Unit 4 General Psychological Issues in Cultural PerspectiveS.docx

Unit 4 General Psychological Issues in Cultural Perspective
Subunit 4 Personality and Values Across Cultures
Article 3
8-1-2002
Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck's Values Orientation
Theory
Michael D. Hills
University of Wikato, New Zealand, [email protected]
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Hills, M. D. (2002). Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck's Values
Orientation Theory. Online Readings in
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0919.1040
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Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck's Values Orientation Theory
Abstract
People's attitudes are based on the relatively few, stable values
they hold. Kluckhohn
and Strodtbeck's (1961) Values Orientation Theory proposes
that all human societies must
answer a limited number of universal problems, that the value-
based solutions are limited in
number and universally known, but that different cultures have
different preferences among
them. Suggested questions include humans' relations with time,
nature and each other, as
well as basic human motives and the nature of human nature.
Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck
suggested alternate answers to all five, developed culture-
specific measures of each, and
described the value orientation profiles of five SW USA cultural
groups. Their theory has since
been tested in many other cultures, and used to help negotiating
ethnic groups understand
one another, and to examine the inter-generational value
changes caused by migration.
Other theories of universal values (Rokeach, Hofstede,
Schwartz) have produced value
concepts sufficiently similar to suggest that a truly universal set
of human values does exist
and that cross-cultural psychologists are close to discovering
what they are.
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INTRODUCTION
Cross-cultural psychology has two broad aims: to understand
the differences between
human beings who come from different cultural backgrounds,
and to understand the
similarities between all human beings. The similarities may be
sought at all levels – from
the physiological (our eyes are able to perceive colour) through
the cognitive (we are also
able to perceive perspective, or relative distance), to the
personal (we can be both happy
and sad, gentle or aggressive) to the social (we all relate to our
parents and siblings), to
the cultural (we all share cultural norms with others of the same
cultural background).

These cultural norms can take a variety of forms. They may be
quite concrete and
specific, like the type of clothing we find acceptable on a given
occasion, or extremely
complex and abstract, as are our religious beliefs. An important
type of norm is the
concept we have of ourselves in relation to other objects and
people. These may range
from our belief about the nature of human nature (Wrightsman,
1992), to the opinions we
hold (our political opinions, for instance) to the attitudes we
have toward a variety of
concepts which we hold. Attitudes have long been studied by
psychologists – especially
social psychologists. For the first half of the twentieth century,
it was believed that if we
could measure them accurately, they would enable us to predict
human behaviour. And
predicting behaviour is what all psychology is about.
However, as we became more psychometrically sophisticated,
and able to measure
attitudes accurately with instruments such as the Likert
summated ratings scale, we

learned that attitudes are much more complex than we had
realised, and that they have to
be measured very carefully, and a number of other factors such
as context and strength
taken into account before any accuracy of prediction could be
claimed. Moreover we all
have so many attitudes, they change so readily, and they vary so
much over time and
situation, that any one attitude can predict only a relatively
small amount of behaviour.
Social psychologists therefore started looking for more
fundamental, slower changing
concept which might give more reliable behavioural prediction.
One such concept is the
values which a person holds. Values are seen as being relatively
few in number. Perhaps
the best-known student of values is Rokeach (1979), who
suggests that there are at most
36 values held by human beings. Moreover they are considered
to be widely, and perhaps
universally held. Concepts such as honesty and courage, peace
and wisdom, are
recognised in all human cultures. On the other hand, Hofstede
(1980, 2001), in a huge

world-wide study, has been able to find no more than five which
are universally held.
Nevertheless the idea that there are basic human values, and
that they are
measurable, has been exciting psychologists to investigate them
for many years, from
Allport, Vernon and Lindzey in 1931 to the present day. It has
been widely accepted that
uncovering those values, and devising means of measuring
them, would facilitate valuable
insight into the similarities and differences between human
beings from differing cultural
backgrounds.
One theory of basic human values which has been very
influential is that of
Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck (1961). Florence Kluckhohn and
Fred Strodtbeck set out to
operationalise a theoretical approach to the values concept
developed by Florence's
3
Hills: Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck's Values Orientation Theory
Produced by The Berkeley Electronic Press, 2011

husband, Clyde Kluckhohn (1949, 1952). He argued that humans
share biological traits
and characteristics which form the basis for the development of
culture, and that people
typically feel their own cultural beliefs and practices are normal
and natural, and those of
others are strange, or even inferior or abnormal. He defined a
value as: "A conception,
explicit or implicit, distinctive of an individual or characteristic
of a group, of the desirable
which influences the selection from available modes, means and
ends of action."
(Kluckhohn, 1951, p 395).
Florence Kluckhohn and Fred Strodtbeck (1961) developed a
theory which put these
principles into action. They started with three basic
assumptions:
• "There is a limited number of common human problems for
which all peoples must
at all times find some solution".
• "While there is variability in solutions of all the problems, it
is neither limitless nor

random but is definitely variable within a range of possible
solutions".
• "All alternatives of all solutions are present in all societies at
all times but are
differentially preferred".
They suggested that the solutions for these problems preferred
by a given society reflects
that society's values. Consequently, measurement of the
preferred solutions would
indicate the values espoused by that society. They suggested
five basic types of problem
to be solved by every society:
• On what aspect of time should we primarily focus – past,
present or future?
• What is the relationship between Humanity and its natural
environment – mastery,
submission or harmony?
• How should individuals relate with others – hierarchically
(which they called
"Lineal"), as equals ("Collateral"), or according to their
individual merit?

• What is the prime motivation for behaviour – to express one's
self ("Being"), to
grow ("Being-in-becoming"), or to achieve?
• What is the nature of human nature – good, bad ("Evil") or a
mixture?
Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck (1961) also suggested a sixth value
dimension of Space (Here,
There, or Far Away) but did not explore it further. They then
speled out the possible
answers to each of the questions, arguing that the preferred
answer in any society reflects
the basic orientation of the society to that aspect of its
environment. The orientations to
each question are shown in Table 1.
In proposing orientations to the Nature of Human nature
question, Kluckhohn and
Strodtbeck suggested that there are two dimensions involved –
good, bad or mixed, and
that of mutability, or whether we are born the way we are and
cannot change, or can learn
to change (in either direction). Moreover they suggested that
"mixed" may mean either
both good and bad, or neutral. Taking all these considerations

into account simultaneously
gives us the possible orientations shown in Table 2.
4
Online Readings in Psychology and Culture, Unit 4, Subunit 4,
Chapter 3
Table 1.
Four basic questions and the value orientations reflected in their
answers.
Question Orientation Description
Time Past We focus on the past (the time before now), and on
preserving and maintaining traditional teachings
and beliefs.
Present We focus on the present (what is now), and on
accommodating changes in beliefs and traditions.
Future We focus on the future (the time to come), planning
ahead, and seeking new ways to replace the old.

Humanity and Natural
Environment
Mastery We can and should exercise total control over the
forces of, and in, nature and the super-natural
Harmonious We can and should exercise partial but not total
control by living in a balance with the natural forces
Submissive We cannot and should not exercise control over
natural forces but, rather, are subject to the higher
power of these forces.
Relating to other people Hierarchical
(“Lineal”)
Emphasis on hierarchical principles and deferring
to higher authority or authorities within the group
As equals
(“Collateral”)
Emphasis on consensus within the extended group
of equals
Individualistic Emphasis on the individual or individual

families
within the group who make decisions independently
from others
Motive for behaving Being Our motivation is internal,
emphasising activity
valued by our self but not necessarily by others in
the group
Being-in-becoming Motivation is to develop and grow in
abilities which
are valued by us, although not necessarily by
others
Achievement
(“Doing”)
Our motivation is external to us, emphasising
activity that is both valued by ourselves
and is approved by others in our group.
Having set out their theory, Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck (1961)
then proposed a means of
measuring the orientations it produced. They suggested

intensive interviewing be used,
with a series of probing questions exploring each of the value
dimensions with the
interviewee. However they also recognised that many people
find it difficult to think in the
abstract, so suggested that real-life situations be outlined which
involved the particular
value being investigated. This led to the moral dilemma
approach used by Kohlberg in his
5
studies of morality a decade later. Moreover Kluckhohn and
Strodtbeck (1961) also
stressed that the real-life situations used must be appropriate to
the culture of the people
being studied. This was an early attempt to provide a solution to
the emic-etic dilemma
outlined by Berry (1969) some years later, and appears similar
to the solution to the
dilemma proposed by Segall et al. in the 1990s.

Table 2
Orientations possible in answering the question on the Nature of
Human Nature.
Question Orientation Description
Nature of Human Nature evil/mutable Born evil, but can learn
to be good.
However danger of regression always
present.
evil/immutable Born evil and incapable of being
changed. Therefore requires salvation
by an external force.
mixture/mutable Has both good and bad traits, but can
learn to be either better or worse.
mixture/immutable Has both good and bad traits, and their
profile cannot be changed
neutral/mutable Born neither good nor bad, but can learn
both good and bad traits
neutral/immutable Born neither good nor bad, and this

profile cannot be changed
good/mutable Basically good, but subject to corruption
good/immutable Basically good, and will always remain
so.
To test their theory out, Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck (1961)
interviewed members of five
different cultural groups in the South-West USA. These
included itinerant Navaho,
Mexican-Americans, Texan homesteaders, Mormon villagers,
and Zuni pueblo dwellers. In
doing so, however, they did not attempt to develop measures of
the Nature of Human
Nature orientations, finding them too complex. For the
remaining four dimensions,
however they were able to develop real-life situations relevant
to all five cultural groups,
and questions to probe the value orientations used by members
of those cultures in
dealing with the situations involved. They were then able to
draw value profiles of each
group, showing the ways in which they differed from each
other, and the ways in which

they were similar. All of this work was published in their 1961
book, and immediately made
a strong impact on cross-cultural psychologists.
Since then other theorists have also developed theories of
universal values – notably
Rokeach (1979), Hofstede (1980, 2001) and Schwartz (1992).
However the theory
developed by Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck (1961) remains widely
used and has sparked a
6
Chapter 3
good deal of research – as any good theory should. A
conference of users of the theory in
1998 (Russo, 2000), for instance, attracted over 400 delegates.
Applications of the Theory
Nevertheless the question remains: what use is such a theory?
The work of Russo (1992;
Russo, Hill et al., 1984) clearly demonstrates a very practical

employment of a theory of
universal human values. Russo has worked for a Native
American tribe, the Lummi of
Washington state, for more than two decades, using the
Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck theory
to help them bring themselves to an ever higher standard of
living. The Lummi have their
own reserve territory on the Western coast near the Canadian
border. There they pursue
their traditional industry of deep sea fishing, as well as more
recent trades such as liquor
retailing. Their success in these and other enterprises depends
on their being able to
relate successfully to the predominantly white American
majority population surrounding
them. The majority population forms the bulk of potential
customers for their products, and
at the same time is the prime source of food, clothing and
manufactured goods. Moreover
its members control such vital necessities as access to power,
water and timber. Members
of the cultural majority must also be negotiated with concerning
issues such as taxes and
transport.

The Lummi have therefore realised that it is vitally important
that they understand the
cultural mores of the majority if they are to interact successful
with them. Issues such as
the assumed basic motives for behaviour, the importance or
otherwise of tradition,
relationships between older and younger generations, accepted
modes of decision-
making, etc have to be understood before harmonious and
successful discussion can take
place. Toward this end Russo has developed measures to assess
the preferred value
orientations of the majority, and of the Lummi themselves.
Differences and similarities
have been clearly demarcated, and each party to potential
negotiations made aware of
them.
Thus when Lummi leaders go to discuss trade, taxes, utilities or
transport with local
business people and officials, they are aware of the world views
of those with whom they
are discussing, and of the similarities and differences between
themselves and their

neighbours. Such foreknowledge has resulted in a successful
and harmonious relationship
between the two cultural groups for many years. This testifies to
both the importance of
understanding each others' values, and the efficacy of the
Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck
theory in doing so.
Another way in which the theory has been used is to examine
changes in cultural
mores over time. An example of this were the studies
undertaken by Hills (1977, 1980)
and Lane (1976) of changes in the disparity in values between
young people and their
parents as a result of migration. Using the Kluckhohn and
Strodtbeck theory, they
developed a fixed-alternative, 25-item questionnaire to assess
respondents' value
orientations in the five question areas (see Table 3). Having
tested the questionnaire for
reliability and face validity, they had it translated and back-
translated into several
appropriate languages. It was then tape-recorded in each of
these languages, as read by a
7

native speaker of each language. The tape recording was then
used as the prime
instrument in orally administering the questionnaire. Using this
technique they
administered it to young people, both male and female, aged
between 16 and 18, and to
their parents, both mother and father. Samples were taken from
some of the cultures from
which large numbers of people migrated from the South Pacific
to New Zealand in the
1960s and 70s – Samoa, Fiji and the Cook Islands. Moreover
samples within each of
those countries were taken not just from the main towns, but
from selected remote back-
country villages as well. Comparison groups of both Maori and
Pakeha (white) New
Zealanders were also obtained. Data was analysed in terms of
the inter-generational
disparity in values demonstrated by each group.

Table 3
Examples of items measuring Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck value
orientations
_____________________________________________________
__________________________
I will ask you 25 questions. There are three possible answers to
each questions. Please listen
carefully to each question and then each of the three suggested
answers to that question. I can play
them again if you would like to listen to them again. We do not
want your name.
There are no right or wrong answers to these questions – we
want to know you you feel about
them. Take as much time as you need to answer them.
Here is the first one.
When our group sends a delegate to a meeting I think it best -
Relational
a) to let everyone discuss it until everyone agrees on the person
Collateral
b) to let the important leaders decide. They have more
experience than us Lineal
c) for a vote to be taken and the one with the most votes goes

even if
some people disagree
Individualistic
Now please tell me the answer which comes closest to the way
you feel.
Now tell me the answer which is your second choice.
Thanks. Here's the next one...
When I get sick I believe Humanity & Nature
a) doctors will be able to find a way to cure it Mastery
b) I should live properly so I don’t get sick Harmony
c) I cannot do much about it and just have to accept it
Subjugation
Here's the third...
Most people when they can do something wrong and get away
with it will - Human Nature
a) usually do it Evil
b) sometimes do it Mixture
c) hardly ever do it Good
The fourth question is...
When I send money for use overseas I think it should be spent

to - Time
a) make a better life for the future Future
b) make a better life now Present
c) keep the old ways and customs alive Past
8
Chapter 3
It had been hypothesised that intergenerational values disparity
would be greatest among
the migrant families, whose teenagers had grown up in New
Zealand, and whose parents
in their homeland. On the other hand it was expected that
differences between the
generations would be least in the remote rural villages. In fact
the opposite was found. The
greatest intergenerational value disparities were found in the
remote villages, significantly
greater than those found in the Pacific towns, which in turn
were greater than the

disparities found in the migrant families in New Zealand. Next
came the Maori New
Zealanders, with the least disparity of all being between the
young Pakeha New
Zealanders and their parents.
In discussing these findings with South Pacific academics it
became clear that a
contributing variable which had not been taken into account was
that of modern education
and communication. Young people in the Pacific were listening
to radios, reading
newspapers and magazines, and, most importantly, going to
schools whose teachers,
even though of their own race and culture, had been trained in
modern training colleges
and universities. Consequently these young people were rapidly
becoming acculturated to
the Western Euro-American culture, whereas their parents
remained more traditional and
were only slowly changing. This disparity in what could be
called globalization of culture
was less apparent in the South Pacific towns and least in the
towns and cities of the host
country, New Zealand.

This study thus provided insights into the processes of culture
change, the
consequences of migration, and some of the factors influencing
relationships between
teenagers and their parents. Using the Kluckhohn and
Strodtbeck theory and applying it in
a practical study made these increased insights possible.
Developments of the Theory
Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck themselves suggested that their
theory was not complete.
Moreover they did not provide measures for all the orientations
they did propose. They
therefore left ample opportunity for further development of
their theory. An illustration of
this is the author's work in New Zealand (Hills, 1998). As has
been shown above, we
developed a clear, straightforward means of assessing
orientations – for the Nature of
Human Nature as well as for the other four value areas proposed
by Kluckhohn and
Strodtbeck. However, more recently we have also looked at
other basic questions for
which also all societies must provide answers. These answers

are limited in number, and
all alternatives are known to all societies. However they differ
in the ranking they give each
alternative. Examples include the allocation of space, the nature
of work, the relationship
between the genders, and the relationship between individual
and state. Listed below are
some alternative answers to these questions, and items
illustrating how the rankings given
to the alternative orientations can be assessed (see Table 4).
A questionnaire using these questions and others like them has
been tested in a
small pilot study and the results so far are encouraging.
However it has yet to be used in a
full-scale study. There are no doubt other great questions for
which all societies must find
preferred answers. The meaning of life and death, and the
nature of the supernatural and
9

humanity's relationship to it, are two which come to mind. This
is further illustration of the
potential richness of the Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck theory.
Table 4
Proposed further basic values questions and alternative answers
to them
_____________________________________________________
___________________
Space
Should space belong to individuals, to groups (especially the
family) or to everybody?
It is most important that society guarantee
a) The right of each citizen to have a place they can call their
own Individuals
b) Each family a home of their own Families or groups
c) The public areas and spaces, available to all, but owned by
no one
person or group.
Everybody
Work

What should be the basic motivation for work? To make a
contribution to society, to have a sense
of personal achievement, or to attain financial security?
When deciding what courses to take, a university student should
give top priority to courses which
teach:
a) How to make a contribution to society Contribution
b) Subjects which are exciting or fulfilling Achievement
c) Subjects which will ensure a good salary after graduating
Financial security
Gender
How should society distribute roles, power and responsibility
between the genders?
The right and responsibility to make decisions which affect the
whole community should usually be
given to
a) Men Male
b) Women Female
c) Both men and women equally Both
The state-individual relationship

Should precedent right and responsibility be accorded the nation
or the individual?
When deciding how an important issue like ensuring that its
members have the best health
possible, it is best if a society ensures that
a) Each person takes full financial responsibility for their own
health care with
no subsidy from the state.
Individual
b) Free and full health care is provided for all citizens by the
government Nation
c) The individual and the government each pays a reasonable
proportion of
health care costs
Both
10
Chapter 3

It has shortcomings, of course. As it deals with values, rather
than attitudes, it is general
rather than specific, and so can only be used to examine general
trends in behaviour, and
not used to predict specific behaviours in any one situation.
Moreover most behaviour is
multiply determined, and so the theory may be termed
simplistic, in that it attempts to
explain one dimension at a time. Its use of rankings and
preferences makes it difficult to
analyse statistically. Despite these faults it is a bold and elegant
attempt to express
something common to all humanity – the values on which so
much of society is based, and
from which our attitudes, cognition, emotions and behaviours
evolve.
Moreover, it is not the only theory of values proposed by
psychologists. As
mentioned above, Rokeach (1979) put forward a theory and an
instrument reflecting it
(The Rokeach Study of Values) which has been widely used and
has proved useful in
many different types of study. Hofstede (1980, 2001) surveyed

values in over 100 different
countries and came up with five basic value dimensions: Power
Distance, Uncertainty
Avoidance, Individualism, Masculinity/Femininity and Short-
term vs Long-term Orientation.
His work too has sparked a great deal of further research and is
the most studied values
theory currently in use. Yet another influential values theory
has been that of Schwartz
(1992). From studies of values held in over 50 countries, he
proposes 10 which manifest
universally in individuals (Achievement, Benevolence,
Conformity, Hedonism, Power,
Security, Self-direction, Stimulation, Tradition, Universalism)
and seven which appear
across cultures (Affective Autonomy, Conservatism, Egalitarian
Commitment, Harmony,
Hierarchy, Intellectual Autonomy and Mastery). Some
similarities between the Hofstede
and Schwartz theories can be detected, and Smith and Bond
(1998) suggest that as they
overlap almost completely although they were derived using
different methods, we are
close to reaching a universally applicable theory of values.

It is clear from this that the interest in values measurement
across cultures which was
initiated by Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck continues to accelerate.
We can use values both to
study change and variation within a culture, and differences and
similarities between
cultures. Although the Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck theory was
derived half-way though last
century it has generated much further research, which has in
turn generated new theories.
Though their work our understanding of ourselves as human
beings has been increased.
Conclusion
The psychological study of values worthwhile for several
reasons. Using the values
concept, the researcher can aim to cover the whole of life-space,
not just the positive and
the negative, as with attitudes. Values are central to human
thought, emotions and
behaviour. They are cross-culturally relevant and valid, and
finally, values allow both
between-group and within-group comparisons. If we accept that
values are important for

the psychologist to understand, then the Kluckhohn and
Strodtbeck theory of values
orientations is a useful and valid framework within which to
study them.
11
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About the Author
Michael Hills is a New Zealander teaching Social, Cross-
cultural and Disability Psychology
at the University of Waikato, Hamilton, New Zealand. His
master's degree examined the
development of ethnic awareness and attitudes in White and
Maori children, and his PhD
at the Australian National University, Canberra, focussed on
second-generation migrant
teenagers and their parents. Since then he has researched and
taught about the relations
between majority and minority ethnic groups, focussing
particularly on the indigenous
Maori and immigrant Polynesian minorities and their relations
with the White majority in
New Zealand. In recent years he has broadened this interest in
disadvantaged minority
groups to research the psychology of living and coping with
disabilities, especially
epilepsy. Currently he is developing Quality of Life measures
both for New Zealanders in

general, and those with disabilities in particular, as well as
researching culturally
appropriate ways to provide education and support to Maori
living and coping with
epilepsy.
Questions for Discussion
1. Define a value. Explain how a value affects human behavior.
2. What are the most important values you hold? Can you rank
them?
3. Where do you think your values came from?
4. How do the values you hold compare with those of others?
Your friends? Your family?
Most other people in your community?
5. Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck suggested five universal questions
which all human
societies must be able to answer. They suggested a sixth, and
this article suggests
three more. Can you think of any others? What might be some
of the possible answers
to them?
6. Most psychological research has relied on questionnaires to
study people's values.

What other methods of measuring values might be feasible?
7. What do you see as the relationship between values and
attitudes? Beliefs? Opinions?
Morality?
8. This article has reported two ways in which value
measurement has been practically
useful. Can you think of other situations in which understanding
and measuring
people's values might be useful?
13
Related Websites
http://www.valuescenter.org/home.html
14
Chapter 3
8-1-2002Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck's Values Orientation

TheoryMichael D. HillsRecommended CitationKluckhohn and
Strodtbeck's Values Orientation TheoryCreative Commons
License
Running Head: DIGITAL PRESERVATION OF EVIDENCE
Digital Preservation of Evidence
2
The effectiveness of the Innocence Project in Preservation of
Evidence
Introduction
Wrongful conviction is an international concern. American
prisons are full of various prisoners who were convicted
wrongly. The purpose of the development of the innocent
projects is to exonerate the wrongly convicted prisoners through
DNA testing and participate in criminal justice reformation to
prevent future injustices. Digital preservation of evidence is an
important aspect of Innocent Project by ensuring authenticity,
traceability, and accuracy of any proof. Preservation of data in
criminal justice is a complex process not because of the
dynamics of the digital world but the need to recreate the
context of use. In other words, there is a need for maintenance
of the data while only specific software may be compatible with
the available technology system in criminal justice. The
preservation phase is the initial stage of evidence recovery and
it involves seizing and protecting the suspect data without

interfering or altering the content of the data (Casey, 2011).
Cybercrimes, as well as their evidence, are growing
exponentially. This increase will eventually lead to the need to
evaluate the large quantity of information. The accuracy of a
secure storage of data may be of great benefit to support and
generate accuracy in all evidence. Digital research on
preservation of evidence has been a critical research area for the
past 20 years especially after the establishment of the Innocent
Project (Casey, 2011). The purpose of this paper is to have a
comprehensive overview of a digital crime system that can help
in the preservation of information with reference to the Innocent
Project.
The research question for the topic would be, how can a digital
criminal justice system help Preservation of Evidence?
Overview of Preservation of Digital Evidence
There is an increasing buzz inside the information management
systems especially on the challenges provided by the digital
storage system that may be lost for various reasons. But,
preservation of data is not only focused on maintenance of the
digital tools to ensure meaningful utilization in the future but
also ensure the digital objects to be preserved in their context
that they are understandable by future users. Within the
procedure of digital preservation of Innocent Project includes
safe-guarding long-term data loss, digital preservation requires
expertise and skills in information science and information
technology. Furthermore, it has an implication on social,
historical, economic and technology (Quick & Choo, 2014).
The social impact of Digital preservation of evidence
Digital preservation within the social set up allows the
community to have access to digital documentation stored and
who is has the ability to be disseminated publicly. Therefore,
digital preservation has a contribution to social set up of a
community by providing accurate records as well as improving
the social security. In no time, the community will have
information from various areas including scientific technology,
entertainment as well digital libraries including having a virtual

visit to a library. The historical implication of digital data
preservation will have an impact on the on the cultural heritage.
Digital preservation will eliminate the temporary lapse that
occurs when researching on historical data due to loss or
missing information. Looking at the economic implication,
financial sustainability is one of the factors to be investigated
during the installation of digital preservation devices. Also,
there is need to consider the prevailing cost of losing depending
on the type of data involved (Casey, 2011).
Important of evaluation of the topic
The main reason for the evaluation of the effectiveness of the
Innocent Project in the preservation of evidence is to investigate
the ability for the criminal institution to view, retrieve and
remain updated in the rapid changes in the criminal justice
technology. Information loss can be as a result of an attack by
virus, theft or outbreak of fire. A relevant digital system can
help in ensuring the availability of accurate information even
after any interference with the evidence. In other words, the
digital system should trace any form alteration while providing
the original data to help in judging a case. Ensuring there are
integrity and consistency of the evidence require periodic and
timely checks from the management to identify partial hardware
failures while triggering repair and maintenance by the
technical team (Quick & Choo, 2014).
Why the need for Digital Evidence Preservation
Majority of today's crimes have digital elements that include
DNA traces; this duplicates the amount of digital evidence
preserved for the specific period. It is the Innocent Project’s
role to ensure the use of the digital service to store evidence for
an investigation’s history. For the Innocent Project present
digital evidence in the court, the evidence must be collected,
analyzed by experts and preserved properly. But the current
system often involves multiple steps that may not meet the
changing and growing needs of the wave of technology. The
current operation may not handle the changing needs and it may
soon become economically unfeasible for the institution

responsible for performing such tasks. On the other hand, the
technology discovery has been at the peak in the current
century. Unless criminal justice institution and the Innocent
Project adopts to the new wave of technology, suspects can be
few steps ahead of them by utilizing the current technology to
hide or erase evidence especially that involves DNA (Turner,
2005).
Digital Evidence Today
For the proper and accurate preservation of digital evidence,
digital examiners must have the tactics to retrieve information
from cellular phones, tablets, desktops, laptops and other
external storage devices. Digital evidence comes from both the
victim and suspect since their personal device could provide
better information in solving the case. Other evidence that point
towards guilt such as threatening messages or emails needs to
be adequately preserved for the presentation to the court.
Innocent Project indicates that any move that can lead to the
alteration of the evidence will make it null and incapable of
solving a case. With the inevitable change of technology, the
law enforcement must work in hand with other partners, like
prosecutors and the court to establish policies that would lead to
the reliability of evidence preserved prior to the court
proceedings (Turner, 2005).
Determination of unsatisfied requirements
Lawyer and judges need to have a common understanding of the
elements that guarantee the admissibility of a digital proof from
the court. Across America, the legal framework is similar in
most courts. Inability to understand authentication of digital
evidence can lead to incorrect and reverse outcomes from the
federal court. These failures are as a result of incapacity to
properly authenticate the computer generated evidence or
improper storage of the evidence. To address these issues, the
court must develop a strategy to determine the admissibility of
digital evidence presented by witnesses or the Innocent Project.
Having uniformity in the standard of analysis of digital
evidence can lead to a tactical approach in judging cases

(Turner, 2005).
Conclusion
Whether investigating the wrongly convicted corporate or
criminal case, digital data is an important aspect of the
functioning of the Innocent Project. Hence it is the duty of
forensic experts to ensure that there is accuracy in the digital
evidence presented. Therefore storage of digital evidence
should be in such a way that it shouldn’t be altered during the
collection, analysis and the investigation process. Any digital
device can be an important source of evidence in case of any
crime but often the collection, management, and preservation of
this evidence are not done correctly. In summary, for a digital
data to be considered as accurate evidence, there is need to
ensure a high level of integrity, especially during preservation
(Turner, 2005).
References
Casey, E. (2011). Digital evidence and computer crime:
Forensic science, computers, and the internet. Academic press.
Turner, P. (2005). Unification of digital evidence from disparate
sources (digital evidence bags). Digital Investigation, 2(3), 223-
228.
Quick, D., & Choo, K. K. R. (2014). Data reduction and data
mining framework for digital forensic evidence: storage,
intelligence, review and archive.
HRMN 367 6382 Organizational Culture (2185) - Week 1 -
Basic Assumptions 21-27May2018
1. Kluckhohn and Strodtbecks Values Orientation Theory

Unit 4 General Psychological Issues in Cultural PerspectiveS.docx

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