), illustrate the importance of men taking action to
end s e x i s m . It is crucial that men a s
well a s women acknowledge that no form of oppression c a n
be eradicated until the advantaged
group can s e e how their core values are compromised by the
existence of that oppression.
T h e s e pieces are followed by Alice Walker (selection 71)
where s h e a d d r e s s e s the impact of
" N I G H T T O HIS DAY" | 323
links to websites and to current s o u r c e s of discussion and

7. action, and activities ttiat c a n be used
in ttie c l a s s r o o m or training settings.
In moving forward with this information, I would like to
emphasize the importance of taking
action, however subtle it may be, to end the oppression of
women and girls. In an era where for
the first time a woman has made a viable run for the White
House, increasing numbers of women
are in professional positions of power, and women are more
represented in college admissions
than men, it is tempting to s a y that s e x i s m is over and do
nothing. Scratching beneath the surface
of these c h a n g e s , however, it is obvious that s e x i s m and
patriarchy are both still firmly intact.
Therefore, now is the time for broad-based and consistent action
on the part of all us to end
s e x i s m and transform our society into one where women and
girls feel safe and free and able to
exercise their humanity to its fullest.
See Companion Website for Additional Resources and Material
References
Botkin, S . , J o n e s , J . , K a c h w a h a , T . (2007). S e x i s
m curriculum d e s i g n . In M. A d a m s , L. A. Bell, P.
Griffin ( e d s ) .
Teaching for Diversity and Social Justice {2nd edition, pp. 1 7
3 - 1 9 4 ) . New York: Routledge.
Harris-Perry, M. (February 2 1 , 2 0 1 2 ) . The Melissa Harris-
Perry Show [Television B r o a d c a s t ] . New York, NY:
M S N B C .
Jhally, S . (Director) and Kilbourne, J . ( C o - P r o d u c e r ) .
(2010). Killing Us Softly 4 [Film]. Northampton, MA:

8. Media Education Foundation.
Katz, J a c k s o n . (1999). T e n T h i n g s Men C a n Do to
Prevent G e n d e r Violence. Retrieved from http://www.
jacksonkatz.com/topten.html.
Nagy H e s s e - B i b e r , S . (2007). The Cult of Thinness.
New York: Oxford University P r e s s .
Nanda, S . (2000). Gender Diversity: Crosscultural Variations.
Long G r o v e , IL: W a v e l a n d P r e s s .
Pharr, S . (1988). Homoptiobia as a Weapon of Sexism. Little R
o c k , A R : C h a r d o n P r e s s .
R i c h , A. (1986). Blood, Bread and Poetry: Selected Prose,
1979-1985. New York: Norton.
60
"Night to His Day"
The Social Construction of Gender
Judith Lorber
T a l k i n g a b o u t gender f o r m o s t p e o p l e is the e q u i
v a l e n t o f f i s h t a l k i n g a b o u t w a t e r . G e n d e r
is so m u c h the r o u t i n e g r o u n d of e v e r y d a y a c t i
v i t i e s that q u e s t i o n i n g its t a k e n - f o r - g r a n t e
d
a s s u m p t i o n s a n d p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s is l i k e t h i
n k i n g a b o u t w h e t h e r the s u n w i l l c o m e u p .
G e n d e r is so p e r v a s i v e t h a t i n o u r society w e
assume it is b r e d i n t o o u r genes. M o s t p e o p l e
f i n d i t h a r d to bel i eve that gender is c o n s t a n t l y c r e
a t e d a n d r e - c r e a t e d o u t o f h u m a n i n t e r -
a c t i o n , o u t o f s o c i a l l i f e , a n d is the t e x t u r e a n
d o r d e r of that s o c i a l l i f e . Yet gender, l i k e

9. c u l t u r e , is a h u m a n p r o d u c t i o n t h a t d e p e n d s
o n e v e r y o n e c o n s t a n t l y " d o i n g g e n d e r . "
A n d e v e r y o n e " d o e s g e n d e r " w i t h o u t t h i n k i
n g about i t . T o d a y , o n the s u b w a y , 1 s a w a
w e l l - d r e s s e d m a n w i t h a y e a r - o l d c h i l d i n a s
t r o l l e r . Yesterday, o n a bus, I s a w a m a n w i t h
" N I G H T T O HIS DAY" 325
o r g a n s , the m a i n p h y s i o l o g i c a l d i f f e r e n c e s
of f e m a l e s a n d m a l e s . I n the c o n s t r u c t i o n
o f a s c r i b e d s o c i a l statuses, p h y s i o l o g i c a l d i f f
e r e n c e s s u c h as s e x , stage o f d e v e l o p m e n t ,
c o l o r of s k i n , a n d size are c r u d e m a r k e r s . T h e y
are n o t the s o u r c e of the s o c i a l statuses o f
gender, age g r a d e , a n d r a c e . S o c i a l statuses are c a r
e f u l l y c o n s t r u c t e d t h r o u g h p r e s c r i b e d
processes o f t e a c h i n g , l e a r n i n g , e m u l a t i o n , a n
d e n f o r c e m e n t . W h a t e v e r genes, h o r m o n e s ,
a n d b i o l o g i c a l e v o l u t i o n c o n t r i b u t e to h u m
a n s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n s is m a t e r i a l l y as w e l l as
q u a l i t a t i v e l y t r a n s f o r m e d by s o c i a l p r a c t i
c e s . . . . T h u s , . . . gender c a n n o t be e q u a t e d w i t h
b i o l o g i c a l a n d p h y s i o l o g i c a l d i f f e r e n c e s b
e t w e e n h u m a n f e m a l e s a n d m a l e s . T h e b u i l d i
n g
b l o c k s o f gender are socially constructed statuses. . . .
FOR INDIVIDUALS, GENDER MEANS SAMENESS
A l t h o u g h the possible c o m b i n a t i o n s o f g e n i t a l i
a , b o d y shapes, c l o t h i n g , m a n n e r i s m s , s e x u -
ality, a n d r o l e s c o u l d p r o d u c e i n f i n i t e v a r i e t

10. i e s i n h u m a n beings, the s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n o f
gender depends o n the p r o d u c t i o n a n d m a i n t e n a n c
e of a l i m i t e d n u m b e r o f gender statuses
a n d o f m a k i n g the m e m b e r s o f these statuses s i m i l
a r to each o t h e r . I n d i v i d u a l s are b o r n
s e x e d but n o t g e n d e r e d , a n d t h e y h a v e to be
taught to be m a s c u l i n e or f e m i n i n e . A s S i m o n e
de B e a u v o i r s a i d : " O n e is n o t b o r n , but r a t h e r b
e c o m e s , a w o m a n . . . ; it is c i v i l i z a t i o n as
a w h o l e t h a t p r o d u c e s t h i s c r e a t u r e . . . w h i c
h is d e s c r i b e d as f e m i n i n e . "
M a n y c u l t u r e s go b e y o n d c l o t h i n g , gestures, a n
d d e m e a n o r i n g e n d e r i n g c h i l d r e n . T h e y
i n s c r i b e gender d i r e c t l y i n t o b o d i e s . . . . I n W e
s t e r n societies, w o m e n a u g m e n t t h e i r breast
size w i t h s i l i c o n e a n d r e c o n s t r u c t t h e i r faces
w i t h c o s m e t i c s u r g e r y to c o n f o r m to c u l t u r a l
i d e a l s of f e m i n i n e beauty. H a n n a P a p a n e k notes
that these p r a c t i c e s r e i n f o r c e the sense of
s u p e r i o r i t y or i n f e r i o r i t y i n the a d u l t s w h o c
a r r y t h e m o u t as w e l l as i n the c h i l d r e n o n
w h o m they are d o n e . . . .
S a n d r a B e m argues that because gender is a p o w e r f u l "
s c h e m a " that o r d e r s the c o g n i t i v e
w o r l d , one m u s t w a g e a c o n s t a n t , a c t i v e battle f
o r a c h i l d n o t to f a l l i n t o t y p i c a l g e n d e r e d
attitudes a n d b e h a v i o r . I n 1 9 7 2 , M s . Magazine p u b
l i s h e d L o i s G o u l d ' s f a n t a s y of h o w to
raise a c h i l d free of g e n d e r - t y p i n g . T h e e x p e r i
m e n t c a l l s f o r h i d i n g the c h i l d ' s a n a t o m y
f r o m a l l eyes e x c e p t the p a r e n t s ' a n d t r e a t i n g
the c h i l d as n e i t h e r a g i r l n o r a boy. T h e
c h i l d , c a l l e d X , gets to do a l l the things boys and g i r l
s d o . T h e e x p e r i m e n t is so s u c c e s s f u l

11. that a l l the c h i l d r e n i n X ' s class at s c h o o l w a n t to l
o o k a n d b e h a v e l i k e X . A t the e n d of the
story, the c r e a t o r s of the e x p e r i m e n t are a s k e d w h
a t w i l l h a p p e n w h e n X g r o w s u p . T h e
s c i e n t i s t s ' a n s w e r is that by t h e n i t w i l l be quite c
l e a r w h a t X i s , i m p l y i n g that its h o r m o n e s
w i l l k i c k i n a n d it w i l l be r e v e a l e d as a f e m a l e
or m a l e . T h a t a m b i g u o u s , a n d s o m e w h a t
c o n t r a d i c t o r y , e n d i n g lets G o u l d o f f the h o o k
; n e i t h e r she n o r w e h a v e any idea w h a t
s o m e o n e b r o u g h t up t o t a l l y a n d r o g y n o u s l y
w o u l d be l i k e s e x u a l l y or s o c i a l l y as a n a d u l t .
T h e h o r m o n a l i n p u t w i l l n o t create gender or s e x u
a l i t y but w i l l o n l y establish s e c o n d a r y
s e x c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ; breasts, beards, a n d m e n s t r
u a t i o n alone do n o t p r o d u c e social m a n -
h o o d or w o m a n h o o d . I n d e e d , it is at puberty, w h e
n s e x c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s b e c o m e e v i d e n t ,
t h a t m o s t societies p u t pubescent c h i l d r e n t h r o u g h
t h e i r m o s t i m p o r t a n t rites of passage,
the r i t u a l s that o f f i c i a l l y m a r k t h e m as f u l l y g
e n d e r e d — t h a t is, ready to m a r r y a n d become
a d u l t s .
M o s t p a r e n t s create a g e n d e r e d w o r l d f o r t h e i r
n e w b o r n by n a m i n g , b i r t h a n n o u n c e -
m e n t s , a n d dress. C h i l d r e n ' s r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i
t h s a m e - g e n d e r e d a n d d i f f e r e n t - g e n d e r e d
c a r e t a k e r s s t r u c t u r e t h e i r s e l f - i d e n t i f i c a
t i o n s a n d p e r s o n a l i t i e s . T h r o u g h c o g n i t i v
e d e v e l o p -
m e n t , c h i l d r e n e x t r a c t a n d a p p l y to t h e i r o w
n a c t i o n s the a p p r o p r i a t e b e h a v i o r f o r those
w h o b e l o n g i n t h e i r o w n gender, as w e l l as race, r e
l i g i o n , e t h n i c g r o u p , a n d s o c i a l class,

12. " N I G H T T O HIS DAY" |
T h i s f e m i n i z a t i o n is p a r t of a dehberate p o h c y of
m a k i n g t h e m c l e a r l y d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e f r o m
m e n M a r i n e s . C h r i s t i n e W i l l i a m s quotes a t w e
n t y - f i v e - y e a r - o l d w o m a n d r i l l m s t r u c t o r as
s a y i n g : " A l o t of the r e c r u i t s w h o c o m e h e r e d o
n ' t w e a r m a k e u p ; t h e y ' r e t o m b o y i s h or
a t h l e t i c . A l o t of t h e m h a v e the p r e c o n c e i v e d
i d e a that g o i n g i n t o the m i l i t a r y m e a n s they
c a n s t i l l be a tomboy. T h e y d o n ' t r e a l i z e that y o u
are a Woman M a r i n e " ( 1 9 8 9 ) .
I f gender d i f f e r e n c e s w e r e genetic, p h y s i o l o g i c
a l , or h o r m o n a l , gender b e n d i n g a n d
gender a m b i g u i t y w o u l d o c c u r o n l y i n . . . [those]
w h o are b o r n w i t h c h r o m o s o m e s a n d
g e n i t a h a that are n o t c l e a r l y f e m a l e or m a l e . S i
n c e gender d i f f e r e n c e s are s o c i a l l y c o n -
s t r u c t e d , a l l m e n a n d a l l w o m e n c a n enact the b e
h a v i o r of the other, because they k n o w the
o t h e r ' s s o c i a l s c r i p t : " ' M a n ' a n d ' w o m a n ' are
at once e m p t y a n d o v e r f l o w i n g categories.
E m p t y because they h a v e n o u l t i m a t e , t r a n s c e n d
e n t a l m e a n i n g . O v e r f l o w i n g because even
w h e n they appear to be f i x e d , they still c o n t a i n w i t h
i n t h e m a l t e r n a t i v e , d e n i e d , or s u p -
pressed d e f i n i t i o n s " ( J . W Scott 1 9 8 8 ) . N o n e t h e
l e s s , t h o u g h i n d i v i d u a l s m a y be able to s h i f t
gender statuses, the gender b o u n d a r i e s h a v e to h o l d ,
or the w h o l e g e n d e r e d s o c i a l o r d e r
w i l l c o m e c r a s h i n g d o w n .
GENDER AS PROCESS, STRATIFICATION, AND

13. STRUCTURE
A s a s o c i a l i n s t i t u t i o n , gender is a process of c r e a
t i n g d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e s o c i a l statuses f o r the
a s s i g n m e n t of rights a n d r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s . A s
p a r t of a s t r a t i f i c a t i o n s y s t e m that r a n k s these
statuses u n e q u a l l y , gender is a m a j o r b u i l d i n g b l
o c k i n the s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e s b u i l t o n these
u n e q u a l statuses.
A s a process, gender creates the social d i f f e r e n c e s that d
e f i n e " w o m a n " a n d " m a n . " I n
s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n t h r o u g h o u t their l i v e s , i n
d i v i d u a l s l e a r n w h a t is e x p e c t e d , see w h a t is
e x p e c t e d , act a n d react in e x p e c t e d w a y s , a n d
thus s i m u l t a n e o u s l y c o n s t r u c t a n d m a i n t a i n
the gender o r d e r : " T h e v e r y i n j u n c t i o n to be a g i
v e n gender takes p l a c e t h r o u g h d i s c u r s i v e
r o u t e s : to be a g o o d m o t h e r , to be a h e t e r o s e x u
a l l y desirable object, to be a fit w o r k e r , i n
s u m , to s i g n i f y a m u l t i p l i c i t y of guarantees i n
response to a v a r i e t y of d i f f e r e n t d e m a n d s
a l l at o n c e " ( J . B u t l e r 1 9 9 0 ) . M e m b e r s of a s o c
i a l g r o u p n e i t h e r m a k e up gender as they go
a l o n g n o r e x a c t l y r e p l i c a t e i n r o t e f a s h i o n
w h a t w a s done b e f o r e . I n a l m o s t e v e r y e n c o u n
-
ter, h u m a n beings p r o d u c e gender, b e h a v i n g i n the
w a y s they l e a r n e d w e r e a p p r o p r i a t e f o r
their gender status, or r e s i s t i n g or r e b e l l i n g against
these n o r m s . R e s i s t a n c e a n d r e b e l l i o n
have a l t e r e d gender n o r m s , but so far they have r a r e l
y e r o d e d the statuses.
G e n d e r e d patterns o f i n t e r a c t i o n a c q u i r e a d d i
t i o n a l layers of g e n d e r e d s e x u a l i t y , p a r e n t -

14. i n g , a n d w o r k b e h a v i o r s i n c h i l d h o o d , a d o l e
s c e n c e , a n d a d u l t h o o d . G e n d e r e d n o r m s a n d
e x p e c t a t i o n s are e n f o r c e d t h r o u g h i n f o r m a l
s a n c t i o n s of g e n d e r - i n a p p r o p r i a t e b e h a v i o
r
by peers a n d by f o r m a l p u n i s h m e n t or t h r e a t of p
u n i s h m e n t by those i n a u t h o r i t y s h o u l d
b e h a v i o r d e v i a t e too far f r o m s o c i a l l y i m p o s e
d s t a n d a r d s f o r w o m e n a n d m e n .
E v e r y d a y g e n d e r e d i n t e r a c t i o n s b u i l d gender
i n t o the f a m i l y , the w o r k p r o c e s s , a n d
other o r g a n i z a t i o n s a n d i n s t i t u t i o n s , w h i c h i
n t u r n r e i n f o r c e gender e x p e c t a t i o n s f o r i n d i -
v i d u a l s . B e c a u s e gender is a p r o c e s s , there is r o o
m n o t o n l y for m o d i f i c a t i o n a n d v a r i a t i o n
by i n d i v i d u a l s a n d s m a l l g r o u p s b u t also for i n
s t i t u t i o n a h z e d c h a n g e .
A s p a r t of a stratification s y s t e m , gender r a n k s m e n
above w o m e n of the same race a n d
class. W o m e n a n d m e n c o u l d be d i f f e r e n t but e q u
a l . I n p r a c t i c e , the process o f c r e a t i n g
d i f f e r e n c e depends to a great e x t e n t o n d i f f e r e n t
i a l e v a l u a t i o n . A s N a n c y J a y ( 1 9 8 1 ) s a y s :
" T h a t w h i c h is d e f i n e d , separated o u t , i s o l a t e d
f r o m a l l else is A a n d p u r e . N o t - A is neces-
s a r i l y i m p u r e , a r a n d o m c a t c h a l l , to w h i c h n
o t h i n g is e x t e r n a l e x c e p t A a n d the p r i n c i p l e
of
o r d e r that separates it f r o m N o t - A . " F r o m the i n d i
v i d u a l ' s p o i n t of v i e w , w h i c h e v e r gender
M A S C U L I N I T Y A S H O M O P H O B I A | 329

15. c o n t e s t e d — c o n s t r u c t i o n . B o t h ' s e x ' a n d ' g
e n d e r ' are w o v e n o f m u l t i p l e , a s y m m e t r i c a l
s t r a n d s o f d i f f e r e n c e , c h a r g e d w i t h m u l t i f a
c e t e d d r a m a t i c n a r r a t i v e s o f d o m i n a t i o n a n
d
s t r u g g l e " ( H a r a w a y 1 9 9 0 ) .
61
Masculinity as Homophobia
Fear, Shame, and Silence in the
Construction of Gender Identity
Michael S. Kimmel
W e t h i n k o f m a n h o o d as e t e r n a l , a timeless essence
that resides deep i n the h e a r t o f e v e r y
m a n . W e t h i n k of m a n h o o d as a t h i n g , a q u a l i t y
that one either has o r d o e s n ' t h a v e .
W e t h i n k o f m a n h o o d as i n n a t e , r e s i d i n g i n the
p a r t i c u l a r b i o l o g i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n of the
h u m a n m a l e , the r e s u l t o f a n d r o g e n s o r the
possession o f a p e n i s . W e t h i n k o f m a n h o o d
as a t r a n s c e n d e n t tangible p r o p e r t y that each m a n
m u s t m a n i f e s t in the w o r l d , the r e w a r d
presented w i t h great c e r e m o n y to a y o u n g n o v i c e
by h i s elders f o r h a v i n g s u c c e s s f u l l y
c o m p l e t e d an a r d u o u s i n i t i a t i o n r i t u a l . . . .
I v i e w m a s c u l i n i t y as a c o n s t a n t l y c h a n g i n g
c o l l e c t i o n of m e a n i n g s that w e c o n s t r u c t
t h r o u g h o u r r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h o u r s e l v e s ,
w i t h e a c h other, a n d w i t h o u r w o r l d . M a n h o o d
is n e i t h e r static n o r t i m e l e s s ; it is h i s t o r i c a l .

16. M a n h o o d is n o t the m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f an i n n e r
essence; it is s o c i a l l y c o n s t r u c t e d . M a n h o o d
does n o t bubble up to c o n s c i o u s n e s s f r o m o u r
b i o l o g i c a l m a k e u p ; i t is c r e a t e d i n c u l t u r e .
M a n h o o d m e a n s d i f f e r e n t things at d i f f e r e n t
t i m e s to d i f f e r e n t p e o p l e . W e c o m e to k n o w w
h a t it means to be a m a n i n o u r c u l t u r e b y
setting o u r d e f i n i t i o n s in o p p o s i t i o n to a set of " o
t h e r s " — r a c i a l m i n o r i t i e s , s e x u a l m i n o r i -
ties, a n d , above a l l , w o m e n .
T h i s i d e a t h a t m a n h o o d is s o c i a l l y c o n s t r u c t
e d a n d h i s t o r i c a l l y s h i f t i n g s h o u l d n o t be
u n d e r s t o o d as a loss, that s o m e t h i n g is b e i n g t a k
e n a w a y f r o m m e n . I n fact, it gives us
s o m e t h i n g e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y v a l u a b l e — a g e
n c y , the c a p a c i t y to act. I t gives us a sense of
h i s t o r i c a l p o s s i b i l i t i e s to r e p l a c e the d e s p o
n d e n t r e s i g n a t i o n that i n v a r i a b l y attends t i m e
-
less, a h i s t o r i c a l e s s e n t i a l i s m s . O u r b e h a v i o
r s are n o t s i m p l y " j u s t h u m a n n a t u r e , " because
" b o y s w i l l be b o y s . " F r o m the m a t e r i a l s w e f i n
d a r o u n d us i n o u r c u l t u r e — o t h e r p e o p l e ,
ideas, o b j e c t s — w e a c t i v e l y create o u r w o r l d s , o
u r i d e n t i t i e s . M e n , b o t h i n d i v i d u a l l y a n d
c o l l e c t i v e l y , c a n c h a n g e .
MASCULINITY AS A HOMOSOCIAL ENACTMENT
O t h e r m e n ; W e are u n d e r the c o n s t a n t c a r e f u l s
c r u t i n y of o t h e r m e n . O t h e r m e n w a t c h
us, r a n k us, g r a n t o u r ac c e pt an c e into the r e a l m of
m a n h o o d . M a n h o o d is d e m o n s t r a t e d
f o r o t h e r m e n ' s a p p r o v a l . I t is o t h e r m e n w h o
e v a l u a t e the p e r f o r m a n c e . L i t e r a r y c r i t i c

17. M A S C U L I N I T Y A S H O M O P H O B I A | 331
o f t w o things is h k e l y to h a p p e n . O n e boy w i l l
accuse a n o t h e r of b e i n g a sissy, to w h i c h t h a t
b o y w i l l r e s p o n d t h a t he is n o t a sissy, that the f i r s
t boy i s . T h e y m a y h a v e to f i g h t it o u t to
see w h o ' s l y i n g . O r a w h o l e g r o u p o f boys w i l l s
u r r o u n d one boy a n d a l l s h o u t " H e i s ! H e
i s ! " T h a t b o y w i l l e i t h e r b u r s t i n t o tears a n d r u
n h o m e c r y i n g , d i s g r a c e d , or he w i l l h a v e
to take o n s e v e r a l boys at o n c e , to p r o v e that he's n o
t a sissy. ( A n d w h a t w i l l his f a t h e r or
o l d e r b r o t h e r s t e l l h i m if he chooses to r u n h o m e
c r y i n g ? ) I t w i l l be s o m e t i m e before he
r e g a i n s any sense of self-respect.
V i o l e n c e is o f t e n the single m o s t e v i d e n t m a r k e
r of m a n h o o d . R a t h e r it is the w i l l i n g -
ness to f i g h t , the desire to f i g h t . T h e o r i g i n o f o u r
e x p r e s s i o n that one has a c h i p o n o n e ' s
s h o u l d e r lies i n the p r a c t i c e of a n a d o l e s c e n t b
o y i n the c o u n t r y or s m a l l t o w n at the t u r n
o f the c e n t u r y , w h o w o u l d l i t e r a l l y w a l k a r o u
n d w i t h a c h i p o f w o o d b a l a n c e d o n his
s h o u l d e r — a s i g n a l o f his readiness to f i g h t w i t h
a n y o n e w h o w o u l d take the i n i t i a t i v e of
k n o c k i n g the c h i p off.
A s adolescents, w e l e a r n t h a t o u r peers are a k i n d o f
gender p o l i c e , c o n s t a n t l y t h r e a t e n -
i n g to u n m a s k us as f e m i n i n e , as sissies. O n e of the
f a v o r i t e t r i c k s w h e n I w a s a n a d o l e s c e n t
w a s to ask a boy to l o o k at h i s f i n g e r n a i l s . I f he h e

18. l d his p a l m t o w a r d h i s face a n d c u r l e d
h i s f i n g e r s b a c k to see t h e m , he passed the test. H e '
d l o o k e d at h i s n a i l s " l i k e a m a n . " B u t
i f he h e l d the b a c k o f h i s h a n d a w a y f r o m h i s f a c
e , a n d l o o k e d at his f i n g e r n a i l s w i t h a r m
o u t s t r e t c h e d , he w a s i m m e d i a t e l y r i d i c u l e
d as a sissy.
A s y o u n g m e n w e are c o n s t a n t l y r i d i n g those
gender b o u n d a r i e s , c h e c k i n g the fences
w e h a v e c o n s t r u c t e d o n the p e r i m e t e r , m a k i n
g sure t h a t n o t h i n g e v e n r e m o t e l y f e m i n i n e
m i g h t s h o w t h r o u g h . T h e possibiUties o f b e i n g u
n m a s k e d are e v e r y w h e r e . E v e n the m o s t
s e e m i n g l y i n s i g n i f i c a n t t h i n g c a n pose a t h r e
a t or activate that h a u n t i n g t e r r o r . O n the day
the students i n m y c o u r s e " S o c i o l o g y of M e n a n d
M a s c u l i n i t i e s " w e r e s c h e d u l e d to discuss
h o m o p h o b i a a n d m a l e - m a l e f r i e n d s h i p s , one
s t u d e n t p r o v i d e d a t o u c h i n g i l l u s t r a t i o n .
N o t i n g that it w a s a b e a u t i f u l day, the first d a y o f s
p r i n g after a b r u t a l n o r t h e a s t w i n t e r ,
he d e c i d e d to w e a r shorts to class. " I h a d this r e a l l y
nice p a i r o f n e w M a d r a s s h o r t s , " he
c o m m e n t e d . " B u t then I t h o u g h t to myself, these
shorts h a v e l a v e n d e r a n d p i n k i n t h e m .
T o d a y ' s class t o p i c is h o m o p h o b i a . M a y b e t o d
a y is n o t the best day to w e a r these s h o r t s . "
O u r efforts to m a i n t a i n a m a n l y f r o n t c o v e r e v e r
y t h i n g w e d o . W h a t w e w e a r . H o w w e
t a l k . H o w w e w a l k . W h a t w e eat. E v e r y m a n n e r
i s m , e v e r y m o v e m e n t c o n t a i n s a c o d e d
gender language. T h i n k , f o r e x a m p l e , o f h o w y o u w
o u l d a n s w e r the q u e s t i o n : H o w d o y o u
" k n o w " i f a m a n is h o m o s e x u a l ? W h e n I ask this

19. q u e s t i o n i n classes or w o r k s h o p s , r e s p o n -
dents i n v a r i a b l y p r o v i d e a pretty s t a n d a r d list o f
s t e r e o t y p i c a l l y e f f e m i n a t e b e h a v i o r s . H e
w a l k s a c e r t a i n w a y , t a l k s a c e r t a i n w a y , acts a
c e r t a i n w a y . H e ' s v e r y e m o t i o n a l ; he s h o w s
his feelings. O n e w o m a n c o m m e n t e d that she " k n o w
s " a m a n is gay i f he r e a l l y cares about
h e r ; a n o t h e r said she k n o w s he's gay i f he s h o w s n o
i n t e r e s t i n her, i f he leaves her a l o n e .
N o w alter the q u e s t i o n a n d i m a g i n e w h a t h e t e r
o s e x u a l m e n d o to m a k e sure n o one
c o u l d p o s s i b l y get the " w r o n g i d e a " about t h e m .
R e s p o n s e s t y p i c a l l y r e f e r to the o r i g i n a l
stereotypes, t h i s time as a set o f negative rules about b e h a
v i o r . N e v e r dress t h a t w a y . N e v e r
t a l k or w a l k t h a t w a y . N e v e r s h o w y o u r feelings
or get e m o t i o n a l . A l w a y s be p r e p a r e d to
d e m o n s t r a t e s e x u a l interest i n w o m e n t h a t y o u
meet, so i t is i m p o s s i b l e f o r a n y w o m a n
to get the w r o n g idea a b o u t y o u . I n t h i s sense, h o m o
p h o b i a , the fear o f b e i n g p e r c e i v e d
as gay, as n o t a real m a n , keeps m e n e x a g g e r a t i n g a
l l the t r a d i t i o n a l r u l e s o f m a s c u l i n i t y ,
i n c l u d i n g s e x u a l p r e d a t i o n w i t h w o m e n . H o
m o p h o b i a a n d s e x i s m go h a n d i n h a n d .
T h e stakes of p e r c e i v e d s i s s y d o m are e n o r m o u s
— s o m e t i m e s matters of life a n d d e a t h .
W e take e n o r m o u s r i s k s to p r o v e o u r m a n h o o d ,
e x p o s i n g o u r s e l v e s d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y
to h e a l t h r i s k s , w o r k p l a c e h a z a r d s , a n d stress-
related illnesses. M e n c o m m i t s u i c i d e three
t i m e s as o f t e n as w o m e n . . . .

20. M A S C U L I N I T Y A S H O M O P H O B I A
against the p e r c e i v e d t h r e a t o f h u m i h a t i o n i n
the eyes of o t h e r m e n , enacted t h r o u g h a
" s e q u e n c e o f p o s t u r e s " — t h i n g s w e m i g h t
say, or d o , or e v e n t h i n k , that, i f w e t h o u g h t
c a r e f u l l y about t h e m , w o u l d m a k e us a s h a m e d
o f o u r s e l v e s . A f t e r a l l , h o w m a n y o f u s
h a v e m a d e h o m o p h o b i c or s e x i s t r e m a r k s , o r
t o l d r a c i s t j o k e s , or m a d e l e w d c o m m e n t s to
w o m e n o n the street? H o w m a n y of us h a v e t r a n s l a
t e d those ideas a n d those w o r d s i n t o
a c t i o n s , by p h y s i c a l l y a t t a c k i n g gay m e n , or f
o r c i n g or c a j o l i n g a w o m a n to h a v e s e x e v e n
t h o u g h she d i d n ' t r e a l l y w a n t to because it w a s i m
p o r t a n t to score?
POWER AND POWERLESSNESS IN THE LIVES OF MEN
I h a v e a r g u e d that h o m o p h o b i a , m e n ' s fear o f
other m e n , is the a n i m a t i n g c o n d i t i o n of the
d o m i n a n t d e f i n i t i o n o f m a s c u l i n i t y i n A m e r
i c a , that the r e i g n i n g d e f i n i t i o n o f m a s c u l i n i
t y
is a d e f e n s i v e e f f o r t to p r e v e n t b e i n g e m a s c u
l a t e d . I n o u r e f f o r t s to s u p p r e s s o r o v e r c o m e
those fears, the d o m i n a n t c u l t u r e e x a c t s a t r e m e
n d o u s p r i c e f r o m those d e e m e d less t h a n
f u l l y m a n l y : w o m e n , gay m e n , n o n n a t i v e - b o
r n m e n , m e n o f c o l o r . T h i s p e r s p e c t i v e m a y
h e l p c l a r i f y a p a r a d o x i n m e n ' s l i v e s , a p a r a
d o x i n w h i c h m e n h a v e v i r t u a l l y a l l the p o w e r
a n d yet do n o t feel p o w e r f u l .
M a n h o o d is equated w i t h p o w e r — o v e r w o m e n , o

21. v e r other m e n . E v e r y w h e r e w e l o o k ,
w e see the i n s t i t u t i o n a l e x p r e s s i o n of t h a t p o
w e r — i n state a n d n a t i o n a l legislatu r es , o n
the b o a r d s of d i r e c t o r s o f e v e r y m a j o r U . S . c o
r p o r a t i o n or l a w f i r m , a n d i n e v e r y s c h o o l
a n d h o s p i t a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . W o m e n h a v e l
o n g u n d e r s t o o d t h i s , a n d f e m i n i s t w o m e n h a
v e
spent the past three decades c h a l l e n g i n g b o t h the p u b
l i c a n d the p r i v a t e e x p r e s s i o n s o f
m e n ' s p o w e r a n d a c k n o w l e d g i n g t h e i r fear of
m e n . F e m i n i s m as a set of t h e o r i e s b o t h
e x p l a i n s w o m e n ' s fear o f m e n a n d e m p o w e r s w
o m e n to c o n f r o n t it b o t h p u b l i c l y a n d
p r i v a t e l y . F e m i n i s t w o m e n h a v e t h e o r i z e d t
h a t m a s c u l i n i t y is a b o u t the d r i v e f o r d o m i n a
-
t i o n , the d r i v e f o r p o w e r , f o r c o n q u e s t .
T h i s f e m i n i s t d e f i n i t i o n of m a s c u l i n i t y as
the d r i v e f o r p o w e r is t h e o r i z e d f r o m w o m e n ' s
p o i n t o f v i e w . I t is h o w w o m e n e x p e r i e n c e m a
s c u l i n i t y . B u t it assumes a s y m m e t r y b e t w e e n
the p u b l i c a n d the p r i v a t e that does not c o n f o r m to
m e n ' s e x p e r i e n c e s . F e m i n i s t s observe
t h a t w o m e n , as a g r o u p , do n o t h o l d p o w e r i n o
u r society. T h e y also observe that i n d i v i d u -
ally, they, as w o m e n , do n o t feel p o w e r f u l . T h e y
feel a f r a i d , v u l n e r a b l e . T h e i r o b s e r v a t i o n
o f the s o c i a l r e a l i t y a n d t h e i r i n d i v i d u a l e x p
e r i e n c e s are t h e r e f o r e s y m m e t r i c a l . F e m i n i
s m
also observes that m e n , as a g r o u p , are i n p o w e r . T h u
s , w i t h the same s y m m e t r y , f e m i n i s m
has tended to assume t h a t i n d i v i d u a l l y m e n m u s t f
e e l p o w e r f u l .

22. T h i s is w h y the f e m i n i s t c r i t i q u e o f m a s c u l i n
i t y o f t e n falls o n deaf ears w i t h m e n . W h e n
c o n f r o n t e d w i t h the a n a l y s i s t h a t m e n h a v e a l
l the p o w e r , m a n y m e n r e a c t i n c r e d u l o u s l y .
" W h a t d o y o u m e a n , m e n h a v e a l l the p o w e r ? "
they ask. " W h a t are y o u t a l k i n g about? M y
w i f e bosses m e a r o u n d . M y k i d s boss me a r o u n d .
M y boss bosses m e a r o u n d . I h a v e n o
p o w e r at a l l ! I ' m c o m p l e t e l y p o w e r l e s s ! "
M e n ' s feelings are n o t the feelings of the p o w e r f u l , but
o f those w h o see t h e m s e l v e s as
p o w e r l e s s . T h e s e are the feelings that c o m e i n e v i t
a b l y f r o m the d i s c o n t i n u i t y b e t w e e n the
s o c i a l a n d the p s y c h o l o g i c a l , b e t w e e n the
aggregate a n a l y s i s t h a t reveals h o w m e n are i n
p o w e r as a g r o u p a n d the p s y c h o l o g i c a l fact that
they do n o t feel p o w e r f u l as i n d i v i d u a l s .
T h e y are the feelings of m e n w h o w e r e r a i s e d to
believe t h e m s e l v e s e n t i t l e d to f e e l that
p o w e r , but do n o t feel i t . N o w o n d e r m a n y m e n
are f r u s t r a t e d a n d angry.
T h e d i m e n s i o n of p o w e r is n o w r e i n s e r t e d i n t
o m e n ' s e x p e r i e n c e n o t o n l y as the p r o d -
uct o f i n d i v i d u a l e x p e r i e n c e but also as the p r o d
u c t o f r e l a t i o n s w i t h o t h e r m e n . I n t h i s
sense, m e n ' s e x p e r i e n c e o f p o w e r l e s s n e s s is
real—the m e n a c t u a l l y f e e l i t a n d c e r t a i n l y act
P A T R I A R C H Y T H E S Y S T E M | 335
o f t h e m — a r e o p p r e s s i v e p e o p l e . N o t s u r p r i

23. s i n g l y , m a n y m e n take it p e r s o n a l l y i f s o m e o n
e
m e r e l y m e n t i o n s p a t r i a r c h y or the o p p r e s s i o
n of w o m e n , b r i s t l i n g at w h a t t h e y o f t e n see
as a w a y to m a k e t h e m feel guilty. A n d s o m e w o m e n
feel free to b l a m e i n d i v i d u a l m e n
f o r p a t r i a r c h y s i m p l y because t h e y ' r e m e n . S o
m e o f the t i m e , m e n f e e l d e f e n s i v e because
they i d e n t i f y w i t h p a t r i a r c h y a n d its v a l u e s a n
d d o n ' t w a n t to face the consequences these
p r o d u c e or the p r o s p e c t of g i v i n g up m a l e p r i v i
l e g e . B u t d e f e n s i v e n e s s m o r e o f t e n reflects
a c o m m o n c o n f u s i o n a b o u t the d i f f e r e n c e b e t
w e e n p a t r i a r c h y as a k i n d o f society a n d the
p e o p l e w h o p a r t i c i p a t e i n it. I f w e ' r e ever g o i n
g to w o r k t o w a r d r e a l c h a n g e , i t ' s a c o n f u -
s i o n w e ' l l h a v e to c l e a r u p .
T o d o t h i s , w e h a v e to r e a l i z e that w e ' r e s t u c k i
n a m o d e l of s o c i a l life that v i e w s
e v e r y t h i n g as b e g i n n i n g a n d e n d i n g w i t h i n d
i v i d u a l s . L o o k i n g at things i n this w a y , w e t e n d
to t h i n k that i f e v i l e x i s t s i n the w o r l d , i t ' s o n l
y because there are e v i l people w h o h a v e
e n t e r e d i n t o a n e v i l c o n s p i r a c y . R a c i s m e x i
s t s , f o r e x a m p l e , s i m p l y because w h i t e p e o p l e
are r a c i s t bigots w h o hate m e m b e r s o f r a c i a l a n d e
t h n i c m i n o r i t i e s a n d w a n t to do t h e m
h a r m . T h e r e is gender o p p r e s s i o n because m e n w a
n t a n d l i k e to d o m i n a t e w o m e n a n d act
o u t h o s t i l i t y t o w a r d t h e m . T h e r e is p o v e r t y a
n d class o p p r e s s i o n because p e o p l e in the
u p p e r classes are greedy, heartless, a n d c r u e l . T h e f l i
p side o f this i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c m o d e l o f
g u i l t a n d b l a m e is that r a c e , gender, a n d class o p p r
e s s i o n are a c t u a l l y not o p p r e s s i o n at a l l ,

24. b u t m e r e l y the s u m o f i n d i v i d u a l f a i l i n g s o n
the p a r t o f b l a c k s , w o m e n , a n d the p o o r , w h o
l a c k the r i g h t s t u f f to c o m p e t e s u c c e s s f u l l y w
i t h w h i t e s , m e n , a n d o t h e r s w h o k n o w h o w
to m a k e s o m e t h i n g o f t h e m s e l v e s .
W h a t t h i s k i n d o f t h i n k i n g ignores is t h a t w e are a
l l p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n s o m e t h i n g l a r g e r
t h a n o u r s e l v e s or any c o l l e c t i o n of us. O n some l
e v e l , most people are f a m i l i a r w i t h the
i d e a t h a t s o c i a l life i n v o l v e s us i n s o m e t h i n g
larger t h a n o u r s e l v e s , but f e w seem to k n o w
w h a t to d o w i t h that i d e a . . . . H o w , f o r e x a m p l e ,
d o w e p a r t i c i p a t e i n p a t r i a r c h y , a n d h o w
does that l i n k us to the c o n s e q u e n c e s it p r o d u c e s
? H o w is w h a t w e t h i n k o f as " n o r m a l "
h f e r e l a t e d to m a l e d o m i n a n c e , w o m e n ' s o p p
r e s s i o n , a n d the h i e r a r c h i c a l , c o n t r o l - o b s e
s s e d
w o r l d i n w h i c h they, a n d o u r h v e s , are e m b e d d e
d ?
W i t h o u t a s k i n g s u c h questions w e c a n ' t u n d e r s t
a n d gender f u l l y a n d w e a v o i d t a k i n g
r e s p o n s i b i h t y either f o r o u r s e l v e s or f o r p a t r i
a r c h y . I n s t e a d , " t h e s y s t e m " serves as a vagu e,
u n a r t i c u l a t e d c a t c h - a l l , a d u m p i n g g r o u n d
f o r s o c i a l p r o b l e m s , a scapegoat that c a n n e v e r
be h e l d to a c c o u n t a n d that, f o r a l l the p o w e r w e t
h i n k it h a s , c a n ' t t a l k b a c k o r a c t u a l l y
do a n y t h i n g . . . .
I f w e see p a t r i a r c h y as n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n m e n '
s a n d w o m e n ' s i n d i v i d u a l p e r s o n a l i t i e s ,
m o t i v a t i o n s , a n d b e h a v i o r , for e x a m p l e , t h e
n it p r o b a b l y w o n ' t e v e n o c c u r to us to a s k

25. a b o u t l a r g e r c o n t e x t s — s u c h as i n s t i t u t i o n s
l i k e the f a m i l y , r e l i g i o n , a n d the e c o n o m y — a
n d
h o w p e o p l e ' s l i v e s are s h a p e d i n r e l a t i o n to t h
e m . F r o m this k i n d o f i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c perspec-
t i v e , w e m i g h t a s k w h y a p a r t i c u l a r m a n r a p e
d , h a r a s s e d , or beat a w o m a n . W e w o u l d n ' t
ask, h o w e v e r , w h a t k i n d o f society w o u l d p r o m o
t e persistent patterns o f s u c h b e h a v i o r
i n e v e r y d a y l i f e , f r o m w i f e - b e a t i n g j o k e s to
the r o u t i n e i n c l u s i o n o f s e x u a l c o e r c i o n a n d
v i o l e n c e i n m a i n s t r e a m m o v i e s . . . .
I f the goal is to change the w o r l d , this w o n ' t help u s .
We need to see a n d deal w i t h the
s o c i a l roots that generate a n d n u r t u r e the s o c i a l p r
o b l e m s that are r e f l e c t e d i n the b e h a v i o r
o f i n d i v i d u a l s . W e c a n ' t d o this w i t h o u t r e a l i
z i n g t h a t w e a l l p a r t i c i p a t e i n s o m e t h i n g l a r
g e r
t h a n o u r s e l v e s , s o m e t h i n g w e d i d n ' t create but
that w e h a v e the p o w e r to affect t h r o u g h
the c h o i c e s w e m a k e a b o u t how to p a r t i c i p a t e .
T h a t s o m e t h i n g l a r g e r is p a t r i a r c h y , w h i c h
is m o r e t h a n a c o l l e c t i o n of i n d i v i d u a l s ( s u c
h
as " m e n " ) . I t is a s y s t e m , w h i c h m e a n s it c a n ' t
be r e d u c e d to the people w h o p a r t i c i p a t e
i n i t . . . .
[ P ] a t r i a r c h y [is] a k i n d of society that is m o r e t h a n
a c o l l e c t i o n of w o m e n a n d m e n a n d
c a n ' t be u n d e r s t o o d s i m p l y by u n d e r s t a n d i n
g t h e m . We are not patriarchy, n o m o r e t h a n

26. PATRIARCHY, T H E S Y S T E M | 337
" m a s c u l i n e " ) , a n d to l a c k s u c h p o w e r o r to be r
e l u c t a n t to use it is seen as w e a k i f n o t
c o n t e m p t i b l e ( a n d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y " f e m
i n i n e " ) .
G o i n g deeper i n t o p a t r i a r c h a l c u l t u r e , w e f i n
d a c o m p l e x w e b of ideas that d e f i n e r e a l i t y
a n d w h a t ' s c o n s i d e r e d g o o d a n d d e s i r a b l e . T
o see the w o r l d t h r o u g h p a t r i a r c h a l eyes is to
b e l i e v e that w o m e n a n d m e n are p r o f o u n d l y d i f
f e r e n t i n t h e i r basic n a t u r e s , t h a t h i e r a r c h y
is the o n l y a l t e r n a t i v e to c h a o s , a n d that m e n w e
r e m a d e i n the image o f a m a s c u l i n e G o d
w i t h w h o m they enjoy a special r e l a t i o n s h i p . I t is
to take as o b v i o u s the i d e a that there are
t w o a n d o n l y t w o d i s t i n c t g e n d e r s ; that p a t r i a
r c h a l h e t e r o s e x u a h t y is " n a t u r a l " a n d same-
s e x a t t r a c t i o n is n o t ; that because m e n n e i t h e r
bear n o r breast-feed c h i l d r e n , they c a n n o t
f e e l a c o m p e l l i n g b o d i l y c o n n e c t i o n to t h e m
; t h a t o n s o m e l e v e l e v e r y w o m a n , w h e t h e r
h e t e r o s e x u a l or l e s b i a n , w a n t s a " r e a l m a n "
w h o k n o w s h o w to " t a k e c h a r g e o f t h i n g s , "
i n c l u d i n g h e r ; that f e m a l e s c a n ' t be t r u s t e d , e
s p e c i a l l y w h e n t h e y ' r e m e n s t r u a t i n g or
accus-
i n g m e n o f s e x u a l m i s c o n d u c t . T o e m b r a c e p
a t r i a r c h y is to believe that m o t h e r s s h o u l d
stay h o m e a n d that f a t h e r s s h o u l d w o r k o u t o f the
h o m e , regardless of m e n ' s a n d w o m e n ' s
a c t u a l a b i l i t i e s or needs. I t is to b u y i n t o the n o t i
o n that w o m e n are w e a k a n d m e n are

27. s t r o n g , t h a t w o m e n a n d c h i l d r e n need m e n to s
u p p o r t a n d p r o t e c t t h e m , a l l i n spite o f
the fact t h a t i n m a n y w a y s m e n are n o t the p h y s i c a
l l y stronger s e x , t h a t vv'omen p e r f o r m a
huge share of h a r d p h y s i c a l labor i n m a n y societies ( o
f t e n larger t h a n m e n ' s ) , t h a t w o m e n ' s
p h y s i c a l e n d u r a n c e tends to be greater t h a n m e n ' s
o v e r the l o n g h a u l , that w o m e n t e n d to
be m o r e capable of e n d u r i n g p a i n a n d e m o t i o n a l
stress. A n d yet s u c h e v i d e n c e m e a n s l i t t l e
i n the face o f a p a t r i a r c h a l c u l t u r e that dictates h o
w things ought to be . . . .
T o l i v e i n a p a t r i a r c h a l c u l t u r e is to l e a r n w h a
t ' s e x p e c t e d o f us as m e n a n d w o m e n , the
r u l e s that regulate p u n i s h m e n t a n d r e w a r d based
on h o w w e behave a n d appear. T h e s e
r u l e s range f r o m l a w s that r e q u i r e m e n to f i g h t i
n w a r s n o t o f t h e i r o w n c h o o s i n g to
c u s t o m a r y e x p e c t a t i o n s that m o t h e r s w i l l p r
o v i d e c h i l d c a r e , or that w h e n a w o m a n s h o w s
s e x u a l interest i n a m a n or m e r e l y s m i l e s or acts f r
i e n d l y , she gives up her r i g h t to say n o
a n d c o n t r o l h e r o w n body. A n d to l i v e u n d e r p a t
r i a r c h y is to take i n t o o u r s e l v e s s h a r e d
w a y s of f e e l i n g — t h e h o s t i l e c o n t e m p t f o r f e
m a l e n e s s that f o r m s the c o r e of m i s o g y n y
a n d p r e s u m p t i o n s o f male s u p e r i o r i t y , the r i d
i c u l e m e n d i r e c t at other m e n w h o s h o w
signs o f v u l n e r a b i h t y or w e a k n e s s , or the fear a n
d i n s e c u r i t y that e v e r y w o m a n m u s t d e a l
w i t h w h e n she e x e r c i s e s the r i g h t to m o v e f r e e l
y i n the w o r l d , e s p e c i a l l y at n i g h t a n d by
herself. S u c h ideas m a k e up the s y m b o l i c sea w e s w i
m i n a n d the a i r w e b r e a t h e . T h e y are
the p r i m a r y w e l l f r o m w h i c h s p r i n g s h o w w e t

28. h i n k about o u r s e l v e s , other p e o p l e , a n d
the w o r l d . A s s u c h , they p r o v i d e a t a k e n - f o r - g
r a n t e d e v e r y d a y reality, the setting f o r o u r
i n t e r a c t i o n s w i t h o t h e r p e o p l e that c o n t i n u a
l l y f a s h i o n a n d r e f a s h i o n a s h a r e d sense o f
w h a t the w o r l d is a b o u t a n d w h o w e are i n r e l a t i
o n to i t . T h i s d o e s n ' t m e a n that the ideas
u n d e r l y i n g p a t r i a r c h y d e t e r m i n e w h a t w e t
h i n k , f e e l , a n d d o , but it does m e a n they d e f i n e
w h a t w e ' l l h a v e to deal with as w e p a r t i c i p a t e i n
i t .
T h e p r o m i n e n t p l a c e of m i s o g y n y i n p a t r i a r c
h a l c u l t u r e , f o r e x a m p l e , d o e s n ' t m e a n that
e v e r y m a n a n d w o m a n c o n s c i o u s l y hates a l l
things f e m a l e . B u t it does m e a n that to the
e x t e n t that w e d o n ' t f e e l s u c h h a t r e d , i t ' s in
spite o/" paths o f least resistance c o n t a i n e d i n
o u r c u l t u r e . C o m p l e t e f r e e d o m f r o m s u c h
feelings a n d j u d g m e n t s is a l l but i m p o s s i b l e . I t
is
c e r t a i n l y possible f o r h e t e r o s e x u a l m e n to l o v e
w o m e n w i t h o u t m e n t a l l y f r a g m e n t i n g t h e m
i n t o breasts, b u t t o c k s , genitals, a n d o t h e r v a r i o u
s l y desirable p a r t s . I t is possible f o r w o m e n
to f e e l good about t h e i r bodies, to n o t judge t h e m s e l v
e s as being too fat, to n o t abuse
t h e m s e l v e s to one degree or a n o t h e r i n p u r s u i t o
f i m p o s s i b l e m a l e - i d e n t i f i e d s t a n d a r d s
o f beauty a n d s e x u a l a t t r a c t i v e n e s s . A l l of t h i
s is p o s s i b l e ; but to l i v e i n p a t r i a r c h y is to
b r e a t h e i n m i s o g y n i s t images o f w o m e n as o b j e
c t i f i e d s e x u a l p r o p e r t y v a l u e d p r i m a r i l y
f o r t h e i r usefulness to m e n . T h i s f i n d s its w a y i n t
o e v e r y o n e w h o g r o w s up b r e a t h i n g a n d
s w i m m i n g i n i t , a n d once inside us i t r e m a i n s , h o

29. w e v e r u n a w a r e of it w e m a y be. S o , w h e n
I S E X I S M
s u p r e m a c y and w o m e n ' s "purity," and the s a m e
religiously based heteronormative mindset that
has now allowed thirty (and counting) states to mandate that
marriage is only between a man
and a woman. T h u s , while the more things have certainly
changed for the better for women In
this country, the more they s e e k to stay the s a m e by
working to diminish w o m e n ' s rights and
ultimately maintain s e x i s m in this society.
Returning to my students' question then, exactly how c a n all
this happen well over a d e c a d e
into the twenty-first century; how does this system of
oppression work? Most simply, oppression
involves a dominant group (the group p o s s e s s i n g societal
power) exerting both ideological and
structural control over a subordinate group (the group without
societal power) in order to benefit
the dominant group. Importantly, the dominant group d o e s not
have to be the numeric majority
(as is the c a s e with men in the United States since they make
up only 48 percent of the popula-
tion), but simply has to be in control of the most significant
structures of power in the society.
In the c a s e of s e x i s m , the ideological control c o m e s
through the creation and enforcement of
socially constructed gender roles, while the structural control
arises from the u s e of cultural and
institutional power held by men to deny resources to and extract
resources from women for the

30. benefit of men. T h e symbiotic nature of these two forms of
control then work together to create
the dominant and subordinate statuses, a s s i g n meaning to
them (through gender stereotypes
and assumptions), and then use them to justify a system of
gender inequality that benefits men.
Over time, this system b e c o m e s omnipresent and
naturalized, thus becoming self-maintaining
and self-reinforced (hegemony). Comprehending how these two
components operate is an
essential step in being able to challenge sexism and is,
therefore, the focus of this entire section.
IDEOLOGICAL CONTROL AND GENDER
Understanding how gender supports s e x i s m requires the
explanation of a few key concepts s u c h
a s gender roles, gender socialization, and gender identity.
Socially constructed gender roles are
the rigid categories (and there are only two) that characterize
what it m e a n s to be "feminine"
and "masculine" in this society. T h e y are clearly articulated,
ruthlessly enforced, and inflexible
in their expression. Men do not cry, women should a l w a y s
look beautiful (for men), men never
a s k for directions, women are "natural" caretakers, men are
tough, women are emotional, men
are studs, women are domestic, and so on. T h e s e roles are
taught to us by a p r o c e s s of gender
socialization ( s e e Harro, selection 6) whereby the m e s s a g
e s of what it m e a n s to be a man or
w o m a n are conveyed to us by every possible socializing
structure in society—our families tell us
how to behave, our s c h o o l s tell us what w e c a n achieve,
and our media tells us what w e need to
look like. And b e c a u s e people who identify a s women make

31. up over half of the U.S. population,
this socialization begins before birth to ensure the highest level
of compliance from w o m e n , a s
well a s men.
There are four characteristics of gender roles that ideologically
support the overarching
structures of s e x i s m , heterosexism, and transgender
oppression, and the intersections between
them. T h e first is that while these gender roles are social
constructions (something created by
the dominant social identity group, i.e. men, and then repeatedly
reinforced through socialization
s o they s e e m real), the story w e are actually told in this
society is that masculinity and femininity
are biological instead of socially constructed, natural rather
than cultural, inherent to being a
man or a w o m a n and not learned behaviors. T h u s , even
though there is no c a u s a l relationship
between one's biology and one's gender identity, the instilling
of these gender roles and rules
in us from the moment we are born m a k e s it appear a s if
there is, thereby implying that w e are
physiologically marked with these gender roles from birth and
they cannot be c h a n g e d . A s a
result, the sexist dynamics inherent in these socially constructed
gender roles (e.g. women are
See Chapter 8 in Teaching for Diversity and Social Justice for
corresponding
teaching materials.
SECTION 5

32. S E J U s I T " " " " " "
Introduction
Heather W. Hackman
Question: How do you manage to oppress over 50 percent of
this society's population and not
have a revolution on your hands? Answer: You make it seem
"normal." So normal, in fact, that
to question it would be akin to asking a fish about water. In the
college classes I teach, students
often illustrate this by denying examples of sexism and saying,
"That's just the way it's always
been." Even the most overt examples of sexism go unquestioned
because these students have
been completely immersed in the incessant narrative of sexism
and know nothing else . . . "it's
normal." Fortunately, however, once students do begin to see
sexism in its various manifestations
they want to know how on earth this is possible in a society that
espouses "liberty and justice
for all." This is an important question—how did we get to a
place where economic inequality for
women, violence against women, and the denial of women's
basic rights over their own lives and
bodies are still so commonplace and still so unquestioned?
In early 2012, as the election year continued to pick up steam,
Melissa Harris-Perry of MSNBC
asked a similar question: "Who would have thought in 2012 that
contraception would be a matter
of debate again?" (Harris-Perry, February 21, 2012). Who
indeed. And yet, the use of women's
legal rights, bodies, and overall role in society as a battleground

33. for the 2012 political campaigns
did just that. Were this the seventeenth century, the absolute
control of women legally, eco-
nomically, and physically in the name of politics and nation
building would be commonplace
and go unquestioned. Over the last century, however, women
have steadily gained myriad rights
regarding the control of their lives and bodies (e.g. Roe v. Wade
in 1973), making the current
encroachments on those rights more obviously problematic.
Specifically, in the name of political
expediency and the (re)assertion of male power, we are again
seeing efforts to control women's
legal rights (i.e. diluting national laws like the Violence
Against Women Act), economic rights
(popular demands that women leave the workplace so
unemployed men can have their jobs),
and bodies (decreasing contraception access for many women).
Citing these examples and
more, many observers described the tone regarding women in
the 2012 election campaigns as
single-mindedly regressive, and it was; not only in how it
attacked women's rights, but in how
it deeply wove class, race, and Christian hegemony into the
efforts to do so. For example, the
political lauding of the cult of (compulsory) motherhood and the
assertion that to stay home and
raise children is the highest and only calling a woman can have
was not only sexist, but also
deeply rooted in the class privilege of being able to afford to
stay home, a racial history of white
338 S E X I S M

34. w e h e a r or e x p r e s s s e x i s t j o k e s a n d o t h e r f o r
m s o f m i s o g y n y w e m a y n o t r e c o g n i z e i t , a n d
even i f w e d o , say n o t h i n g r a t h e r t h a n r i s k other p
e o p l e t h i n k i n g w e ' r e " t o o s e n s i t i v e " or,
e s p e c i a l l y i n the case of m e n , " n o t one of the g u y s
. " I n either case, w e are i n v o l v e d , if o n l y
by o u r s i l e n c e .
T h e s y m b o l s a n d ideas that m a k e u p p a t r i a r c h a l
c u l t u r e are i m p o r t a n t to u n d e r s t a n d
because t h e y h a v e s u c h p o w e r f u l effects o n the s t r
u c t u r e of social l i f e . B y " s t r u c t u r e , " I
m e a n the w a y s that gender p r i v i l e g e a n d o p p r e s s
i o n are o r g a n i z e d t h r o u g h s o c i a l r e l a t i o n -
s h i p s a n d u n e q u a l d i s t r i b u t i o n s of r e w a r d s ,
o p p o r t u n i t i e s , a n d r e s o u r c e s . T h i s a p p e a r s
i n
c o u n t l e s s p a t t e r n s of e v e r y d a y h f e i n f a m i l y
a n d w o r k , r e l i g i o n a n d p o l i t i c s , c o m m u n i t y
a n d e d u c a t i o n . I t is f o u n d i n f a m i l y d i v i s i o n
s o f l a b o r that e x e m p t fathers f r o m m o s t
d o m e s t i c w o r k even w h e n b o t h p a r e n t s w o r k
outside the h o m e , a n d i n the c o n c e n t r a t i o n
o f w o m e n i n l o w e r - l e v e l p i n k - c o l l a r jobs a n d
male p r e d o m i n a n c e a l m o s t e v e r y w h e r e else.
I t is i n the u n e q u a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of i n c o m e a n d
a l l that goes w i t h it, f r o m access to h e a l t h
care to the a v a i l a b i l i t y of l e i s u r e t i m e . I t is i n p
a t t e r n s o f m a l e v i o l e n c e a n d h a r a s s m e n t
that can t u r n a s i m p l e w a l k i n the p a r k or a t y p i c a
l d a y at w o r k or a l o v e r s ' q u a r r e l i n t o
a l i f e - t h r e a t e n i n g n i g h t m a r e . Adore than a n y t
h i n g , the s t r u c t u r e of p a t r i a r c h y is f o u n d i n
the u n e q u a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of p o w e r that m a k e s o
p p r e s s i o n p o s s i b l e , i n p a t t e r n s o f m a l e
d o m i n a n c e i n e v e r y facet of h u m a n l i f e , f r o m e

35. v e r y d a y c o n v e r s a t i o n to global p o l i t i c s . B y
its n a t u r e , p a t r i a r c h y puts issues of p o w e r , d o m i
n a n c e , a n d c o n t r o l at the center of h u m a n
e x i s t e n c e , n o t o n l y in r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e
n m e n a n d w o m e n , but a m o n g m e n as they
c o m p e t e a n d struggle to gain status, m a i n t a i n c o n t r
o l , a n d p r o t e c t t h e m s e l v e s f r o m w h a t
o t h e r m e n m i g h t do to t h e m .
THE SYSTEM IN US IN THE SYSTEM
O n e o f the m o s t d i f f i c u l t things to accept about p a t r
i a r c h y is that w e ' r e i n v o l v e d i n i t ,
w h i c h m e a n s w e ' r e also i n v o l v e d i n its c o n s e q
u e n c e s . T h i s is e s p e c i a l l y h a r d f o r m e n w h o
refuse to believe t h e y b e n e f i t f r o m w o m e n ' s o p p r
e s s i o n , because they c a n ' t see h o w t h i s
c o u l d h a p p e n w i t h o u t t h e i r b e i n g p e r s o n a l l
y o p p r e s s i v e i n t h e i r i n t e n t i o n s , f e e l i n g s , a
n d
b e h a v i o r . F o r m a n y m e n , being t o l d t h e y ' r e
involved i n o p p r e s s i o n c a n o n l y m e a n they are
o p p r e s s i v e .
A c o m m o n defense against this is to a t t r i b u t e e v e r y t
h i n g to " s o c i e t y " as s o m e t h i n g
e x t e r n a l a n d a u t o n o m o u s , w i t h w a n t s , needs, i
n t e r e s t s , a n d the p o w e r to c o n t r o l p e o p l e
by m a k i n g t h e m i n t o one s o r t o f p e r s o n or a n o t h
e r . . . .
Societies d o n ' t e x i s t w i t h o u t people p a r t i c i p a t i
n g i n t h e m , w h i c h m e a n s that w e c a n ' t
u n d e r s t a n d p a t r i a r c h y unless w e also ask h o w p e
o p l e are c o n n e c t e d to it a n d h o w this
c o n n e c t i o n v a r i e s , d e p e n d i n g on s o c i a l c h a

36. r a c t e r i s t i c s s u c h as race, gender, e t h n i c i t y , age,
a n d class. . . .
F r o m this p e r s p e c t i v e , who w e a n d other p e o p l e t
h i n k w e are has a lot to do w i t h where
w e are in r e l a t i o n to social systems a n d a l l the p o s i t i
o n s that p e o p l e occupy. W e w o u l d n ' t
e x i s t as s o c i a l beings if it w e r e n ' t f o r o u r p a r t i c
i p a t i o n i n one s o c i a l s y s t e m or a n o t h e r .
I t ' s h a r d to i m a g i n e just w h o w e ' d be a n d w h a t o
u r e x i s t e n c e w o u l d consist o f i f w e t o o k
a w a y a l l of o u r c o n n e c t i o n s to the s y m b o l s ,
ideas, a n d r e l a t i o n s h i p s that m a k e up s o c i a l
systems. . . .
I n t h i s sense, l i k e a l l s o c i a l s y s t e m s , p a t r i a r c
h y e x i s t s o n l y t h r o u g h p e o p l e ' s l i v e s .
T h r o u g h t h i s , p a t r i a r c h y ' s v a r i o u s aspects are
there f o r us to see o v e r a n d o v e r a g a i n .
T h i s has t w o i m p o r t a n t i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r h o w
w e u n d e r s t a n d p a t r i a r c h y . F i r s t , to s o m e
e x t e n t p e o p l e e x p e r i e n c e p a t r i a r c h y as e x t e
r n a l to t h e m ; b u t t h i s d o e s n ' t m e a n t h a t i t ' s
336 I S E X I S M
p e o p l e w h o believe i n A l l a h are I s l a m or C a n a d i a
n s are C a n a d a . P a t r i a r c h y is a k i n d of
society o r g a n i z e d a r o u n d c e r t a i n k i n d s of s o c i
a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s a n d ideas. A s i n d i v i d u a l s ,
w e p a r t i c i p a t e i n i t . P a r a d o x i c a l l y , o u r p a r
t i c i p a t i o n both shapes o u r l i v e s a n d gives us the
o p p o r t u n i t y to be p a r t of c h a n g i n g or p e r p e t u a
t i n g it. B u t we are not it, w h i c h m e a n s that

37. p a t r i a r c h y c a n e x i s t w i t h o u t m e n h a v i n g " o
p p r e s s i v e p e r s o n a l i t i e s " or a c t i v e l y c o n s p
i r i n g
w i t h one a n o t h e r to d e f e n d m a l e p r i v i l e g e . T o
d e m o n s t r a t e that gender o p p r e s s i o n e x i s t s ,
w e d o n ' t h a v e to s h o w that m e n are v i l l a i n s , that
w o m e n are g o o d - h e a r t e d v i c t i m s , that
w o m e n d o n ' t p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e i r o w n o p p r e s
s i o n , or that m e n n e v e r oppose it. I f a society
is o p p r e s s i v e , then p e o p l e w h o g r o w up a n d live i
n it w i l l tend to accept, i d e n t i f y w i t h ,
a n d p a r t i c i p a t e i n it as " n o r m a l " a n d u n r e m a r
k a b l e l i f e . T h a t ' s the path of least resistance
i n a n y s y s t e m . I t ' s h a r d n o t to f o l l o w i t , g i v e
n h o w w e d e p e n d o n society a n d its r e w a r d s
a n d p u n i s h m e n t s that hinge o n g o i n g a l o n g w i t h
the status q u o . W h e n o p p r e s s i o n is w o v e n
i n t o the f a b r i c o f e v e r y d a y l i f e , w e d o n ' t n e e
d to go o u t of o u r w a y to be o v e r l y o p p r e s s i v e
i n o r d e r f o r a n o p p r e s s i v e s y s t e m to p r o d u c e
o p p r e s s i v e c o n s e q u e n c e s . A s the s a y i n g goes,
w h a t e v i l r e q u i r e s is s i m p l y that o r d i n a r y
people do n o t h i n g .
T h e c r u c i a l t h i n g to u n d e r s t a n d about p a t r i a r
c h y or a n y o t h e r k i n d of s o c i a l s y s t e m is
that i t ' s s o m e t h i n g p e o p l e p a r t i c i p a t e i n . I t '
s a n a r r a n g e m e n t o f s h a r e d u n d e r s t a n d i n g s
a n d
r e l a t i o n s h i p s that c o n n e c t p e o p l e to one a n o t h
e r a n d s o m e t h i n g l a r g e r t h a n t h e m s e l v e s . . .
.
PATRIARCHY
T h e k e y to u n d e r s t a n d i n g any system is to i d e n t i f

38. y its v a r i o u s parts a n d h o w t h e y ' r e
a r r a n g e d to f o r m a w h o l e . . . . P a t r i a r c h y ' s d e
f i n i n g elements are its m a l e - d o m i n a t e d , m a l e -
i d e n t i f i e d , a n d m a l e - c e n t e r e d c h a r a c t e r ,
but this is just the b e g i n n i n g . A t its c o r e , p a t r i a r c
h y
is a set of s y m b o l s a n d ideas that m a k e u p a c u l t u r e
e m b o d i e d by e v e r y t h i n g f r o m the
c o n t e n t of e v e r y d a y c o n v e r s a t i o n to l i t e r a t
u r e a n d f i l m . P a t r i a r c h a l c u l t u r e i n c l u d e s
ideas
about the n a t u r e of things, i n c l u d i n g m e n , w o m e n ,
a n d h u m a n i t y , w i t h m a n h o o d a n d
m a s c u l i n i t y m o s t c l o s e l y associated w i t h being h
u m a n a n d w o m a n h o o d a n d f e m i n i n i t y
relegated to the m a r g i n a l p o s i t i o n o f " o t h e r . " I t '
s about h o w s o c i a l l i f e is a n d h o w it's s u p -
p o s e d to be; about w h a t ' s e x p e c t e d of p e o p l e a n d
about h o w they f e e l . I t ' s about s t a n d a r d s
of f e m i n i n e beauty a n d m a s c u l i n e toughness, images
o f f e m i n i n e v u l n e r a b i h t y a n d m a s c u -
l i n e p r o t e c t i v e n e s s , of o l d e r m e n c o u p l e d w
i t h y o u n g w o m e n , of e l d e r l y w o m e n a l o n e . I t '
s
about d e f i n i n g w o m e n a n d m e n as opposites, about
the " n a t u r a l n e s s " of male aggr es s io n ,
c o m p e t i t i o n , a n d d o m i n a n c e a n d of f e m a l e c
a r i n g , c o o p e r a t i o n , a n d s u b o r d i n a t i o n . I t '
s
about the v a l u i n g of m a s c u l i n i t y a n d maleness a n d
the d e v a l u i n g of f e m i n i n i t y a n d f e m a l e -
ness. I t ' s about the p r i m a r y i m p o r t a n c e of a h u s b
a n d ' s career a n d the s e c o n d a r y status of
a w i f e ' s , a b o u t c h i l d care as a p r i o r i t y i n w o m e
n ' s l i v e s a n d its s e c o n d a r y i m p o r t a n c e i n
m e n ' s . I t ' s about the social a c c e p t a b i l i t y of anget,

39. rage, a n d toughness i n m e n but not i n
w o m e n , a n d of e a t i n g , tenderness, a n d v u l n e r a b i
l i t y i n w o m e n but n o t i n m e n .
A b o v e a l l , p a t r i a r c h a l c u l t u r e is about the c o r e
v a l u e o f c o n t r o l a n d d o m i n a t i o n in
a l m o s t e v e r y area o f h u m a n e x i s t e n c e . F r o m
the e x p r e s s i o n of e m o t i o n to e c o n o m i c s
to the n a t u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t , g a i n i n g a n d e x e r
c i s i n g c o n t r o l is a c o n t i n u i n g g o a l of great
i m p o r t a n c e . B e c a u s e of t h i s , the c o n c e p t of p
o w e r takes o n a n a r r o w d e f i n i t i o n i n t e r m s
o f " p o w e r o v e r " — t h e a b i l i t y to c o n t r o l o t h e
r s , events, r e s o u r c e s , or oneself i n spite of
r e s i s t a n c e — r a t h e r t h a n a l t e r n a t i v e s s u c h
as the a b i l i t y to c o o p e r a t e w i t h o t h e r s , to give
f r e e l y of oneself, or to feel a n d act i n h a r m o n y w i t h
n a t u r e . T o h a v e p o w e r o v e r a n d to
be p r e p a r e d to use it are d e f i n e d c u l t u r a l l y as g o
o d a n d desirable ( a n d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y
334 I S E X I S M
o n I t — b u t i t is n o t true, that i s , it does n o t a c c u r a t
e l y describe t h e i r c o n d i t i o n . I n c o n t r a s t
to w o m e n ' s l i v e s , m e n ' s hves are s t r u c t u r e d a r
o u n d r e l a t i o n s h i p s of p o w e r a n d m e n ' s dif-
f e r e n t i a l access to p o w e r , as w e l l as the d i f f e r e n
t i a l access to that p o w e t of m e n as a g r o u p .
O u r i m p e r f e c t a n a l y s i s of o u r o w n s i t u a t i o n
leads us to believe that w e m e n n e e d more
p o w e r , r a t h e r t h a n l e a d i n g us to s u p p o r t f e m i
n i s t s ' e f f o r t s to r e a r r a n g e p o w e r r e l a t i o n s h
i p s

40. a l o n g m o r e equitable l i n e s .
W h y , t h e n , do A m e t i c a n m e n fee! so p o w e r l e s s
? P a r t of the a n s w e r is because w e ' v e
c o n s t r u c t e d the r u l e s of m a n h o o d so t h a t o n l y
the tiniest f r a c t i o n of m e n c o m e to beUeve
t h a t they are the biggest o f w h e e l s , the s t u r d i e s t o f
o a k s , the m o s t v i r u l e n t r e p u d i a t o r s o f
f e m i n i n i t y , the most d a r i n g a n d aggressive. W e ' v e
m a n a g e d to d i s e m p o w e r the o v e r w h e l m -
i n g m a j o r i t y of A m e r i c a n m e n by other m e a n s —
s u c h as d i s c r i m i n a t i n g o n the basis of r a c e ,
class, ethnicity, age, o r s e x u a l p r e f e r e n c e .
O t h e r s still rehearse the poUtics of e x c l u s i o n , as i f by
c l e a r i n g a w a y the p l a y i n g field of
secure gender identity of any that w e d e e m less t h a n m a n
l y — w o m e n , gay m e n , n o n n a t i v e -
b o r n m e n , m e n of c o l o r — m i d d l e - c l a s s ,
straight, w h i t e m e n c a n r e g r o u n d their sense of
themselves w i t h o u t those h a u n t i n g fears a n d that deep
shame that they are u n m a n l y a n d w i l l
be e x p o s e d by other m e n . T h i s is the m a n h o o d of r
a c i s m , of s e x i s m , of h o m o p h o b i a . I t is
the m a n h o o d that is so c h r o n i c a l l y insecure that it
trembles at the idea of Ufting the ban o n
gays i n the mihtary, that is so threatened by w o m e n i n the w
o r k p l a c e that w o m e n become the
targets of s e x u a l harassment, that is so deeply f r i g h t e n e
d of e q u a l i t ) ' that it m u s t ensure that
the p l a y i n g field of male c o m p e t i t i o n remains
stacked against a l l n e w c o m e r s to the game.
E x c l u s i o n a n d escape h a v e been the d o m i n a n t m e
t h o d s A m e r i c a n m e n h a v e used to
k e e p their fears of h u m i l i a t i o n at bay. T h e fear of e m

41. a s c u l a t i o n by o t h e r m e n , of b e i n g
h u m i l i a t e d , of b e i n g seen as a sissy, is the l e i t m o t
i f i n m y r e a d i n g of the h i s t o r y of A m e r i c a n
m a n h o o d . M a s c u l i n i t y has become a relentless test
by w h i c h w e p r o v e to other m e n , to
w o m e n , a n d u l t i m a t e l y to o u r s e l v e s , that w e h
a v e s u c c e s s f u l l y m a s t e r e d the p a r t . T h e
restlessness that m e n feel today is n o t h i n g n e w i n A m e
r i c a n h i s t o r y ; w e h a v e been a n x i o u s
a n d restless f o r a l m o s t t w o c e n t u r i e s . N e i t h e r
e x c l u s i o n n o r escape has ever b r o u g h t us the
r e l i e f w e ' v e sought, a n d there is n o r e a s o n to t h i n
k that e i t h e r w i l l solve o u r p r o b l e m s n o w .
Peace o f m i n d , r e l i e f f r o m gender struggle, w i l l c o
m e o n l y f r o m a p o h t i c s of i n c l u s i o n , not
e x c l u s i o n , f r o m s t a n d i n g u p f o r e q u a l i t y a n
d j u s t i c e , a n d n o t by r u n n i n g away.
62
Patriarchy, the System
An It, Not a He, a Them, Or an Us
Allan G. Johnson
" W h e n y o u say p a t r i a r c h y , " a m a n c o m p l a i n e
d f r o m the rear o f the a u d i e n c e , " I k n o w w h a t
y o u really m e a n — m e ! " A lot o f p e o p l e h e a r " m e n
" w h e n e v e r s o m e o n e says " p a t r i a r c h y , "
so that c r i t i c i s m of gender o p p r e s s i o n is t a k e n to
m e a n that a i l m e n — e a c h a n d e v e r y one
330 I SEXISM

42. D a v i d L e v e r e i i z argues that " i d e o l o g i e s of m a n
h o o d h a v e f u n c t i o n e d p r i m a r i l y i n r e l a t i o n
to the gaze of male peers a n d m a l e a u t h o r i t y . " T h i n
k of h o w m e n boast to one a n o t h e r
o f t h e i r a c c o m p l i s h m e n t s — f r o m t h e i r latest s
e x u a l c o n q u e s t to the size o f the f i s h they
c a u g h t — a n d h o w w e c o n s t a n d y p a r a d e the m a
r k e r s of m a n h o o d — w e a l t h , p o w e r , status,
s e x y w o m e n — i n f r o n t o f other m e n , desperate f o r
t h e i r a p p r o v a l .
T h a t m e n p r o v e t h e i r m a n h o o d i n the eyes o f o t h
e r m e n is b o t h a c o n s e q u e n c e of
s e x i s m a n d one of its c h i e f p r o p s . " W o m e n h a v e
, i n m e n ' s m i n d s , s u c h a l o w p l a c e o n the
s o c i a l l a d d e r o f t h i s c o u n t r y t h a t it's useless to d
e f i n e y o u r s e l f i n t e r m s o f a w o m a n , " n o t e d
p l a y w r i g h t D a v i d M a m e t . " W h a t m e n n e e d is
m e n ' s a p p r o v a l . " W o m e n become a k i n d o f
c u r r e n c y that m e n use to i m p r o v e t h e i r r a n k i n g
o n the m a s c u l i n e s o c i a l scale. ( E v e n those
m o m e n t s of h e r o i c c o n q u e s t of w o m e n c a r r y ,
I b e l i e v e , a c u r r e n t of h o m o s o c i a l e v a l u a -
t i o n . ) M a s c u l i n i t y is a homosocial e n a c t m e n t .
W e test o u r s e l v e s , p e r f o r m h e r o i c feats, take
e n o r m o u s r i s k s , a l l because w e w a n t other m e n to
g r a n t us o u r m a n h o o d .
M a s c u l i n i t y as a h o m o s o c i a l e n a c t m e n t is f r
a u g h t w i t h danger, w i t h the r i s k o f f a i l u r e ,
a n d w i t h intense relentless c o m p e t i t i o n . " E v e r y m
a n y o u meet has a r a t i n g or a n estimate
of h i m s e l f w h i c h he n e v e r loses or f o r g e t s , " w r o
t e K e n n e t h W a y n e i n his p o p u l a r t u r n -
o f - t h e - c e n t u r y a d v i c e b o o k . " A m a n has his o

43. w n r a t i n g , a n d i n s t a n t l y he lays it alongside
of the other m a n . " A l m o s t a c e n t u r y later, a n o t h e r
m a n r e m a r k e d to p s y c h o l o g i s t S a m
O s h e r s o n that " [ b ] y the time y o u ' r e an a d u l t , it's
easy to t h i n k y o u ' r e a l w a y s i n c o m p e t i -
t i o n w i t h m e n , f o r the a t t e n t i o n o f w o m e n , i n s
p o r t s , at w o r k . "
MASCULINITY AS HOMOPHOBIA
H o m o p h o b i a is a c e n t r a l o r g a n i z i n g p r i n c i p
l e of o u r c u l t u r a l d e f i n i t i o n o f m a n h o o d .
H o m o p h o b i a is m o r e t h a n the i r r a t i o n a l fear of
gay m e n , m o r e t h a n the fear that w e m i g h t
be p e r c e i v e d as gay. " T h e w o r d 'faggot' has n o t h i n
g to d o w i t h h o m o s e x u a l e x p e r i e n c e
o r even w i t h fears o f h o m o s e x u a l s , " w r i t e s D a v
i d L e v e r e n z . " I t c o m e s o u t o f the d e p t h s
of m a n h o o d : a l a b e l of u l t i m a t e c o n t e m p t f o r
a n y o n e w h o seems sissy, u n t o u g h , u n c o o l . "
H o m o p h o b i a is the fear that o t h e r m e n w i l l u n m a
s k us, emasculate us, r e v e a l to us a n d the
w o r l d that w e do n o t m e a s u r e u p , that w e are n o t r e
a l m e n . W e are a f r a i d to let o t h e r m e n
see that fear. F e a r m a k e s us a s h a m e d , because the r e c
o g n i t i o n o f fear i n o u r s e l v e s is p r o o f
to o u r s e l v e s that w e are n o t as m a n l y as w e p r e t e n
d , that w e a r e , l i k e the y o u n g m a n i n a
p o e m by Yeats, " o n e t h a t r u f f l e s i n a m a n l y pose f
o r a l l his t i m i d h e a r t . " O u r fear is the fear
o f h u m i l i a t i o n . W e are a s h a m e d to be a f r a i d .
S h a m e leads to s i l e n c e — t h e silences that k e e p o t h
e r p e o p l e b e l i e v i n g t h a t w e a c t u -
a l l y a p p r o v e o f the things that are d o n e to w o m e n ,
to m i n o r i t i e s , to gays a n d lesbians

44. i n o u r c u l t u r e . T h e f r i g h t e n e d silence as w e s c u
r r y past a w o m a n being hassled by m e n
on the street. T h a t f u r t i v e silence w h e n m e n m a k e s
e x i s t or racist j o k e s i n a bar. T h a t
c l a m m y - h a n d e d silence w h e n guys i n the o f f i c e m
a k e g a y - b a s h i n g j o k e s . O u r fears are the
s o u r c e s o f o u r silences, a n d m e n ' s silence is w h a t
keeps the s y s t e m r u n n i n g . T h i s m i g h t
h e l p to e x p l a i n w h y w o m e n o f t e n c o m p l a i n t h
a t t h e i r m a l e f r i e n d s or p a r t n e r s are o f t e n so
u n d e r s t a n d i n g w h e n t h e y are a l o n e a n d y e t l a
u g h at s e x i s t j o k e s or e v e n m a k e those j o k e s
t h e m s e l v e s w h e n t h e y are out w i t h a g r o u p .
T h e fear o f b e i n g seen as a sissy d o m i n a t e s the c u l t
u r a l d e f i n i t i o n s of m a n h o o d . I t starts
so early. " B o y s a m o n g boys are a s h a m e d to be u n m a
n l y , " w r o t e one e d u c a t o r i n 1 8 7 1 . I
h a v e a s t a n d i n g bet w i t h a f r i e n d that I c a n w a l k
onto any p l a y g r o u n d i n A m e r i c a w h e r e
6 - y e a r - o l d boys are h a p p i l y p l a y i n g a n d by a s k
i n g one q u e s t i o n , I c a n p r o v o k e a f i g h t . T h a t
q u e s t i o n is s i m p l e : " W h o ' s a sissy a r o u n d h e r e
? " O n c e p o s e d , the c h a l l e n g e is m a d e . O n e
S E X I S M
is A , the o t h e r is N o t - A ; gender b o u n d a r i e s tell the
i n d i v i d u a l w h o is l i k e h i m or h e r a n d
a l l the rest are u n l i k e . F r o m s o c i e t y ' s p o i n t of v
i e w , h o w e v e r , one gender is u s u a l l y the
t o u c h s t o n e , the n o r m a l , the d o m i n a n t , a n d the
other is d i f f e r e n t , d e v i a n t , a n d s u b o r d i n a t e .
I n W e s t e r n society, " m a n " is A , " w o - m a n " is N o t

45. - A . ( C o n s i d e r w h a t a society w o u l d be
l i k e w h e r e w o m a n w a s A a n d m a n N o t - A . ) . . . T
h e d o m i n a n t categories are the h e g e m o n i c
i d e a l s , t a k e n so f o r g r a n t e d as the w a y things s h o
u l d be that, . . . [t]he c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f
these categories d e f i n e the O t h e r as that w h i c h l a c k s
the v a l u a b l e q u a l i t i e s the d o m i n a n t s
e x h i b i t .
Societies v a r y i n the e x t e n t o f the i n e q u a l i t y i n s o
c i a l status o f t h e i r w o m e n a n d m e n
m e m b e r s , but w h e r e there is i n e q u a l i t y , the status
" w o m a n " ( a n d its a t t e n d a n t b e h a v i o r
a n d r o l e a l l o c a t i o n s ) is u s u a l l y h e l d i n lesser
esteem t h a n the status " m a n . " S i n c e gender is
also i n t e r t w i n e d w i t h a societ)''s o t h e r c o n s t r u c
t e d statuses o f d i f f e r e n t i a l e v a l u a t i o n — r a c e ,
r e l i g i o n , o c c u p a t i o n , class, c o u n t r y o f o r i g i
n , a n d so o n — m e n a n d w o m e n m e m b e r s of the
f a v o r e d g r o u p s c o m m a n d m o r e p o w e r , m o r e
prestige, a n d m o r e p r o p e r t y t h a n the m e m -
bers of the d i s f a v o r e d g r o u p s . W i t h i n m a n y s o c
i a l g r o u p s , h o w e v e r , m e n are a d v a n t a g e d
o v e r w o m e n . T h e m o r e e c o n o m i c r e s o u r c e s ,
s u c h as e d u c a t i o n a n d j o b o p p o r t u n i t i e s , are
a v a i l a b l e to a g r o u p , the m o r e they t e n d to be m o
n o p o l i z e d by m e n . I n p o o r e r g r o u p s that
have f e w resources ( s u c h as w o r k i n g - c l a s s A f r i c
a n A m e r i c a n s i n the U n i t e d States), w o m e n
a n d m e n are m o r e n e a r l y e q u a l , a n d the w o m e n
m a y even o u t s t r i p the m e n i n e d u c a t i o n
a n d o c c u p a t i o n a l status.
A s a structure, gender d i v i d e s w o r k i n the h o m e a n d i
n e c o n o m i c p r o d u c t i o n , l e g i t i -
m a t e s those i n a u t h o r i t y , a n d o r g a n i z e s s e x u a

46. l i t y a n d e m o t i o n a l l i f e . A s p r i m a r y p a r e n t s ,
w o m e n s i g n i f i c a n d y i n f l u e n c e c h i l d r e n ' s p
s y c h o l o g i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t a n d e m o t i o n a l a
t t a c h -
m e n t s , i n the process r e p r o d u c i n g gender. E m e r g e
n t s e x u a l i t y is s h a p e d by h e t e r o s e x u a l ,
h o m o s e x u a l , b i s e x u a l , a n d s a d o m a s o c h i s t i
c p a t t e r n s t h a t are g e n d e r e d — d i f f e r e n t f o r g
i r l s
a n d boys, a n d f o r w o m e n a n d m e n — s o that s e x u a
l statuses r e f l e c t gender statuses.
W h e n gender is a m a j o r c o m p o n e n t of s t r u c t u r e
d i n e q u a l i t y , the d e v a l u e d genders h a v e
less p o w e r , prestige, a n d e c o n o m i c r e w a r d s t h a n
the v a l u e d g e n d e r s . I n c o u n t r i e s that d i s -
courage gender d i s c r i m i n a t i o n , m a n y m a j o r roles
are still g e n d e r e d ; w o m e n s t i l l do m o s t
o f the d o m e s t i c l a b o r a n d c h i l d r e a r i n g , even w
h i l e d o i n g f u l l - t i m e p a i d w o r k ; w o m e n a n d
m e n are segregated o n the job a n d each does w o r k c o n s i
d e r e d " a p p r o p r i a t e " ; w o m e n ' s
w o r k is u s u a l l y p a i d less t h a n m e n ' s w o r k . M e n
d o m i n a t e the p o s i t i o n s o f a u t h o r i t y a n d
l e a d e r s h i p i n g o v e r n m e n t , the m i l i t a r y , a n d
the l a w ; c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n s , r e l i g i o n s , a n
d
sports r e f l e c t m e n ' s interests. . . .
G e n d e r i n e q u a U t y — t h e d e v a l u a t i o n of " w o
m e n " a n d the s o c i a l d o m i n a t i o n of " m e n " —
has s o c i a l f u n c t i o n s a n d a s o c i a l h i s t o r y . I t is
not the r e s u l t of s e x , p r o c r e a t i o n , p h y s i o l o g y
,
anatom y, h o r m o n e s , or genetic p r e d i s p o s i t i o n s .
I t is p r o d u c e d a n d m a i n t a i n e d by i d e n -

47. t i f i a b l e s o c i a l processes a n d b u i l t into the g e n e r
a l s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e a n d i n d i v i d u a l i d e n t i -
ties d e l i b e r a t e l y a n d p u r p o s e f u l l y . T h e s o c i
a l o r d e r as w e k n o w it i n W e s t e r n societies is
o r g a n i z e d a r o u n d r a c i a l , e t h n i c , class, a n d
gender i n e q u a l i t y . I c o n t e n d , t h e r e f o r e , that
the
c o n t i n u i n g p u r p o s e o f gender as a m o d e r n s o c i
a l i n s t i t u t i o n is to c o n s t r u c t w o m e n as a
g r o u p to be the s u b o r d i n a t e s of m e n as a g r o u p .
T h e hfe o f e v e r y o n e p l a c e d i n the status
" w o m a n " is " n i g h t to h i s d a y — t h a t has f o r e v e r
been the fantasy. B l a c k to h i s w h i t e . S h u t
out of his s y s t e m ' s space, she is the r e p r e s s e d that
ensures the s y s t e m ' s f u n c t i o n i n g . "
T h e r e is n o c o r e or b e d r o c k h u m a n n a t u r e b e l o
w these e n d l e s s l y l o o p i n g processes
o f the s o c i a l p r o d u c t i o n of s e x a n d gender, self a n
d other, i d e n t i t y a n d p s y c h e , each
o f w h i c h is a " c o m p l e x c u l t u r a l c o n s t r u c t i o
n . " For humans, the social is the natural.
T h e r e f o r e , " i n its f e m i n i s t senses, gender c a n n o t
m e a n s i m p l y the c u l t u r a l a p p r o p r i a t i o n
of b i o l o g i c a l s e x u a l d i f f e r e n c e . S e x u a l d i f
f e r e n c e is itself a f u n d a m e n t a l — a n d s c i e n t i f i
c a l l y
326 1 S E X I S M
r e j e c t i n g w h a t is n o t a p p r o p r i a t e . I f their s o c
i a l categories are h i g h l y v a l u e d , they v a l u e
them sel ves h i g h l y ; i f t h e i r s o c i a l categories are l o
w status, t h e y lose self-esteem. M a n y

48. f e m i n i s t p a r e n t s w h o w a n t to raise a n d r o g y n o
u s c h i l d r e n s o o n lose t h e i r c h i l d r e n to the
p u l l of gendered n o r m s . M y son a t t e n d e d a c a r e f u
l l y n o n s e x i s t e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l , w h i c h
d i d n ' t e v e n h a v e g i r l s ' a n d b o y s ' b a t h r o o m s
. "When he w a s seven or eight y e a r s o l d , I
attended a class p l a y about " s q u a r e s " a n d " c i r c l e s
" a n d their need for e a c h o t h e r a n d
n o t i c e d that a l l the g i r l squares a n d c i r c l e s w o r e
m a k e u p , but n o n e of the boy s q u a r e s a n d
c i r c l e s d i d . I a s k e d the teacher about it after the play, a
n d she s a i d , " B o b b y s a i d he w a s
n o t g o i n g to w e a r m a k e u p , a n d he is a p o w e r f u l
c h i l d , so n o n e of the boys w o u l d e i t h e r . "
I n a l o n g d i s c u s s i o n about c o n f o r m i t y , m y son c
o n f r o n t e d m e w i t h the q u e s t i o n of w h o
the c o n f o r m i s t s w e r e , the boys w h o f o l l o w e d
their leader or the g i r l s w h o l i s t e n e d to the
w o m a n teacher. I n actualit}', they both w e r e , because they
both f o l l o w e d same-gender lead-
ers a n d acted i n g e n d e r - a p p r o p r i a t e w a y s . ( A c
t o r s m a y w e a r m a k e u p , but r e a l boys d o n ' t . )
F o r h u m a n beings there is no essential femaleness or
maleness, f e m i n i n i t y or m a s c u l i n -
ity, w o m a n h o o d or m a n h o o d , but once gender is a s c
r i b e d , the social o r d e r c o n s t r u c t s a n d
h o l d s i n d i v i d u a l s to s t r o n g l y g e n d e r e d n o r
m s a n d e x p e c t a t i o n s . I n d i v i d u a l s m a y v a r y
o n
m a n y o f the c o m p o n e n t s of gender a n d m a y s h i f t
genders t e m p o r a r i l y or p e r m a n e n t l y ,
but they m u s t f i t i nto the l i m i t e d n u m b e r of gender
statuses t h e i r s o c i e t y r e c o g n i z e s . I n
the process, they te-create t h e i r s o c i e t y ' s v e r s i o n o f
w o m e n a n d m e n : " I f w e do gender

49. a p p r o p r i a t e l y , w e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y s u s t a i n ,
r e p r o d u c e , a n d r e n d e r legitimate the i n s t i t u -
t i o n a l a r r a n g e m e n t s . . . . I f w e f a i l to do gender a
p p r o p r i a t e l y , w e as i n d i v i d u a l s — n o t
the i n s t i t u t i o n a l a r r a n g e m e n t s — m a y be c a l l
e d to a c c o u n t ( f o r o u r c h a r a c t e r , m o t i v e s , a n
d
p r e d i s p o s i t i o n s ) " (West a n d Z i m m e r m a n 1 9 8
7 ) .
T h e g e n d e r e d p r a c t i c e s of e v e r y d a y life r e p r o
d u c e a s o c i e t y ' s v i e w o f h o w w o m e n a n d
m e n s h o u l d act. G e n d e r e d social a r r a n g e m e n t s
are j u s t i f i e d by r e l i g i o n a n d c u l t u r a l p r o d u c
-
tions a n d b a c k e d by l a w , but the m o s t p o w e r f u l m
e a n s of s u s t a i n i n g the m o r a l h e g e m o n y o f
the d o m i n a n t gender i d e o l o g y is that the process is
made i n v i s i b l e ; a n y possible a l t e r n a t i v e s
are v i r t u a l l y u n t h i n k a b l e .
FOR SOCIETY, GENDER MEANS DIFFERENCE
T h e p e r v a s i v e n e s s of gender as a w a y o f s t r u c t u
r i n g s o c i a l l i f e d e m a n d s that gender sta-
tuses be c l e a r l y d i f f e r e n t i a t e d . V a r i e d talents, s
e x u a l p r e f e r e n c e s , i d e n t i t i e s , p e r s o n a h t i
e s ,
interests, a n d w a y s o f i n t e r a c t i n g f r a g m e n t the i
n d i v i d u a l ' s b o d i l y a n d social e x p e r i e n c e s .
N o n e t h e l e s s , these are o r g a n i z e d i n W e s t e r n c
u l t u r e s i n t o t w o a n d o n l y t w o s o c i a l l y a n d
legally r e c o g n i z e d gender statuses, " m a n " a n d " w o
m a n . " I n the s o c i a l c o n s t r u c t i o n of
gender, it does not matter w h a t m e n a n d w o m e n a c t u a
l l y d o ; it does n o t even matter if

50. they do e x a c t l y the same t h i n g . T h e s o c i a l i n s t i t
u t i o n of gender insists o n l y that w h a t they
do is perceived as d i f f e r e n t .
I f m e n a n d w o m e n are d o i n g the same tasks, they are u
s u a l l y s p a t i a l l y segregated to
m a i n t a i n gender s e p a r a t i o n , a n d o f t e n the tasks
are g i v e n d i f f e r e n t job tides as w e l l , s u c h
as e x e c u t i v e s e c r e t a r y a n d a d m i n i s t r a t i v e
assistant. I f the d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n w o m e n a n d
m e n begin to b l u r , s o c i e t y ' s " s a m e n e s s t a b o o "
goes i n t o a c t i o n . A t a r o c k a n d r o l l dance
at West P o i n t i n 1 9 7 6 , the y e a r w o m e n w e r e a d m
i t t e d to the p r e s t i g i o u s m i l i t a r y a c a d e m y
f o r the f i r s t t i m e , the s c h o o l ' s a d m i n i s t r a t o r
s " w e r e r e p o r t e d l y p e r t u r b e d by the sight o f
m i r r o r - i m a g e c o u p l e s d a n c i n g i n s h o r t h a i r
a n d dress gray t r o u s e r s , " a n d a rule w a s estab-
l i s h e d that w o m e n cadets c o u l d dance at these events o
n l y if they w o r e s k i r t s . W o m e n
r e c r u i t s i n the U . S . M a r i n e C o r p s are r e q u i r e d
to w e a r m a k e u p — a t a m i n i m u m , l i p s t i c k
a n d eye s h a d o w — a n d they h a v e to take classes i n m a
k e u p , h a i r c a r e , p o i s e , a n d etiquette.
I S E X I S M
a t i n y baby i n a c a r r i e r o n h i s chest. S e e i n g m e n t
a k i n g care of s m a l l c h i l d r e n i n p u b h c is
i n c r e a s i n g l y c o m m o n — a t least i n N e w Y o r k C
i t y . B u t b o t h m e n w e r e quite o b v i o u s l y s t a r e d
a t — a n d s m i l e d at, a p p r o v i n g l y . E v e r y o n e w
a s d o i n g g e n d e r — t h e m e n w h o w e r e c h a n g i n
g

51. the r o l e of f a t h e r s a n d the other passengers, w h o w e r
e a p p l a u d i n g t h e m silently. B u t there
w a s m o r e g e n d e r i n g g o i n g o n that p r o b a b l y f e
w e r p e o p l e n o t i c e d . T h e baby w a s w e a r i n g a
w h i t e c r o c h e t e d cap a n d w h i t e c l o t h e s . Y o u c
o u l d n ' t t e l l i f it w a s a b o y or a g i r l . T h e c h i l d
i n the s t r o l l e r w a s w e a r i n g a d a r k blue T - s h i r t
a n d d a r k p r i n t p a n t s . A s they started to l e a v e
the t r a i n , the f a t h e r p u t a Y a n k e e baseball cap o n
the c h i l d ' s h e a d . A h , a boy, I t h o u g h t .
T h e n I n o t i c e d the g l e a m of t i n y e a r r i n g s in the
c h i l d ' s ears, a n d as t h e y got off, I s a w the
l i t t l e f l o w e r e d s n e a k e r s a n d l a c e - t r i m m e d
s o c k s . N o t a b o y after a l l . G e n d e r d o n e .
G e n d e r is s u c h a f a m i h a r p a r t of d a i l y life that it
u s u a l l y takes a dehberate d i s r u p t i o n of
o u r e x p e c t a t i o n s of h o w w o m e n a n d m e n are s u
p p o s e d to act to p a y a t t e n t i o n to h o w i t is
p r o d u c e d . G e n d e r signs a n d signals are so u b i q u i t
o u s that w e u s u a l l y f a i l to note t h e m —
u n l e s s they are m i s s i n g or a m b i g u o u s . T h e n w e
are u n c o m f o r t a b l e u n t i l w e h a v e success-
f u l l y p l a c e d the o t h e r p e r s o n i n a gender status; o t
h e r w i s e , w e feel s o c i a l l y d i s l o c a t e d . . . .
F o r the i n d i v i d u a l , gender c o n s t r u c t i o n starts w i
t h a s s i g n m e n t to a s e x category on the
basis of w h a t the g e n i t a h a l o o k l i k e at b i r t h . T h e
n babies are dressed or a d o r n e d i n a w a y
that d i s p l a y s the category because p a r e n t s d o n ' t w a
n t to be c o n s t a n t l y asked w h e t h e r their
baby is a g i r l or a boy. A s e x category becomes a gender
status t h r o u g h n a m i n g , dress, a n d
the use of other gender m a r k e r s . O n c e a c h i l d ' s
gender is e v i d e n t , o t h e r s treat those i n