EARLY MORTALITY8Early Mortality Review of the Charl.docx

EARLY MORTALITY 8
Early Mortality: Review of the Charleston Heart Study
A Critiqué Submitted by
[Your Name]
El Centro College
Psychology 23xx, Section 5xxxx, Fall 2013
Running head: EARLY MORTALITY 1
Abstract
This essay provides a review of forty years of follow-up data
from the Charleston Heart Study (CHS) in their article Divorce
and Death: Forty Years of the Charleston Heart Study. This
includes a longitudinal CHS, which included data collected
from more than 1300 adults from 1960 to 2000, Sbarra and
Nietert explored the relationship between social connectedness

and health using the CHS data and attempted to provide insight
into the long term health consequences of becoming separated
or divorced (2009). Being separated or divorced during the
follow-up window appeared to be one of the strongest predictors
of early mortality. In addition to the review of the actual study,
a critique is included that provides a critical analysis of the
quality of the researchers’ study and article as published in the
Psychological Science journal. The critique addresses such
items as ethics, usefulness, sample size and diversification as
well as a plethora of other interesting items useful to provide
collegiate feedback of the work by Sbarra and Nietert.
Early Mortality: Review of the Charleston Heart
StudyIntroduction
The researchers posed that recent research in social
epidemiology has spurred advances into the association between
interpersonal relationships and health (Sbarra & Nietert, 2009)
but there were limits to the overall findings. It is suggested that
relationship can play a vital role in an individual’s lifespan
development. Sbarra and Nietert share this sentiment. More
specifically, that social integration (i.e. a close relationship in
which one feels close to others and that the relationship is
reciprocally dependable) is positively correlated with mortality;
however, a life deficient in social integration may be a strong
predictor of early mortality (Sbarra & Nietert, 2009). The
researchers carefully reviewed the data from the CHS to help
explain the mechanism linking social connectedness and health.
The authors were interested in providing new insights into the
long-term health consequences of divorce or separation. Many
previous studies on the link between divorce and health have
failed to present marital status as a dynamic variable. However,
the researchers took into account both the length of time the
participants were divorced and eventual remarriage rates which
appears to have significantly improved their ability to make the
link.Review
In order to present marital status as dynamically as possible, the

researchers classified participants in the study in three ways.
First, marital status (married, separated-divorced, widowed, or
never married) at the first assessment was examined as a
predictor of long-term mortality (Sbarra & Nietert, 2009).
Second, the researchers calculated the hazard ratio (HR) of
early death for adults who were separated or divorced at each
assessment relative to all other participants who contributed at
least one marital-status entry (Sbarra & Nietert, 2009). Finally,
to determine if the effect of remaining separated or divorced
differed from the effect of having ever experienced a separation
or divorce, the researchers reclassified the sample to calculate
the HR of adults who simply experienced a marital separation or
divorce at some point during the CHS follow-up period relative
to all other participants (Sbarra & Nietert, 2009).
The researchers used data collected in the Charleston Heart
Study to address the possible link between marital status and
health. The CHS was a community-based cohort study designed
to assess the normal course of health and aging for adults over
age 35 residing in Charleston County, South Carolina and while
the study began in 1960, marital-status data were collected
during several follow-up phases: 1962–1964, 1974–1975, 1984–
1985, 1987–1989, and 1990–1991 (Sbarra & Nietert, 2009).
Mortality data were updated throughout the study, with the final
revision spanning the entire 41-year period.
The CHS began with an initial sample of 2181 adults, 1195
women and 986 men, 61% were of Caucasian decent, while the
remainder of the sample was of African American decent
(Sbarra & Nietert, 2009). At the onset of the study, the average
age of the participants were 48 years 9 months. The fact that the
average age of the participants was not exceptionally young,
combined with the extended length of the study, provided an
opportunity for the researchers to capture data to the end of life
for the majority of the participants (Sbarra & Nietert, 2009).
In the CHS, information on marital status was collected by self-
report, and participants were classified as married, widowed,
separated, divorced, or never married at each assessment. In the

researchers’ analysis, the separated and divorced categories
were merged to create a single category defined by the
experience of marital separation (Sbarra & Nietert, 2009). At
the 1962–1964 assessment, the first-time marital status data was
captured, 81.2% of the sample was married, 10% was widowed,
5.5% was separated or divorced, and 3.3% had never been
married (Sbarra & Nietert, 2009).
In-person medical interviews at the beginning of the CHS
provided a large amount of medical data, such as blood
pressure, smoking status, and body mass index, that helped the
researchers predict mortality. To predict mortality over the 41-
year study period, the researchers used Cox proportional
hazards models, a regression approach commonly referred to as
survival analysis. The researchers were able to create predictors
for each variable to isolate the effect of the variable of interest
– time spent divorced or separated on age of death.
Of the 1,376 adults in the restricted sample assessed at baseline,
74% had died by 2000, with the remaining 26% excluded from
the research (Sbarra & Nietert, 2009). The researchers found
that separated and divorced participants had a 55% greater
likelihood of death in the follow-up period than participants
from the other three categories of relationship status (Sbarra &
Nietert, 2009).
The analysis of the CHS data by the researchers suggests that
longevity of life is positively correlated to healthy and
cherished relationships and that living a large portion of life as
a separated or divorced adult may add considerable risk for all-
cause of mortality (as cited in Sbarra & Nietert). It may be
further suggested that the process of a marital break may not
present the highest mortality risk; rather it is more likely the
time spent without a significant other that is the most crucial
factor. The results do not lend to reasons of cause but suggest
results of significant correlation. This agrees with Sbarra and
Nietert, who also suggest that additional research is necessary
to fully understand the mechanisms behind the elevated risk of
early mortality associated with time spent as a separated or

divorced individual (2009).
Critique
The Charleston Heart Study, on which the article is based,
appeared to be conducted in an ethical and scientific manner. In
addition, the researchers appeared to be interested in conducting
a study that included a diverse sample. After the initial 1960
phase of the study, 102 Black men of high socioeconomic status
were added to increase the diversity component, which could be
considered “forward-thinking” for 1962-era America. The fact
that this was a longitudinal study (i.e. conducted over a span of
41 years) proved to be beneficial. Since the original study was
conducted with cardiovascular health in mind, the fact that the
authors had the insight of gathering other useful data for later
use, is truly impressive.
Still, there are some shortcomings with the data, as Sbarra and
Nietert admit (2009). The incident of divorce was less
customary at the onset of the CHS, though it would become
significantly more common as the study progressed.
Consequently, this presents one of the limits of a cohort study
(i.e. how the customs of a single generation can affect the
results of a study unlike another generation). The number of
participants that remained separated or divorced throughout the
follow-up period was relatively small, limiting the ability of the
sample to be generalized across the entire population. It may
have also been more efficacious to delineate between those who
were separated and those who were divorced in the original
study. Separating this group into two variables may have
expanded the results and provided more insight.
Despite these limits, the work of the authors has provided
contemporary researchers with a good start in understanding the
link between marriage status and longevity of life. A more
modern approach to this type of study, with more nuanced
relationship status categories and more frequent follow-up
occasions, might benefit the subject matter. A new study, with a
more contemporary cohort sample and the opportunity to collect
data specifically useful to psychological research, may proffer

more insight for the avid researcher. Additional follow up
studies may also include individuals from select cultures or
ethnicities as well as individuals from a variety of
socioeconomic statuses.
References
Sbarra, D. A. & Nietert, P. J. (2009). Divorce and death: Forty
years of the Charleston heart study. Psychological Science,
20(1), pp. 107-113.
HUMN 100: INTERACTING WITH TEXT
DUE DATES & DETAILS
Length & Format: 800-1000 words
Audience: An academic audience at Emily Carr
Initial draft due: Week 9
Final draft (with evidence of revision) due: Week 11
ASSIGNMENT DESCRIPTION
This assignment asks you to respond to a single written text
based on your own contexts
and experiences. You will be writing this time, however, for an
academic audience—best
imagined, perhaps, as your professors and other university-
educated people—who have
certain expectations about what makes a “critical” response to a
written text. There are
many ways to react to a text (many of which we will discuss in
class), but academic writing
values certain kinds of response that are both respectful of a
text’s author and reflectively

address the points the author is making. As a result, this
assignment asks you to write a
balanced essay which fairly summarizes and discusses a
published text, while offering your
own response to the ideas presented in the text. Rather than a
pure summary of the text or
a pure reaction based only on your opinions and experiences,
aim for more of a
“conversation” between you and the author—one that takes your
own ideas and the writer’s
seriously.
You also need to choose a focus for your own response that may
not (and probably should
not) “cover” every point the author makes. While you are asked
to summarize the text’s
main theme or argument, also let your own interests, ideas,
experiences, and reactions be
the guides for what positions or ideas in the text you choose to
respond to. Imagine this
essay, then, as a response to a text for an academic audience
who is interested in what you
think about the author’s ideas. The center of the essay is you
and your ideas, but this time
we will also work on integrating your experience with that of
the different
contexts/opinions/experiences offered in the published text in
ways that will appeal to an
academic audience.
WRITING GOALS
• To examine your own position in relation to a published text
and to write both with
and against this text.

• To explore (through reading) and practice (through writing)
the various options
that writers have for positioning themselves in relation to the
writing of another.
• To ethically represent through paraphrase, summary and
quotation the ideas of
another writer/text. To understand and use MLA citation.
• To engage in critical analysis of text. To present your own
views with this analysis.
• To continue to practice the writing process (generative
writing, drafting, revision,
editing.)
Surname 1
Name
Professor
Course
Date
American slavery
China permitted slavery since it recognized it as an institution
and thus needed to be protected especially in America. The
large settlement in San Francisco encourages human trafficking.
Slavery has existed unrestricted for years among the Chinese in
California. Chinese women were sold as animals. Modern
slavery in China is linked to poverty. Lack of education,
economic freedom, poor societal structure and the rule of law
allow slavery. Forced labor is common in China. This is what is
experienced today as a form of slavery.
“American Slavery As It Is, Testimony of a Thousand
Witnesses”, was written in1839 by the Anti-Slavery Activist
Theodore Dwight Weld. This book gathers information from

witnesses, active and former slave owners from various
plantations in Southern states. Information on how slaves were
treated aided in building case for the Abolitionist Movement.
The narrative described the conditions experienced by slaves in
the United States. Weld argued that prisoners in United States
and other countries were fed better than American slaves. The
narrative focused on afflictions faced by slaves which covered
housing, clothing, diet and working conditions (McBride 38).
Medicine started in the era of slavery when people started
struggling with disease. It changed slowly into a social
institution becoming competitor of traditional health practices.
In the early colonies of North America, every individual termed
himself as a doctor. In the mid nineteenth century, doctors made
professional medicine to differentiate themselves from the past.
Therefore, the history of medicine is traced from the struggle
for health during slavery. The plantation owners and doctors
coerced much labor from slaves. This forced them to provide
sufficient resources to make these slaves stay productive and
give birth many children. The preference of illness and
mortality in slave people indicated their environmental
experiences and living conditions. Slaves were able to maintain
their health and stabilize their families despite harsh
enslavement. Slaves medicine sets the background of public
health and clap social circumstances in the era of Jim crow.
Weld wrote this narrative as a plain case where the reader acted
as a juror for the purpose of coming up with an honest verdict.
The aim was to show actual situation of the slaves in the United
States. They were made slaves and owned by force by being put
in fear. The slaveholders painted that their slaves were treated
humanely, well fed, well housed, well clothed, well lodged and
worked moderately. They also argued that they provided slaves
with all things they needed for their comfort. Their assertion
was disproved by the testimony of many unbiased witnesses.
This put slaveholders through a course of questioning which led
to condemnation out of their own mouths (McBride 40).
According to testimonies of witnesses, the slaves were treated

inhumane since they were underfed, overworked, wretchedly
lodged and clad, they lacked enough sleep, they dragged heavy
chains while working on the field, they also wore iron collars
round their necks in order to be easily detected when they
escaped. They also wore yokes, bells and iron horns. Some had
their front teeth broken off or torn out for easy identification
when they ran away. They faced torture and brutality. They
were stripped naked, their limbs and backs cut with knives, red
pepper was rubbed into their torn flesh and spirits of turpentine
poured on their wounds to increase the severity of torture. They
were searched with blood hounds and shot down like beasts.
They were also beaten and whipped till they fainted and
sometimes till they die. Their ears were cut off, their bones
broken and their flesh marked with red hot irons. They were
also burned to death over slow fires. Weld established all these
facts from testimony form slaveholders, eye witnesses and
slaves themselves (Weld 13).
This book was influential American abolitionist publication. It
laid bare the cruelty and violence associated with slavery. Most
of evidence was pulled from Southern newspapers and
testimony of former slaves and slave owners. During this
period, opposition of slavery had become more outspoken. The
slaves had been concentrated in more productive agricultural
plantations especially the cotton lands of the South. Slave trade
which was inhumane business also existed and it was criticized
by domestic and foreign travellers, emancipationists,
abolitionists and modern authors. The slave dealer
advertisements in newspapers documented the evils of the
institution of slavery. The narrative encouraged active
antislavery movements which advocated various plans of
emancipation. The intensive opposition of slavery occurred
during decades of 1830-60. Attempts to reduce slave trade led
to enactment of anti-importation law which constrained the
bringing in of slaves from other states.
Much of the content from Theodore Weld publication was from
Kentucky newspapers, slave auction handbills, personal

interviews and personal observations. The enactment of fugitive
slave law by US Congress in 1950 was based on Kentucky.
Mush of setting and many of the characters were drawn from
Kentucky. Increased opposition of slavery was associated with
prosperity in Kentucky.
Weld’s publication turned into extensive antislavery movement
in American history. It is remembered in the abolitionist
movement and future antislavery literary works. This means that
Weld used persuasion means to argue to the northern audiences
concerning evils of slavery and the need to abolish it. The truth
is that Weld used judicial motif where he acted as a prosecutor
and requested his readers to perform as jurors in judging the
legality of slavery in the United States. Weld did this by
depending on evidence from testimony of witnesses and
newspapers advertisements to prove his arguments. Weld
showed that slavery resulted from individuals who were
encouraged by absolute arbitrary power. The South supported
slavery based on the argument that institution of slavery was
positive good and justified necessary evil. Weld rejected these
justifications and established that slavery which aimed at
establishing absolute power over others. According to Weld,
human nature is contrary to slavery and thus it should be ended.
Weld also held that abolitionists were justified in condemning
slavery. Weld accomplished his role of prosecutor in the case by
combining the logic and emotion of his jurors. The jurors acted
as members of humanity and perceived slaves in the same level
as them and this forced them to pass a just judgment of guilty
since slavery is in contradiction of the humanity (Trudeau 16).
Conclusion
Theodore Weld’s publication was the most influential American
antislavery tract. It used judicial motive to show the evils
associated with slavery. The evidence was drawn from
testimony of witnesses, the slaveholders and slaves themselves.
The collection of first hand testimonials and personal narratives
from both whites and freedmen was used to portray the horrors
of American slavery. The work covered the slave diet, clothing,

housing, working conditions and torture and brutality.
Work Cited
McBride, David. "“Slavery As It Is:” Medicine and Slaves of
the Plantation South." OAH Magazine of History 19.5 (2005):
36-40.
Trudeau, Justin Thomas. "Theodore Dwight Weld's use of the
judicial motif in American Slavery As It Is: Testimony of a
Thousand Witnesses." (1998).
Weld, Theodore Dwight, ed. American Slavery as it is:
Testimony of a Thousand Witnesses. No. 10. American Anti-
Slavery Society, 1839.
ABBREVIATED TITLE IN CAPITAL LETTERS 8
Full Title in Upper and Lower Case Letters
A Critiqué Submitted by:
Name of Student
El Centro College
Psychology 2301, Section 52401, Spring 2020

Running head: ABBREVIATED TITLE IN CAPITAL
LETTERS1
Abstract
The abstract is a summary of YOUR paper. In essence, the
abstract section for this paper will include a summary of both
the Review and Critique sections of YOUR paper. It is similar
to reading the back cover of a book to get a snapshot of what
the book is about. Read the author’s abstract as an example of
how an abstract is written but DO NOT copy their abstract. If
you write something in your abstract or any other portion of
your paper that is taken from someone else (including the
author of the article you are critiquing), you must cite them in
or at the end of that sentence and later (on the References page)
provide a full “address” of where the source can be found.
Please be aware, for your purposes in this class, plagiarism will
earn you an automatic zero (Ø) on the assignment. The abstract
is generally written last or after you have completed the
assignment, as it is a summary of what you have written. For
the Abstract, you will be required to write 150-250 words. This
is the only page that is NOT first-line indented and is should be
flush with the left margin of your page (i.e. left justified). Note:
When you submit your paper for grading, it will be
automatically sent to SafeAssign which analyses your paper for
similarities found in other papers that have been submitted,

research articles and websites. It is highly functional and will
most often catch plagiarism, so please do not plagiarize. Also, it
is advisable for you to use this template as much of the
formatting has already been done.
Full Title in Upper and Lower Case LettersIntroduction
Beginning on page three, you will write the headings
Introduction, Review, and Critique and you will begin using
indentions for each paragraph. In APA writing, there are
specific ways to write headings depending on how many levels
are used. This is the one time you ARE allowed to use font
effects (i.e., bolds or italics).
The Introduction is ONE paragraph of 150-250 words that will
first provide a PROBLEM STATEMENT in a single sentence
and then summarizes the article you chose from the list. As
soon as you state something that was taken from the article, you
must IMMEDIATELY cite your source(s) within the text or at
the end of that sentence (whether quoting or paraphrasing).
Here are a couple examples of how to use “in text citations:”
· Smith suggests that the average dog lives eight years (2011).
· It is believed that the average dog lives eight years (Smith,
2011). The author’s name was not listed in the sentence and
needs to be added to the end.
· “After careful review of over 10,000 records, it was
determined that the average dog’s lifespan covers eight years”
(Smith, 2011, p154). Quotes should include quotation marks and
the citation identifies the specific page(s) on which the quote
was found.
In any case, the period for the sentence is after the citation.
… lives eight years (2011). Not …lives eight years.
(2011)
If it is found that you have plagiarized without having given due
credit, you will receive a zero (Ø) on the assignment, and this
activity may be reported to the Dean of the College of Arts and
Sciences division. Plagiarism is a serious issue and will NOT be

tolerated. Review
When you write content on the next heading, do not add extra
lines before the next heading. Notice there is not an additional
line between the last sentence of the Introduction section and
the beginning of the Review section of this template.
After you have read the material for your assignment and
thought about it, give an overview of its contents. This differs
from the Introduction section in that it is more comprehensive
and consequently a page or more in length and that it must
identify assumptions made by the researcher of the article.
Briefly explain WHAT types of research or experiments were
conducted, WHO were these conducted on, WHERE were they
conducted, WHEN were they conducted, and HOW were they
conducted. For example, you might list the organization by
name (Western University) or location (“an inner city high
school in Chicago, Illinois”). Include ages and gender of the
subjects, and whether or not parental consent was required in
order to assess this sample.
Include details of how much research was investigated and the
conclusions of the research.
Do NOT use I, my, he, she, them, we, us, or other pronouns. In
fact, the assignment should be written completely in the third
person which helps remove subjectiveopinion (i.e., your
personal thoughts or opinions) and favors an OBJECTIVE
approach (spoken from the perspective of an uninvolved
observer) by such statements as, “The researchers determined
that a multiple regression analysis of the data was sufficient to
assess the validity of the research methodology.” Third person
makes the writer a reporter of the facts. Personal opinions are
simply not relevant or appropriate for this paper.
Further, when writing about an experiment, you must also
indicate what the hypothesis’ were (there is rarely only one
hypothesis, so include them all), and what the researchers
expected to find.
State the findings (conclusions) and whether or not they were
consistent with what the researchers had anticipated. “Negative

results” are okay…we do not always find what we hope to, but
we DO report everything. It is not necessary for you to give a
synopsis of the statistical and data analysis methods used by the
researchers. Critique
In this section you will write a page or more about the
quality of the author’s article and the quality of their research
(if they conducted research). Do not write a review of the
subject itself. This is your opportunity to express your objective
findings on the article. Think of it as if you were a food critic
and evaluating a restaurant. You would not report to your
readers that the food was “very hot” because that would be
subjective. You would possibly say the plate was seasoned with,
reporting a list of spices, and most likely more spicy than the
average person would prefer. It may also be reported that one
might expect runny nose, watery eyes and similar types of
reactions that are common when eating “spicy foods.” This
provides a more objective view of the spicy level of the food.
Again, the assignment requires writing in third person, NOT
first person (i.e., I think they failed to comply with the
Scientific Method, etc.) nor use phrases like “in MY opinion.”
It would be better to say, the authors did not comply with the
Scientific Method as they did not ….
This is your rare opportunity to actually criticize (providing
objective findings, positive and/or negative) what a researcher
has done, so make the most of it. If you disagree with how the
research was conducted, say so, but TELL WHY this is so,
BASED ON THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD as discussed in
lecture and your textbook. Such comments on your part show
that you have applied critical thinking to your review of the
article. Again, this is not a forum for your opinions or for
feedback of the subject itself but for your collegiate critical
thinking on the quality of their research and/or article. Then end
your Critique section with a conclusion statement.
Here are more items to consider for your Critique section.
· Did the authors:
· follow all appropriate scientific protocols such as:

· identify the target population;
· obtain a random sample or more specifically a representative
sample;
· provide clear definitions (operationalization) of their
dependent and independent variables;
· indicate their specific methodologies;
· give adequate consideration to various aspects of their topic
by having read the research of a number of researchers in this
area.
· Did the findings leave the typical reader more or less
interested in this topic?
· Would it be helpful for the reader to see more articles in this
area of research or meta-analysis …perhaps with additional
questions (i.e., hypotheses) in the future?
· Did the researchers violate the principles of scientific
methodology (e.g., the Scientific Method) in some way?
· Did the researchers obtain Informed Consent from all
participants? Was parental consent (or that of a legal guardian)
required if the subjects were minors?
· Did the researcher miss something that was obvious?
· Would adding additional groups of people to the sample alter
the results?
· Were the researcher’s findings significant, and if so, why?
· Are there additional questions one might have after reading
this article?
· Should additional research (or follow up studies) be
conducted– perhaps with additional questions or specific
parameters or variables? If your article says the average dog
can do three tricks, does that vary in other parts of the world or
is there a significant difference in the abilities of different
breeds of dogs to do tricks?
· What are potential follow-up studies that could be conducted
to expand knowledge in this area?
Your responses to the questions and issues in this document will
tell whether or not you have actually THOUGHT ABOUT the
article at issue.

References
1st Author’s Last Name, First Initial. Second Initial. & 2nd
Author’s Last Name, First Initial. Second Initial (year
published). Write the full title with this type of capitalization.
Write theFull Journal Name in Italics in Regular Capitalization
12(1). pp. 120-151.
Note: Use a hanging indention as seen above (i.e. do not indent
the first line of the reference but indent each line after for that
reference). For the names, do not change the order of the name
but also do not list first names, only initials. For the year, do
not add season or month. The 12 in italics is the volume number
and the 1 in parenthesis is the edition/issue number which is not
in italics. Lastly end with the page range of the article followed
by a period.
Here is an example of an APA formatted article:
Copeland, R. D. (2017). A comprehensive study of different dog
breeds. Journal of Canine Friends, 34(2), pp. 123-145.
Evaluating a Student-Led Mental Health Awareness Campaign
Dominique Giroux and Elisa Geiss* Olivet College
ABSTRACT. The present study evaluated if a week-long mental
health awareness campaign on a college
campus would decrease self-stigma toward seeking help.
Participants were 204 full-time undergraduate
students attending a small private liberal arts college in the
Midwest (October, 2017). The mental health

awareness campaign offered activities where students were
exposed to interactive events and education
about campus crisis resources. Researchers measured
self-stigma and attitudes toward seeking help
through the Self-Stigma of Seeking Help Scale (SSOSH) and
Mental Help Seeking Attitude Scale
(MHSAS) pre- and postawareness week. Results showed that
student self-stigma toward seeking help
decreased after a week-long mental health awareness campaign.
Specifically, we found a decrease in
SSOSH scores, t(52) = 2.66, p = .01, d = 0.25, and an increase
in MHSAS scores from pretest to posttest,
t(56) = -2.72, p = .009, d = -0.29, indicating a reduction of
self-stigma. We discuss results in the context
of reducing stigma from a student-led mental health campaign
and further provide suggestions on how to
conduct an awareness campaign and test results at small
colleges.
Keywords: mental health awareness campaign, college students,
stigma
Mental illness among college students is becoming a serious
public health problem, with the onset of
illness often developing during early college years (Garlow et
al., 2008). One third of college students
self-report symptoms of anxiety, depression, and high rates of
stress (Lipson, Gaddis, Heinze, Beck, &
Eisenberg, 2015). Further, distressed students have worse
academic performance and exhibit high
drop-out rates (Kitzrow, 2003). Seeking and receiving
treatment is one way to decrease mental health
disorders. Those who do not seek treatment are more likely to
develop a longer, more intensified
comorbidity with other mental illnesses (Wang et al., 2005).
When this population seeks treatment,

functioning and academic performance improves (Zivin,
Eisenberg,
Gollust, & Golberstein, 2009). However, not all students will
seek treatment for a mental health disorder.
One of the most common barriers to seeking help for a
psychological disorder among young adult
populations is stigma. College student populations deem stigma
as a barrier to involvement in the
community, social relationships, and seeking proper treatment
(Eisenberg, Downs, Golberstein, & Zivin,
2009). Both public and self-stigma may affect whether a student
decides to seek treatment for a mental
disorder. Public stigma, the stereotyping and discriminative
actions toward those who are known to have
a mental illness (Corrigan, 2004), may be an external barrier to
treatment. For example, individuals who
seek treatment for a mental disorder are deemed more
“emotionally unstable,
Page 61
less interesting, and less confident” than persons seeking
treatment for a physical ailment (Vogel, Wade,
& Ascheman, 2009, p. 301). However, selfstigma or the
internalized public stigma, can lead individuals
to not try to seek care due to shame of being labeled as having a
mental illness (Corrigan, Druss, &
Perlick, 2014; Vogel, Wade, & Haake, 2006). Both public and
self-stigma introduce barriers toward
seeking help, and reducing both types of stigma may improve
mental health on a college campus.
Colleges have tried multiple interventions to reduce incidences
of mental health crises on campus by

targeting psychoeducation and improving awareness.
Specifically, psychoeducational interventions can
reduce stigma, increase the mental health literacy of a
population (Jorm et al., 2003), and dispel myths
about mental illnesses (Yanos, Lucksted, Drapalski, Roe, &
Lysaker, 2015). These types of interventions
have been effective in decreasing the stigma of seeking
psychological help (Brown & Bradley, 2002;
Komiya, Good, & Sherrod, 2000), and furthermore have the
potential to reduce barriers to help-seeking.
In fact, student-led campaigns such as the Depression OutReach
Alliance college program uses
peer-topeer psychoeducation and intervention to educate and
increase help-seeking among undergraduate
college students. In particular, Funkhouser, Zakriski, and
Spoltore (2017) measured responses from
participants regarding at-risk peers and stigma and found
increased crisis response skills, less desire for
social distance from peers in distress, and less social stigma
toward seeking help. Thus, a student-led
mental health awareness campaign has shown potential to both
target stigma and increase help-seeking
among college students.
Given the potential benefit of student-led mental health
campaigns to reduce stigma, we aimed to test
whether a campaign at a small liberal arts college would be
effective in decreasing stigma toward seeking
help. In a previous study conducted on our campus, we found
that 47% of student respondents did not
know where to go in crisis, only 22% knew about student
services or a counselor on campus, and 88% of
students selfreported that more awareness on campus is needed

(Giroux & Geiss, 2017). Given this data,
providing psychoeducation about mental health concerns and
improving knowledge about treatment
resources on campus were appropriate targets of intervention.
Thus, we created a mental health awareness
campaign focused on giving general information about mental
health disorders and access to campus
resources.
The current study was unique in its approach because it
examined a student-led and-run intervention at a
small liberal arts college without many mental health awareness
resources available to students. First, we
hypothesized that students’ selfreported stigma about seeking
mental health help would lessen after the
mental health awareness week given that previous studies have
found improvement of stigma after
psychoeducation. Furthermore, we hypothesized that those who
actively participated and attended mental
health week events would experience a larger decrease in
self-stigma toward seeking help compared to
those who did not actively participate or attend.
This study addressed the feasibility of conducting an
intervention while testing students empirically, and
aimed to improve mental health awareness on a small campus.
We created a mental health awareness
week and tested stigma before and after the week, and also
gathered demographic data about the
participants.
Method
Procedure: After we gained approval from the Olivet College
institutional review board, we recruited
students at a small, Midwestern, liberal arts college to

participate in two surveys via e-mail. Those who
completed the online consent form completed de-identified
questionnaires on Google Forms a week prior
to the mental health awareness week and immediately afterward.
Because this was a universal
intervention, students who took the surveys could choose to
participate or not in the mental health
awareness intervention. Participants were entered into a raffle
for a FitBit Charge 2 or a $50 voucher to
the college bookstore if they completed both pre- and
postintervention surveys.
Questionnaires
Demographics Questionnaire. Participants were asked to create
a unique identifier to track their
participation from the pretest to the posttest, and to ensure
confidentiality. Participants were then asked to
complete questions about gender, ethnicity, year in school, area
of study, and participation in college
athletics. In addition, during the posttest, participants reported
whether they participated in the mental
health awareness week, which included picking up brochures or
attending mental health week events.
Page 62
Mental Help Seeking Attitudes Scale (MHSAS). The MHSAS is
a 9-item instrument that examines
attitudes toward seeking help from a mental health professional
if respondents hypothetically had a
mental health concern (Hammer, Parent, & Spiker, 2018).

Participants were asked to respond to a single
statement on a 7-point Likert-type scale. For example, they
were asked to rate how important or how
healing it is to seek help from a mental health professional. A
higher score indicates a more positive
attitude toward seeking help. These scores showed strong
internal reliability for both the pretest and
posttest; Cronbach’s α = .89 and α = .91, respectively.
Self-Stigma of Seeking Help (SSOSH). The SSOSH is a
10-item scale designed to understand
how a participant views seeking mental health help, and ideas
about public stigma toward seeking
psychological help (Vogel et al., 2006). This scale asked
participants to rate the degree to which each item
describes how one would react in a situation. Examples of
statements are “I would feel inadequate if I
went to a therapist,” “My view of myself would not change just
because I made the choice to see a
therapist,” and “I would feel worse about myself if I could not
solve my own problems.” A higher score
represents higher levels of self-stigma. These scores showed
strong reliability for both the pretest and
posttest; Cronbach’s α = .87 and α = .84, respectively.
Mental Health Week Intervention The inaugural mental health
awareness week took place in the
fall 2017. The college’s Psi Chi chapter as well as a 3credit
Abnormal Psychology class contributed to
the information and events held throughout the week. Tangible
items such as stress balls, mental health
awareness ribbons, informational pamphlets describing common
disorders among students, and
interactive displays were freely made available to the public in

the main academic building.
The college’s Psi Chi chapter and the Black Student Union
hosted the first Mental Health Open
Mic Night in the middle of the week for students to gather and
talk about multiple issues faced on campus
or at home in regard to stressors or mental health disorders. The
Open Mic Night was a free event for
students, and Psi Chi provided informational slideshows and
hosted the college’s school counselor for
familiarity. A faculty member from the psychology department
also attended the event, providing
handouts regarding particular disorders that are commonly faced
by students, such as alcoholism. Once
students finished talking to the audience about personal
experiences, the school counselor held a short
debrief and educated the attendees on what to do when
distressed. The school counselor also handed out
her business card to attendees for further contact if needed.
Once the event ended, the mental health
awareness week intervention was considered complete.
Results
Participants
After conducting the college’s inaugural mental health
awareness week, we received 166
responses in total. Both women (n = 111), men (n = 54), and
self-reported other gender (n = 1) responded
to our questionnaires. We received responses from students
across all class ranks: first-year students (n =

52), sophomores (n = 39), juniors (n = 31), seniors (n = 39), and
nondegree seeking (n = 4). Although one
student did not self-identify an ethnicity, the students
responding to our surveys self-identified as White
or European American (n = 145), African American or Black (n
= 11), Hispanic or Latino (n = 8), or
Asian (n = 1).
Analyses in this article only included the 57 participants who
completed both the pretest and
posttest surveys. Demographic makeup of this final participant
list was mostly female (n = 40) compared
to male (n = 16) or other gender (n = 1), mostly White or
European American (n = 50) compared to
African American or Black (n = 4), and Hispanic or Latino (n =
3), and mostly first-year students
(n = 20) compared to sophomores (n = 11), juniors (n = 12),
seniors (n = 13) or nondegree seeking
(n = 1). Prior to excluding those who did not participate in both
surveys, we conducted analyses to ensure
that our final participants were not significantly different from
those who only completed one survey.
Participant Analysis
We ran a Chi Square to determine whether there was a
difference in gender and student class rank
across those participants who took only one (pretest or posttest)
or two surveys (both pretest and posttest).
There was no difference in response rate of genders, χ2 = 0.95,
p = .62, d = 0.15, or year in school across
pretest, posttest, or both tests, χ2 = 2.7, p = .95, d = 0.26. Given

the low response rate for some ethnicities
who completed only the posttest (no African American students
and only one Hispanic/ Latino student),
we could not run a Chi Square test
Page 63
on this data. However, the relative percentage of students
identifying as European American, African
American, or Hispanic/Latino was similar across the entire
sample and final sample.
In addition, we examined if there was a difference in scores on
the SSOSH and MHSAS based on
participation in just one survey or across both. Results showed
that there was no significant difference
between participants who completed the pretest survey and
those who completed both. However, we
found a significant difference between participants who
completed the posttest survey only and those who
completed both on the SSOSH, t(90) = 2.6, p = .01, d = 0.54.
Specifically, participants who completed
only the posttest survey self-reported higher levels of stigma (M
= 26.8, SD = 6.4) compared to those who
completed both (M = 23.5, SD = 5.7).
Table 1 Correlation Table for Pretest and Posttest Scores on the
MHSAS and SSOSH
Correlations N M (SD) MHSAS

pretest
SSOSH
pretest
MHSAS
posttest
SSOSH
posttest
MHSAS
pretest
57 5.7 (1.06) 1
SSOSH
pretest
55 25 (6.6) -.41* 1
MHSAS
posttest
57 6.0 (0.98) .62** -.24 1
SSOSH
posttest
55 23.5 (5.73) 1.19 .77** -3.7 1
**. Correlation is significant at the .01 level (2-tailed). Note.
MHSAS pretest = Mental Health
Seeking Attitude Scale pretest; SSOSH pretest = Self-Stigma of

Seeking Help pretest; MHSAS posttest =
Mental Health Seeking Attitude Scale posttest; SSOSH posttest
= Self-Stigma of Seeking Help posttest;
N = number of respondents.
Main Analyses Change in stigma after mental health awareness
week. Before examining the
change in pretest to posttest scores, we first ran correlations
between the variables of interest in
participants who took both the pretest- and posttest (see Table
1). As expected, scores on both stigma
surveys reported at the same time (either pretest or posttest)
were negatively related to each other (i.e.,
higher scores on the SSOSH and lower scores on the MHSAS
both reflect greater stigma). In addition,
scores on the same surveys taken before and after the
intervention were positively correlated with each
other.
Next, we used a paired-samples t test to examine change in
MHSAS and SSOSH scores before
and after the intervention. We found an overall decrease in
SSOSH scores as seen in SSOSH pretest (M =
25.0, SD = 6.8) and SSOSH posttest (M = 23.4, SD = 5.8), t(52)
= 2.66, p = .01, d = 0.25. We then found
an increase in MHSAS scores from pretest (M = 5.7, SD = 1.1)
to posttest (M = 6.0, SD = 1.0), t(56) =
-2.72, p = .009, d = - 0.29. Thus, over the week, there was
decreased mental health seeking stigma as

indicated on both stigma surveys.
Participation in awareness week on change in self-stigma
scores. Because we collected data from
students who might not have actively participated in the mental
health awareness week events, we
examined whether changes in self-stigma differed based on
self-report of having participated in the
mental health week activities. Participation in the awareness
week was defined as picking up brochures or
attending an event on a given night.
Although the scores for SSOSH did not differ, we found that
changes in MHSAS scores were
dependent upon participation, F(1) = 5.28, p = .03,
g = 0.68. Using a two-way repeated-measures Analysis of
Variance, we found that those
individuals who participated in the Mental Health Week
activities had an increase in MHSAS scores (N =
16, Mpre = 5.23, SDpre = 1.01, Mpost = 5.97, SDpost = 1.05),
t(15) = 2.45, p = .03, whereas those who
did not participate did not have a change in scores (N = 41,
Mpre = 5.88, SDpre = 1.04, Mpost = 6.03,
SDpost = 0.97), t(40) = 1.47, p = .15. Yet, we also found that
MHSAS scores were higher during the
pretest in those individuals who did not participate (Mnon
participating = 5.88, SD = 1.04) compared to
those who did participate (Mparticipating = 5.22, SD = 1.01),
t(55) = 2.14, p = .04, d = 0.64. This may
indicate that those people who participated in the mental health
activities held more stigmatized beliefs,

and they improved upon their stigma over time (see Figure 1).
Page 64
Discussion
On our small sized college campus, students have expressed a
need for more visible mental
health awareness on campus. With only 22% of students on our
campus knowing where to go if in
distress, we sought to educate students about local resources
offered on our campus (Giroux & Geiss,
2017). After a week-long mental health awareness campaign,
this sample of college students reported a
decrease in help-seeking stigma on both measures collected.
Furthermore, stigmatized attitudes improved
the most for those who actively participated in the weeklong
events, especially because these students
also started with higher stigma to begin with. Thus, this may be
an intervention that holds promise to
reduce stigma toward seeking help, especially in those who
actively participate.
While exploring the effect of participation in the events on
self-stigma, we found that students
who participated had increased positive attitudes toward seeking
help, but these participants also
self-reported high levels of stigma during the pretest. Similar to
prior research, interventions such as

psychoeducational programming may be most beneficial for
those who actively participate in mental
health awareness events (Lannin, Vogel, Brenner, Abraham, &
Heath, 2015). Yet, it also seemed puzzling
why students who participated had higher levels of stigma. One
reason for this result could be that those
who actively attended and participated in mental health
awareness week events may self-report high
self-stigma because of experienced negative psychological
feelings such as symptoms of depression
(Busby Grant, Bruce, & Batterham, 2016). However, another
study suggested that self-stigma was
significantly associated with decreased likeliness to engage in
mental health related activities, seek
psychological help, or seek counseling (Lannin et al., 2015).
The results from the present study support the importance of
evaluating a mental health
awareness campaign to understand how stigma may decrease in
specific populations (Kelly, Jorm, &
Wright, 2007). In the process of designing and conducting a
mental health awareness week, we were able
to provide this type of service while also investigating how it
changed stigma perceptions. In running this
study, we received promising preliminary results that suggest a
student-led and student-run mental health
week can decrease stigma toward seeking help. Specifically,
there needs to be considerations of methods
of administration of surveys, who to sample, and when during
the semester to sample students.
First, when thinking about administration of surveys to
undergraduate college students, it is

important to understand what method of administration is
effective for the demographic. Our results
showed significant attrition rates from pretest to posttest using
online surveys via college e-mail
addresses. Thus, future research may include testing different
types of survey administration (e.g., paper
and pencil, online) among college students that may improve
attrition rates and provide a more
representative sample of the student population.
Second, we found that time of academic school year impacted
student engagement. Attrition rates
may be linked to the fact that students were asked to participate
in the mental health awareness activities
during midterm exams, which may increase levels of stress.
Therefore, teasing out the effect of the
intervention and timing of the school year is an important
consideration for those running studies on a
college campus.
Last, it is important for pre- and postsurveys to be filled out by
students who actively participate
in mental health awareness events. One suggestion to capture
this would be to provide an incentive for
active participants in the weeklong events to participate in the
pretest and posttest surveys. By doing this,
data may capture the empirical evidence that incorporates all
student perceptions.
This study may be helpful to student-led mental health

awareness campaigns. An undergraduate
student leading a mental health awareness campaign on campus
may consider survey administration, time
of academic year, and more consistent incentives to better
understand the implications of awareness for
mental health help-seeking on a small sized campus.
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Author Note. Dominique Giroux,
https://orcid.org/00000002-2487-7777, Olivet College; Elisa
Geiss,
Department of Psychology, Olivet College. This study was
supported by the Olivet College Student
Government Association. Special thanks to Psi Chi Journal
reviewers for their support. Correspondence
concerning this article should be addressed to Dominique
Giroux, E: [email protected]
Page 66
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https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.53.3.325
https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.62.6.603
https://doi.org/10.1037/prj0000100
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2009.01.001
mailto:[email protected]Evaluating a Student-Led Mental Health
Awareness CampaignMethodResultsTable 1 Correlation Table
for Pretest and Posttest Scores on the MHSAS and
SSOSHDiscussionReferences
Enhancing School Success with Mnemonic Strategies
MARGO A. MASTROPIERI AND THOMAS E. SCRUCGGS
Many students with disabilities and those at risk for educational
failure exhibit problems
with remembering materials covered in school. Suggestions for
helping these students
improve memory for school content are described in this article.
In particular, mnemonic
instruction is described and examples are provided of how it can
be used to increase
school learning and memory of students with learning
difficulties.
A few years ago, we revisited an inner-city middle school
where-about a year before we had
conducted an investigation on the effectiveness of mnemonic
techniques in helping students
with mild cognitive disabilities remember U.S. states and
capitals. As we entered the classroom,
Crystal, a student classified as mildly mentally handicapped,

recognized one of our graduate
students immediately.
"Hay! I remember you!" she exclaimed enthusiastically.
"You were here last year-you taught us states and capitals! I
remember, go ahead, ask me
one!"
"Well, uh," replied our colleague, taken slightly by surprise,
"How about ... Florida? What's the
capital of Florida?"
"That's too easy!" she said, smiling. "Here it is: Florida, the
keyword is flower-the flower is on a
television set, and television is the keyword for Tallahassee!"
In this scenario, a student classified as mentally retarded
effectively remembered information
she had been taught 1 year previously. Even more impressive
was the fact that she had not
reviewed or rehearsed this information with any teacher since
the last time we had seen her! As
startling as this scenario is, it underscores something we have
been witnessing for many years:
the incredible power of mnemonic strategies to increase
dramatically the amount of information
students remember, even students with learning problems. In
this article, we describe the need
for effective memory strategies for school learning. Next, we
provide a brief description of what
mnemonic strategies are and what they are not. Following that,
we describe how you can use

these powerful learning tools to enhance the school success of
your own students.
THE NEED FOR MNEMONIC STRATEGIES
According to the Sixteenth Annual Report to Congress on the
Implementation of the Individuals
with Disabilities Act (U.S. Department of Education, I 994),
71.2 % of all students now spend all
or a substantial part of their school day in general education
classrooms. As many as 78.9% of
students with learning disabilities spend all or most of their
educational time in general
education classrooms. On the secondary level, students with
disabilities are included in content
area classrooms, such as English, science, and social studies
classes. Largely, ability to
succeed in these classrooms determines their level of success in
school.
What factors determine whether a student will succeed in
secondary content-area classrooms?
Putnam (1992b) surveyed 7th- and 10th-grade teachers in
Kansas,
INTERVENTION IN SCHOOL AND CLINIC VOL. 33, No. 4,
MARCH 1996 (PP. 201-208) 201
Indiana, and Florida, and reported that an average of nearly half
of a student's report card
grades depended on test performance. Clearly, such factors as
attendance, punctuality,
participation, and homework completion are also important.

However, teachers made it clear
that test scores were the single most important factor in report
card grades. Teachers gave an
average of 11 of these tests over the course of a single 9-week
grading period. Clearly,
students' academic survival is tied very closely with
performance on academic tests.
In addition to the number of tests teachers give, Putnam (1992a)
also examined the types of
questions teachers asked on tests. He found that the
overwhelming majority of test questions
students were asked required facn1al recall:
The majority of questions on tests administered by mainstream
secondary classroom teachers
required the student to recall a specific foct-2 S.3 per test. A
sample question that asked for a
specific fact was "Who discovered America?" Other possible
responses, such as conclusion,
sequence, opinion, discrimination, compare and contrast,
purpose, correct an example, and
summary, appeared about one per test. (p. 131)
Thus it can be seen that memory for factual information is
absolutely essential for success in
school, particularly at the secondary level. Unfortunately, it is
also true that students with
learning disabilities and other learning problems have been
consistently shown to have
particular difficulties remembering academic content (e.g.,
Cooney & Swanson, 1987). Our work
in the area of mnemonic (memory-enhancing) strategies has
been devoted to finding ways of
increasing the amount of content-area information students are
able to remember. This article

provides information on the utility, and effectiveness, of
mnemonic strategies in enhancing
memory for school learning.
WHAT MNEMONIC STRATEGIES ARE
A1nemonic strategies are systematic procedures for enhancing
memory. Their particular use is
in developing better ways to take in (encode) information so
that it will be much easier to
remember (retrieve). Although there are retrieval strategies that
can be employed to attempt to
retrieve information that has been forgotten, research has
demonstrated that the way we
encode information when we first study facilitates memory
better. The particular task in
developing mnemonic strategies is to find a way to relate new
information to information
students already have locked in long-term memory. If we can
make a firm enough connection,
the memory will last a very long time. For example, Crystal had
learned the capital of Florida so
well because the mnemonic strategy had carefully linked it to
things she was very familiar with.
Because Florida sounds like flower (the keyword), it was easy
to teach her to make an
automatic connection between Florida and flower:
What's the keyword for Florida? Flower, good! And, what state
is flower the keyword for? Good,
Florida!
It was also easy to teach her to establish a firm association

between Tallahassee and television
because television was very familiar to Crystal and the two
words, again, sound very similar:
What’s the keyword for Tallahassee? Television, good! And,
what capital is television the
keyword for? Good, Tallahassee!
Having linked the two words (Florida, Tallahassee) to concrete,
familiar words that sound similar
(flower, television), all that remains is to link the two familiar
words together. And although
memory experts Harry Lorayne and Jerry Lucas have suggested
that these words must be
associated "in some ridiculous way" (1974, p. 2 3), in fact all
that is necessary is that the two
keywords be pictured in some meaningful interaction. In the
Florida instance, a picture had
been created and displayed on an overhead projector of a flower
sitting on a television set, as
shown in Figure I.
Although recalling that Tallahassee is the capital of Florida may
be difficult for a student with
learning problems, remembering a picture of a flower on a
television set was much simpler, and-
if the keywords had been learned-contained the same
information. For this reason, we have
found mnemonic strategies constructed according to these
procedures to be extraordinarily
effective (Mastropieri, Scruggs, Bakken, & Brigham, 1992).

Figure 1. Mnemonic representation of Tallahassee, capital of
Florida. (Copyright I 993 by M.A.
Mastropieri and TE. Scruggs.)
202 INTERVENTION IN SCHOOL AND CLINIC
WHAT MNEMONIC STRATEGIES ARE NOT
It might be helpful, at this point, to also mention briefly what
mnemonic strategies are not.
Mnemonic strategies do not represent a "philosophy" of
education. We do not use, or
recommend the use of, mnemonic strategies because they arc
compatible with someone's
particular philosophy or because they are a part of someone's
theory about what education
should be. We recommend mnemonic strategies for only one
reason: Over and over again, they
have been proven to be extremely effective in helping people
remember things (Bulgren,
Schumaker, & Deshler, 1994; Mastropieri & Scruggs, 1989).
It is also true that mnemonic strategies are not an overall
teaching method or curricular
approach. The focus of mnemonic strategies is so specific that
they are intended to be used to
enhance the recall of the components of any lesson for which
memory is needed. We have
found, for example, that mnemonic strategies can be ·used to
enhance science learning when
the curriculum involves a textbook/lecture format (Scruggs &
Mastropicri, 1992) or when the
curriculum involves a hands-on, inquiry learning format

(Mastropicri, Scruggs, & Chung, 1997).
Even though these approaches to science learning are very
different (Mastropieri & Scruggs,
1994), mnemonic strategies can still be incorporated for the
elements that require recall.
It is also important to consider that mnemonic strategies are
memory strategies, and not
comprehension strategies. Students who are trained
mnemonically also perform better on
comprehension tests of that content (e.g., Mastropieri, Scruggs,
& Fulk, 1990; Scruggs,
Mastropicri, McLoone, Levin, & Morrison, 1987), but that is
generally because they remember
more information that can be applied on comprehension tests.
Nevertheless, when
comprehension enhancement is called for, it is important to
consider using specific
comprehension strategies, such as content elaboration, prior
knowledge activation,
manipulation, coaching and questioning, or prediction and
verification (e.g., Mastropieri &
Scruggs, 1997; Scruggs, Mastropieri, Sullivan, & Hesser, 1993).
Nevertheless, mnemonic
strategies do not inhibit comprehension, as suggested by some
(e.g., Kilpatrick, 1985), and,
more importantly, there arc many instances in school of
students who have achieved adequate
comprehension of a concept, but who have forgotten the facts
associated with it. For example,
it is completely possible to comprehend the nature of states and
capitals while being unable to
retrieve the capital of Florida. For another example, it is

altogether possible to comprehend the
concepts of a cell having a nucleus and consuming other
organisms while being unable to
retrieve the related verbal label (prokaryotic heterotroph).
These are the areas where mnemonic
strategies can help.
Finally, it should be emphasized that mnemonic strategies do
not represent an educational
panacea. There are many things that students must do to succeed
in school, and remembering
content information is only one part of the entire picture.
However, when there is academic
content to be remembered, mnemonic strategies may be an
important instructional component.
In the next section, we discuss some general procedures for
improving memory, followed by a
description of how to create specific mnemonic strategies.
GENERAL TECHNIQUES FOR IMPROVING MEMORY
Mnemonic strategies as described in this article arc not the only
way of improving memory in
students who exhibit difficulty remembering things. It is
important that you consider all possible
methods for improving memory and not assume that mnemonic
strategies are your only option.
In other publications (Mastropieri & Scruggs, l 993; Mastropieri
& Scruggs, in press), we have
described more general methods for improving memory. These
include the following:
1. INCREASE AITENTION. Students will not remember
something that they did not pay

attention to in the first place. Be sure your students' memory
problems are not really
attention problems. Use strategies for enhancing attention, such
as intensifying
instruction, teaching enthusiastically, using more visual aids
and activities, and
reinforcing attending.
2. PROMOTE EXTERNAL MEMORY. Many things that need to
be remembered can be
written down, a practice known as "external memory." Practices
such as keeping an
assignment notebook and maintaining a student calendar can be
helpful in remembering
to do things. Unfortunately, external memory is usually of little
use (ethically, anyway) on
tests.
3. ENHANCE MEANINGFULNFSS. Find ways to relate the
content being discussed to the
student's prior knowledge. Draw parallels to the students' own
lives. Bring in concrete,
meaningful examples for students to explore so the content
becomes more a part of their
experience.
4. USE PICTURES. Pictures can provide a substantial memory
advantage. Use pictures on
the chalkboard or on the overhead projector. Bring in
photographs or other illustrations.

Show concrete images on video- tape, when appropriate. If
pictures are simply
unavailable, ask students to create images, or "pictures in their
heads."
VOL. 33. No. 4. MARCH 1998 203
5. MINIMIZE INTERFERENCE. Avoid digressions and
emphasize only the critical features
of a new topic. Make sure all examples relate directly to the
content being covered.
6. PROMOTE ACTIVE REASONING. Students remember
content better when they
experience it for themselves (Scruggs, Mastropieri, Bakken, &
Brigham, 1993). For
example, rather than lecturing the class on the effect of weak
acid (such as vinegar) on
calcite, allow students to place calcite in a glass of vinegar and
see for themselves.
7. PROMOTE ACTIVE REASONING. Students remember
better if they actively think
through new information, rather than simply repeating it. For
example, rather than simply
telling students that penguins carry their eggs on the tops of

their feet, ask students why
it makes sense that penguins would carry their eggs on the tops
of their feet.
8. INCREASE THE AMOUNT OF PRACTICE. Students
remember information better if
they have practice using it more frequently. Use lots of review
in your teaching; do not
simply finish one topic and then never mention it again. Remind
the class, and have
students practice previous information frequently.
All these strategies can be used to improve memory, and all
should be considered.
Unfortunately, none of these strategies specifically targets
recall of information contained in new
or unfamiliar words, and this is the aspect of memory where
students most often fail. For
example, in the Scruggs, Mastropieri, Bakken, and Brig- ham
(1993) investigation, students who
engaged in active manipulation remembered more information
about electricity and rocks and
minerals than students who studied from textbooks. However,
neither condition improved recall
of critical vocabulary or terminology, the area where mnemonic
strategies are most effective. In
the following section, we describe several different types of
mnemonic strategies that can be
used to improve students' memory.
SPECIFIC MNEMONIC TECHNIQUES
The Keyword Method

The keyword method has already been described for helping
students remember states and
capitals. However, the keyword method is extremely versatile
and has a variety of helpful
applications. One possibility is in teaching new vocabulary
words. For example, to help students
remember that barrister is another word for lawyer, first create a
keyword for the unfamiliar
word, banister. Remember, a keyword is a word that sounds like
the new word and is easily
pictured. A good keyword for barrister,
then, is bear. Then, you create a picture of the keyword and the
definition doing something
together. It is important that these two things actually interact
and are not simply presented in
the same picture. Therefore, a picture of a bear and a lawyer in
one picture is not a good
mnemonic, because the elements are not interacting. A better
picture would be a bear who is
acting as a lawyer in a courtroom, for example, pleading his
client's innocence. We have
created pictures and shown them on overhead projectors, but
you could show them in other
ways as well. When you practice this strategy, be certain
students understand all parts of it:
Class, barrister is another word for lawye1: To remember what a
barrister is, first think of the
keyword for barrister: bear. Whats the keyword for barrister?
[bear] Good, the keyword for
barrister is bear, and barrister means lawyer. Now [displays

overhead] look at this picture of a
bear acting like a lawyer. The bear is the keyword for. .?
[barrister/ Barrister, good. So
remember this picture of a bear acting like a lawyer. When you
hear the word barrister, you first
think of the keyword...? [Bear] Good, and remember, what is
the bear doing in the picture?
/being a lawyer}. Right, being a lawyer. So what does barrister
mean? [lawyer] Lawyer, good.
The keyword method can also be used for more specialized
vocabulary such as ranidae, the
scientific term for common frogs. A good keyword for ranidae
could be rain, and you could show
a picture of frogs sitting in the rain. Practice the strategy as in
the barrister example. When you
question individual students, ask them to give the answer and
then describe how they
remembered. You should get an answer something like:
Ranidae is the word for common frogs. I remembered because
the keyword is rain and it was
raining on the frogs.
If you practice the strategy carefully and frequently, students
should remember this information
very well. At early stages of learning, you might find some
students give the answer rain when
you ask what ranid(le means. In these cases, you simply remind
the student,
No, rain is the keyword it just helps us remember the answer.
Now, think in the picture,
what is it raining on? [frogs] Right, frogs. So what does
ranidae mean? [common frogs].
Correct, common frogs.

Mnemonics can also be used in acquiring foreign language
vocabulary. A list of some Italian
vocabulary words (from Mastropieri & Scruggs, 1991, p. 24)
and corresponding mnemonic
strategies are given in Table l. Before you read, cover up the
keywords and strategies and see if
you can come up with your own.
Keywords have also been used to improve recall of map
locations. For example, students with
learning disabilities were much more successful in locating
Revolutionary War battle locations
on a map when they
Table 1. Sample Italian Vocabulary Words and Corresponding
Mnemonic Strategies
Word & meaning Keyword Strategy
meta (apple) mail an apple in a mailbox
capre (goat) cop a goat dressed like a
cop
Iago (lake) log a log in a lake
carta (letter) cart a cart with a letter in
it
Word & meaning Keyword Strategy
fonda (bag) phone a phone in a bag

were mnemonically encoded (e.g., a picture of a tiger, keyword
for Fort Ticonderoga) than when
representational pictures were used. When asked for the
location of Fort Ticonderoga, students
proved much more able to identify where on the map the tiger
had been than they were to
identify the location of a more traditional illustration. Further,
if the tiger was shown tending a
cannon, students were more likely to remember that at Fort
Ticonderoga, cannons were
captured that were helpful in the American war effort (Brigham,
Scruggs, & Mastropieri, 1995).
The Pegword Method
Pegwords can be used when numbered or ordered information
needs to be remembered.
Pegwords are rhyming words for numbers and include the
following:
One is bun, six is sticks,
two is shoe, seven is heaven,
three is tree, eight is gate,
four is door, nine is vine,
five is hive, ten is hen.
Pegwords are substituted for the number to be remembered and
associated with the other
information. For instance, to remember that insects have six
legs whereas spiders have eight
legs, create a picture of insects on sticks (see Figure 2) and

another picture of a spider on a
gate. To remember Newton's first law of motion (objects at rest
tend to remain at rest unless
acted on by another force), create a picture of a bun (pegword
for one) resting. To remember
that a garden rake is an example of a third-class lever, create a
picture of a rake leaning against
a tree (pegword for three, or third).
Pegwords can also be combined with keywords. To teach that
crocoite is a mineral that is
number 2 on the Mohs hardness scale, create a picture of
crocodiles (keyword for crocoite)
wearing shoes (pegword for 2). To remember that the mineral
wolframite is hardness number
4, black in color, and used in making filaments for lightbulbs,
create a picture of a black wolf
(keyword for wolframite), looking in a door (pegword for 4),
and turn- ing on a lightbulb.
Research has shown that elaborate strategies such as this are
very effective, and that color,
appropriately encoded, can also be easily remembered (Scruggs,
Mastropieri, Levin, & Gaffney,
1985). That is, a picture of a black wolf is much more likely to
be remembered than a picture of
wolframite colored black. Pegwords can also be extended
beyond the number 10 (11 is lever,
12 is elf, etc.). For instance, to remember that the 19th
amendment of the U.S. Constitution
guar- anteed women the right to vote, create a picture of a
woman dressed as a knight (19 =
knighting) riding to a voting booth. To remember that James K.
Polk was the 11th American
president, create a picture of a polka dotted (keyword for
Polk) lever (pegword for 11) as
shown in Figure 3 (Mastropieri, Scruggs, & Whedon,1997).

INSECTS 6 (sticks) legs
Figure 2. Mnemonic representation of insects having six legs.
(Copyright 1993 by M.A.
Figure 3. Mnemonic representation of Polk as the 11th U.S.
president. (Copyright 1993 by M.A.
VOL. 33. No. 4. MARCH 1998 205
Pegwords can also be extended beyond the number 19, by using,
for example, twenty is twinty
(twins), thirty is thirsty, forty is party, and fifty is "gifty," or
gift-wrapped. For example, to
remember the math fact, 7 x 8 = 56, create a picture and
practice the pegword phrase,
"Heaven's (7) gate (8) holds gifty sticks" (pegword for 56). To
remember that Taft was the 27th
president, create a picture of a taffy (keyword for Taft), being
pulled between twin heavens
(pegword for 27).

Letter Strategies
Letter strategies, which involve using letter prompts to
remember lists of things, arc the most
familiar to students. Most former students remember using the
acronym HOMES to remember
the names of the Great Lakes and FACE to remember the notes
represented in the spaces of
the treble clef, from bottom to top. Except for the FACE
strategy, however, most acronyms
assume that a name of something will be remembered when the
first letter is retrieved.
However, this may not always be true. For example, if a student
is unfamiliar with Lake Ontario,
remembering simply that the first letter is O is insufficient to
prompt recall. The names of the
individual lakes must be practiced until they have become
familiar.
Acronyms are most helpful when the first letters of a list can be
used to create an entire word;
however, sometimes modifications can be made. For instance,
consider the acronym FARM-B,
which represents the five classes of vertebrate animals: fish,
amphibian, reptile, mammal, and
bird, as shown in Figure 4. The B for bird does not really fit,
but it can be added to FARM and
practiced until it becomes automatic. In other cases, appropriate
words cannot be easily con-
structed from the first letters of the words to be remembered.
For example, if you wished to
remember the names of the planets in their order from the sun,
the letters would be M-V-E-M-J-
S-U-N-P, from which a word cannot be made. In these cases, an

acrostic can be created, in
which the first letters are reconstructed to represent the words
in a sentence. In this case, the
sentence could be "My very educated mother just sent us nine
pizzas" (Mastropieri & Scruggs,
1994, p. 271). Again, the names of the planets must be
sufficiently familiar so that students can
retrieve a planet name, given only the first letter. Also, students
should be sufficiently familiar
with the solar system to know that the first M stands for
Mercury, and not Mars.
For another example, to remember the classification taxonomy
of living things, remember the
sentence, "King Philip's class ordered a family of gentle
spaniels." This sentence helps prompt
kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species, in
order.
Figure 4. Mnemonic representation of the vertebrates: fish,
amphibians, reptiles, mammals, and
birds. (Note: From A Practical Guide for Teaching Science to
Students with Special Needs in
Inclusive Settings [p. 158}, by M. A. Mastropieri and T E.
Scruggs, 1991, Austin, TX: PRO-ED.
Reprinted with per- 111frsion.)

TRAINING INDEPENDENT STRATEGY USE
Several research studies have described the effects of training
students with memory problems
how to use mnemonic strategies independently (Fulk,
Mastropieri, & Scruggs, 1992; King-
Sears, Mercer, & Sindelar, 1992; Mastropieri, Scruggs, Levin,
Gaffney, & McLoone, 1985;
McLoone, Scruggs, Mastropieri, & Zucker, 1986; Scruggs &
Mastropieri, 1992). The earlier
studies successfully trained students with disabilities to use the
mnemonic procedures and then
to generalize the procedures for learning new vocabulary words
(Mastropieri et al., 1985;
McLoone et al., 1986). More recent studies trained students
with disabilities to use the
strategies across different content areas, including science and
social studies (Fulk et al., 1992;
King-Sears et al., I 992; Scruggs & Mastropieri, 1992). All of
these studies demonstrated some
positive benefits for training students to use mnemonic
strategies independently. More
importantly, however, studies shared seven common elements
during the training sessions with
students with disabilities, as described by Fulk (1994) and
Bulgren et al. (1994) and
summarized next.
STEP 1. Inform students about the purpose of the instruction
and the rationale for the strategy
training. Tell students that strategy training will be beneficial
for them and that their efforts at
using the strategies will result in better performance. Provide
examples of how the strategy can
be beneficial across a variety of learning situations and content

areas. For example, in teaching
students how to implement the strategy to learn science
vocabulary, show them how the
method can also be helpful in learning social studies content
and for learning English and
foreign language vocabulary.
STEP 2. Provide instruction in the strategy and in positive
attributions toward strategy usage.
Demonstrate,
model, and lead students using many examples to ensure their
complete understanding of the
mnemonic process during the strategy component training.
Provide instances and noninstances
of correct usage and have them identify and correct any
incorrect examples.
Make charts listing the steps involved in generating strategies.
King-Sears ct al. (1992) taught
students the IT FITS strategy:
Identify the term.
Tell the definition of the term. Find a keyword.
Imagine the definition doing something with the keyword.
Think about the definition doing something with the keyword.
Study what you imagined until you know the definition.
(King-Sears et al., 1992, p. 27)
Provide ample modeling and practice with students, attributing
their successes to strategy use.
Say, for example, "When I try hard and use the strategy, I will

remember more information."
Reinforce students for trying hard to use the strategy and
attribute success and failure to
strategy usage.
STEP 3. Provide models during which examples and thinking
processes are said aloud.
Demonstrate how you proceed with your thinking while
generating a strategy for specific
examples. Include statements attributing your success to the
hard effort and use of the strategy.
STEP 4. Allow students opportunities to practice orally and
provide corrective feedback.
Practice several examples with the class as a whole. Encourage
brainstorming during the
development of the keyword and interactive picture phase.
Allow students to work in small
groups and practice generating strategies and brainstorming.
Then, have students work with
partners to develop strategies before working independently.
STEP 5. Arrange guided practice with relevant feedback on
both strategy usage and attribution
feedback. Give students additional items to practice using the
mnemonic and attribution
strategies. Provide corrective feedback and allow opportunities
for students to share their
thinking with one another about how they developed their
strategies.
STEP 6. Provide generalization instruction, practice, and
feedback. Use different types of

materials to demonstrate how the strategy can be applied across
content areas and various
types of factual information. Have students practice generating
strategies for vocabulary words
in English, for names of famous people and their accomplished
in history, for minerals and their
associated attributes in science, and other associated factual
information they may need to
learn in school
STEP 7. Include pos1t1ve reinforcement and pos1t1ve
attribution training for completing the
tasks and for remembering the information correctly. Provide
review and practice with
information that was learned using strategies. Students will still
need to practice retrieving
information learned with strategies. When implemented as a
package of training, students with
disabilities may be more likely to learn to use and generate
these strategies independently.
Limitations
Research has indicated that students who have been taught
strategies for creating their own
mnemonics out- perform comparison students in free-study
conditions. Unfortunately, however,
when students generate their own strategies, instruction may
proceed at a much slower rate
and students' performances may be lower than when teachers
supply the strategies (Scruggs &
Mastropieri, 1992). During a given unit of instruction, teachers
should consider whether learning
a strategy or learning the content is the priority.
Moreover, initial development of many of these strategies can
be difficult for anyone. Try

developing several strategies yourself before teaching your
students with disabilities. If you
experience difficulties, imagine that the task will be much more
difficult for your students. Each
year develop a few strategies to accompany the content areas
that you teach most frequently.
Over time you will have a great number of effective strategies
that you can teach your students.
This does not mean that you should not teach your students to
develop strategies
independently. You can still encourage active strategy
development on the part of your
students, but if students have difficulties generating strategies,
you can supply the ones
developed by you or your co-teachers. Perhaps you will find
that a combination of teacher-
created and student-generated mnemonic strategies is the best
way to enhance recall and still
promote independent strategy use.
SUMMARY
Although many changes in schooling have taken place in recent
years, memory for academic
content remains an extremely important part of the school
learning experience. Students with
learning disabilities and other special needs may he at particular
risk for failure in this important
arena of school functioning. In order to promote academic
success in school, we recommend
that teachers teach students how to remember as well as what to
remember. This can be done
by a variety of strategies, but by far the most powerful have

been the keyword method, the
pegword method, and letter strategies. Systematic instruction
using mnemonic strategies for
important information to remember, as well as systematic
VQL. 33, No. 4, MARCH 1998 207
instruction in independent use of mnemonic strategies, can be
important factors in determining
school success for students with learning and memory problems.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Margo A. Mastropieri, PhD, is a professor of special education,
Department of Educational
Studies, Purdue University. Her research interests include ways
to facilitate learning, memory,
and thinking of student with disabilities. Thomas E. Scruggs,
PhD, is a professor of special
education, Department of Educational Studies, Purdue
University. His research emphasizes
research synthesis, science instruction for students with
disabilities, and mnemonic instruction
for student with disabilities. Address: Margo A. Mastropieri,
Department of Educational Studies,
LAF.B 5th floor, Purdue University, West Lafayette IN 47907
e-mail: [email protected]
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208
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Enhancing School Success with Mnemonic StrategiesTHE
NEED FOR MNEMONIC STRATEGIESWHAT MNEMONIC
STRATEGIES AREWHAT MNEMONIC STRATEGIES ARE
NOTGENERAL TECHNIQUES FOR IMPROVING
MEMORYSPECIFIC MNEMONIC TECHNIQUESTRAINING
INDEPENDENT STRATEGY USESUMMARYABOUT THE
AUTHORSREFERENCES

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