Fear of death study change over time - 3rd draft (4-29-14)

Running head: SKYDIVER FEAR STUDY 1
Skydiver Fear Study (Change Over Time)
Names
Shippensburg University

SKYDIVER FEAR STUDY 2
Skydiver Fear Study (Change Over Time)
Stekel (1949) claimed that all fears could ultimately be traced back to the fear of death.
Becker (1973) went even further asserting that the fear of death is the primary motivation behind
almost all that we do. Although these views may be exaggerated, Feifel and Nagy (1981) explain
that the fear of death or death related anxiety, whether innate or gained through experience, is a
global response that is experienced by almost everyone. Based on this notion, research dedicated
to this topic is clearly of extreme importance. For example, in relation to the extremely growing
population of elderly, research on attitudes towards death and dying may be beneficial in terms
of discovering strategies that can help improve the quality of living, as well as in the
development of interventions that can limit certain factors shown to increase death related
anxiety (Fortner & Neimeyer, 1999). As such, fear of or death anxiety has been extensively
explored by researchers for more than four decades and has been shown to be influenced by a
variety of different factors (Griffith, Toms, Reese, Hamel, Gu and Hart, 2013).
Examples of factors that influence death attitudes include demographic variables such as
age, gender, ethnicity and religiosity. For instance, with regard to age and fear of death, Gesser,
Wong and Reker (1988) compared a sample of young, middle-aged and older individuals. The
study indicated that fear of death was high among the young, even higher among the middle-
aged and lowest among the elderly, demonstrating a curvilinear trend across the life span. In
terms of gender, Dattel and Neimeyer (1990) report a tendency for woman to have higher death
anxiety in general than men. Pertaining to ethnicity, a study on older individuals showed that
Caucasians demonstrate higher levels of fear of the process of death than African Americans.
African Americans on the other hand, demonstrate higher levels of fear of the unknown, fear for
the body after death and fear of conscious death than Caucasians do (DePaola, Griffin, Young &

Neimeyer, 2003). Also, strong religious beliefs have been shown to have a negative correlation
with death anxiety, death depression and death distress (Alvarado, Templer, Bresler, & Thomas-
Dobson, 1995).
Among such efforts that seek to better understand the different factors that may
potentially impact individuals attitudes towards death, one particular domain of research has
focused on attempting to predict attitudes towards death and dying by identifying consistent
patterns that arise from experience (Griffith et al., 2013), and also by providing interpretations as
to why these patterns occur. In other words, identifying and understanding patterns of behavior,
may allow for the possibility of determining which behaviors will ultimately increase or decrease
death anxiety.
Accordingly, in the pursuit of identifying such patterns, Griffith et al. (2013) illustrate
that research within this category has been dedicated to the study of the relationship between
death anxiety and either one’s choice of occupation, or one’s choice of recreation. They further
demonstrate however, that results of such studies have yielded varied outcomes.
With regard to occupational choice for example, a number of studies reported a positive
relationship between death related occupations and fear of dying and death (Hunt, Lester &
Ashton, 1983; Neimeyer & Dingemans, 1980; Thorson & Powell, 1996). In other words,
engaging in a death related occupations resulted in an increase in death anxiety. In contrast, other
studies report that engaging in death related occupations resulted in a decreased fear of dying and
death (DePaola, Neimeyer, Lupfer, & Fiedler, 1992; Thorson & Powell, 1991). On the other
hand, there are studies that have found no significant differences in death attitudes and one’s
choice of occupation. For instance, a study by (Lewis, Espe-Pfeifer, & Blair, 1999-2000)
compared three groups of different occupations in relation to death anxiety and denial scores.

The first group was categorized as death risk (military personal), the second group as death
exposure (health care employees), and the third group as low risk (college students). Results
indicated no significant differences between the three groups on either of the measured variables.
In terms of one’s recreational choice and one’s attitude towards death, most of the studies
within this category have also indicated no significant differences (Alexander & Lester, 1972;
Feifel & Nagy, 1980; Schrader & Wann, 1999). For example, Slanger and Rudestam (1997)
examined individuals from four different recreational sports, which included skiing, rock
climbing, kayaking, and stunt flying (all activities in which error in performance can lead to
debilitating injury or death). Participants in the study were categorized for each individual sport
into extreme risk, high risk or low risk, depending on the participant’s level of engagement in the
specific sport. Based on results revealed by the Templer’s Death Anxiety Scale, no significant
differences in death anxiety between the three groups were reported.
Therefore, as it is apparent from the inconsistency between the results of these studies, a
definite pattern has not yet been established with reference to choice of occupation or recreation
and attitudes towards death. However, more recent studies have begun to take a promising turn.
With regard to recreational activities that include risk taking, one pattern in particular is
beginning to take a consistent shape. A study by Griffith and Hart (2005) compared death
anxiety between 54 experienced collegiate skydivers (with a minimum of 25 jumps) and 54
college students who have never before engaged in skydiving. The skydiving sample was
categorized as high risk, while the college students were categorized as low risk. Results based
on the Collett-Lester Fear of Death Scale revealed that skydivers scored significantly lower on
three out of four dimensions which included fear of death of self, fear of death of others and fear
of dying of others. This study was unique in that it provided a compelling interpretation as to

why a clear relationship was presented in their analyses while prior studies investigating similar
patterns related to death attitudes may have been inconsistent in their results. Griffith and Hart
(2005) explain that an important factor to consider is that of personal control. Participants in the
study were experienced skydivers. Skydiving is recognized as one of the most dangerous
activities in the world (Pedersen, 1997); every time a jump is made, the individual is risking their
life. In this sense, Griffith and Hart’s (2005) study is similar to previous research on death related
occupations and recreations in that it involves a high death-risk activity. The study differs
however in that skydivers, as opposed to for example, police officers or firefighters, etc., have
complete control over when they face death. In other words, skydivers choose if and when and
where they exit the aircraft, while on the other hand, a firefighter for instance does not have
control over the conditions of the fire or when the fire will occur. Similarly, a police officer
cannot predict how or when they may face a life-threatening situation. A more recent study by
Griffith et al. (2013) supported these findings. In their study, they investigated attitudes towards
death and dying across several types of recreational activities in a sample of older individuals.
These activities were classified as high death-risk (skydivers), high death-exposure (nursing
home residents), high death-risk and high death-exposure (firefighters), and a control group.
Analysis revealed that skydivers demonstrated the least fear of death and the highest death
acceptance scores among all the groups. Skydivers were followed by firefighters who revealed
less fear of death and higher death acceptance than both nursing home residents and controls.
Furthermore, nursing home residents reported both the highest levels of fear of death and the
lowest levels of death acceptance across all groups. In agreement with Griffith and Hart (2005),
the authors emphasize the importance of considering the effect of perceived personal control.
They explain that the reason skydivers experience less fear of death and higher death acceptance

than firefighters, even though they are both involved in a high death risk activity, can be
attributed to the amount of perceived control the individual may be experiencing. In other words,
although both the skydivers and firefighters are participating in the activity voluntarily, unlike
skydivers, firefighter have no control over when the activity will takes place, but rather they
respond to an activity that has already been initiated. Griffith et al. (2013) also bring to attention
the plausible effect of death exposure. Skydivers rarely observe a fatality. In fact only one
fatality occurs every 95,000 jumps (Griffith & Hart, 2002), as opposed to firefighters who are
often exposed to severe injury or death. Therefore, exposure to death may also be an indicator as
to why they present more anxiety about dying and death than skydivers. This also explains why
the nursing home residents experience the highest amount of death anxiety when compared to the
other groups.
Based on the studies presented throughout this paper, it is important to note that most of
the research within this domain has focused on identifying group differences in order to
determining the effect of death related activities on death attitudes and death related anxiety.
Although these studies imply that the differences occur as a result of constant engagement in
certain activities over time. However, weather or not these activities impact death attitudes on the
long run has not been directly examined in these studies. To our knowledge, there are only two
studies that have investigated death anxiety in such a capacity, ……
In conclusion, it is fair to state that strong evidence exists in support of the notion that
death attitudes do in fact vary depending on an individual’s involvement in activities that involve
death, whether that involvement pertains to risk or direct exposure. However, to our knowledge,
no study thus far has there is limited research that has examined the relationship between death
related activities and attitudes towards death at a longitudinal capacity. Examining the

development of such patterns over a prolonged period of time may aid in the understanding of
how and when these patterns occur, and the extent at which they may influence individual’s
attitudes towards death. Therefore, the goal of this study is twofold: first, to replicate the results
of the previous studies indicating that involvement in death related activities effects death
attitudes; and second, to further expand these results by monitoring how these attitudes change
over time.
Method
Dr. Griffith will write this section Insha’Allah…
Discussion
The study at hand looked at fear of death:
The purpose of this study was to expand upon previous research that examined whether
or not death attitudes vary as a result of involvement in activities that relate to death. More
specifically, this study investigated how fear of death changes among skydivers over a prolonged
period of time. Skydiving is considered a high death risk activity as an individual may potentially
die during each skydive if the appropriate procedures were not followed (Cite: humen error,
Griffith). In the current study, fear of death scores were obtained at three points in time: First,
before any jump was made, than after skydivers completed # successful jumps achieving a class
# license, and finally after completing # successful jumps achieving a # license. The analysis
indicated a significant difference in fear of death among skydivers at all points in time.
At the first follow up, after skydivers obtained some amount of experience, fear of death
among skydivers decreased when compared to the original (from the initial… maybe
unnecessary) while no differences were observed among the control group. Interestingly
however, at the final follow up, as skydivers gained further experience, fear of death went up

again among skydivers, but was still significantly lower than the control group (Q: should we put
a small results table here?). Hence, these findings provide further evidence in-line with recent
research suggesting that involvement in death related activities may strongly influence death
attitudes among individuals or: (that fear of death decreases as a result of engagement in death
related activities) (Citations Citations). Furthermore, the study at hand suggests that these
changes are maintained to a marked extent even after a prolonged period of time. And thus, are
not merely temporary effects resulting from new experiences (How can I say this last sentence
better? In a scientific fashion). OR, and are not temperory changes due to new experience…
The Two Possible Explanations:
There are two (Muath: Three) possible explanations (factors) that may account for the
findings above: First, Griffith et al. (2013) propose that the differences in death attitudes among
skydivers may be understood through the model of stress and coping presented by Folkman and
Lazarus (1985). The model suggests that when an individual is confronted with a potential
stressor (i.e., skydiving), the individual’s perceptions of that stressor are influenced; these
perceptions in turn mediate the way in which the individual responds to events related to the
stressor. The changes in perception are referred to as cognitive appraisals. According to Folkman
and Lazarus (1985), cognitive appraisals of a potential stressor can be divided into two stages:
primary appraisals and secondary appraisals. In the first stage, the situation encountered is
assessed as irrelevant, benign-positive, or stressful. If the situation is assessed as stressful (which
is surely the case in skydiving), it is than identified by the individual as one of the following:
Threat (potential for harm or loss), challenge (potential for growth, mastery, or gain), or harm-
loss (injury already done). As such, it is likely that beginner skydivers have higher levels of
threat, while experienced skydivers have higher levels of challenge. In the second stage, the

individual explores coping resources and options and determines whether or not the situation is
within their ability to handle Thus, as skydivers gain experience through repeated exposure, their
threat dimension decreases and their challenge dimension increases, this constant coping process
is what ultimately leads to a decrease in death anxiety (grifith et., el). In the case of this study
however, it has been demonstrated that further exposure beyond a certain point leads to a slight
increase in death anxiety. It is almost certain that with prolonged participation in a high-risk
activity such as skydiving, one is bound to encounter, or even experience indirectly through
exposure to others, potentially dangerous or harmful situations. This exposure in turn leads to an
increase in threat, and as a result, an increase in death anxiety.
The second possibility relates to Grifith and hart’s (2005) suggestion that the decrease in
death anxiety among skydivers may be a product of perceived personal control. Skydivers have
the luxury of choosing if and when they exit the aircraft, pull out (ignite)(release) the
perashoot…etc. As such, when a skydiver completes several successful jumps without facing any
difficulties, and we have a recipie for, . perceived controllability increases and as a result, death
anxiety decreases. As illustrated earlier, with increased participation in skydiving lies the
likelihood of increased exposure to threat. Therefore, it may be that originally, after just a few
successful jumps, beginner skydivers hold the believe that everything is within their ability to
handle, and thus, their perceived controllability is high. On the other hand however, as one gains
experience, exposure to threat will likely lead to a slight decrease in precieved controllability,
which may possibly account for the slight increase in death anxiety. (OR) = this decrease may be
responsible for the subsiding (Arabic: Muwazi) increase in death anxiety.
A third and final factor that may explain the findings in this study relate to findings by
Dunning and KRUGER (1999). In their study they demonstrated that individuals with minimal

experience, ability or knowledge tend to dramatically overestimate themselves relative to others,
while individuals with greater experience, ability or knowledge tend have a more accurate
estimation of them themselves and how they compare to others.
2ND
.perceived personal control… simmiler to the case of the 1ST
, it may be that as
beginners achieve a number of successful jumps, the amount of preieved control raches it’s
peak (is very high), than, as they gain experience, their exposure to potentially harmfull
situations…(indirect or direct threat… leads them to adjust their perception… not as much
controle as they once belived… (for example, one study by grifith reports that 14% of
accedants… are none humen errors in…) and as a result… this change in perception in effect
(may be the reason behind the increase in death anexity ) or (slightly increases death
anxiety…)
This concept/is likely to hold true with other death
And thus their concepts OR perceptions change through repeated (coping) eventually
leads to decreased death anxiety (grifith et el… 2013). In the case of this study… we see an
increase of death anxiety with continued exposure, we believe that this occurs do to the increase
in threat (it is likely that with experience there is the possibility of experiencing situations
(injury, near threat…)…
In this study, it is demonstrated that even greater exposure leads to a slight increase in
death anxiety, most likely, this slight increase may be largly do to...

the individual perceives the situation as either OR/ if the individual … determines weather or not
the situation is within there ability to handle… they respond accordingly…)
THUS, In the case of Skydiving… (skydivers are likely to experience a combination of
stress and challenge depending on their level of expertise!.. thus) AS FOR THE FINDING IN
THIS STUDY, IT MAY WELL BE THAT … Bla Bla Bla at the third interval…. Bla Bla Bla…
(thus, in the case of this study) = p to this point, this study replicated the previous one, this study
however adds the new part, when further experience is gained, Adjustment… (from Grifth 2013
= Novice skydivers probably have higher levels of threat (me: Stress) (potential for harm),
experienced skydivers probably have higher levels of challenge (i.e. potential for growth mastery
or gain)… ETC in the article.
precieved personal control may also apply to this situation, it may be that.
MUATH: NOTE: 3rd
Poor metacognition, it may be a result of poor metacognition, low
ability = Poor Metacognition = Overestimation of Ability.
ALSO At the end:-
Muath: look for a study that shows that a decrease in death anixiety results in an increase
in risk taking.
ALSO:-

Wheather it be preiceved controllability or coping style due to cognative appraisals… the
fact remains that novice skydivers may be at risk of possible harm due to the high possibility of
overconfidence and increased risk taking as a result of decreased fear of death… in other words,
it is always better to be safe than to be sorry.
--- Extras ---
The topic is looking at fear of death and how that changes. Again, the nature of the study
was that I provided the Collette-Lester (I think that was their names) fear of death scale to
skydivers over time. Basically, just before their first jump, after they earned various skydiving
ratings. During that similar period of time, I collected the same type of data from a control
group. The study looked at how engaging in a dangerous recreational activity (you could
potentially die during each skydive if the appropriate procedures were not followed) would
change one's fear of death. There are different ways of looking at the data which we discussed a
bit, but the skydivers's fear decreased and the control group stayed the same. The skydivers at
the third interval went up again, but still less than the control group. The bottom line is that it
appeared that by engaging in skydiving, it reduced someone's fear of death.
Fear of death among skydivers was significantly lower at the second interval (after
completing # jumps) among skydivers at the second interval, At the second interval, after
skydivers completed # jumps, skydiver’s fear decreased while the control group stayed the same.
At the third interval, fear of death among skydivers increased, but was still (remained)
significantly lower than the control.
The study at hand investigated the relationship between fear of death and engagement in
a dangerous recreational activity… the findings support…

The purpose of this study was to examine weather or not death attitudes vary as a result
of involvement in activities that relate to
this study however differed (expanded) from previous research in that…
twofold; the first purpose was to investigate…
individuals attitudes towards death vary depending on an individual’s involvement in
activities that involve death, whether that involvement pertains to risk or exposure…
- The study replicated prior results such as that by (so and so) that demonstrated that
engagement in a high risk activity such as skydiving resulted in a decreased fear of death. This
study however expanded these findings and investigated weather or not this change was
maintained over a prolonged period of time. Results showed that…
- After skydivers obtained some amount of experience!!! Writing…
- Fear is temporary, Regret is forever ~ Unknown ~
- Q: Was there a controle at all intervals? Or els why was not having a control a limitation?
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