This report deals with environmental health strategies - water supply, housing, waste management - in a commercial swine farm.

1. ON-FARM
ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH
STRATEGIES

2. ON-FARM STRATEGIES
(WATER SUPPLY)

3. Water supply
 It is a legal requirement that all pigs have ready access to
good quality, clean water.
 The Welfare of Farmed Animals (England) Regulations
2007, and the Code of Recommendations for Livestock:
Pigs state that 'All pigs over two weeks of age must
have continuous access to a sufficient quantity of
fresh drinking water'.

4. Targets (Water supply)
1. Optimal water availability
2. Good water quality
3. Maximize water intake to optimize feed intake and
growth efficiency

5. Collapsible 250 ml water cups
Measuring cup Stopwatch Small tape measure
Wrench Multipurpose tool Total dissolved solids meter

6. Systematic approach
1. Observe the pigs using the drinkers
2. Observe the type of drinkers
3. Observe the position of the drinkers in the pen and their
locality in relation to the feeders
4. Note the distance between the drinkers
5. Count the number of drinkers in the pen and number(s)
available per pig determined

7. Systematic approach
7. Measure the flow rate of water. In troughs note the depth of
the water.
8. Measure the height and angle to the drinker
9. Note any drinker which is leaking
10. Determine the water quality
11. Where failures are determined, remove the drinker and
examine in detail

8. Water availability
System Minimum requirement
(grower/finisher pigs)
Nipple/bite drinker (restrict fed) 1 per 10 pigs
Nipple/bite drinker (ad lib fed) 1 per 15 pigs
Bowl (restrict fed) 1 per 20 pigs
Bowl (ad lib fed) 1 per 30 pigs
Trough space (˃35 kg) 30 cm/25 pigs
Source: Defra Code of Recommendations for the Welfare of Livestock: Pigs; Genesis QA
Table 1. Drinker requirements

9. Bite Nipple Drinkers for
Pigs
Bowl drinker

11. Water availability
 Check flow rates of every nipple and bite drinker
between batches.
 When testing flow rates, check the difference between
those nearest to and furthest from the supply*
 Water pressure can be affected by: cleanliness of the filter;
pipe diameter; deposits within the pipe line; and header
tank height.

12. Testing flow rate

14. Water availability
Liveweight (kg) Height (mm) Height (inch)
7 – 8 250 – 350 10 – 14
19 – 35 350 – 450 14 – 18
35 – 60 500 – 600 20 – 24
60 – 95 600 – 750 24 – 30
Maiden gilts 750 30
Dry sows/boars 800 – 950 32 – 38
Source: Defra Code of Recommendations for the Welfare of Livestock: Pigs; Genesis QA
Table 3. Recommended drinker heights

16. Water availability
 Easy and prompt access to water is essential to prevent
dehydration*
 Wet-fed pigs require a separate source of clean drinking
water.
 Ensure wastage is minimal and repair any leaking pipes
or drinkers promptly. Remember, leaking drinkers will
add to slurry volume and are expensive**

17. Water availability
 Monitoring water supply to a building can establish basic
usage patterns, which can then used to monitor changes in
drinking behavior
 e.g. as a result of a blockage, leak, change of feed or
environmental temperature or disease outbreak.
 Trials have shown that in the event of a disease outbreak a
change in water consumption will often be apparent before
clinical signs.

18. Water availability
 Pigs require a supply of good quality water for optimal growth
and production performance.
 Performance indices such as mortality, feed intake,
growth rates, feed efficiency and profitability may be
affected by the quality of water provided.
 When given poor quality water, pigs drink excess water,
which in turn increases slurry volume.

19. Water availability
 In general, the quality of water for swine is
determined by these factors:
1. Presence of chemical elements*
2. Presence of bacterial contamination**

20. Water quality
 Bowl drinkers and troughs should be checked on a daily
basis and cleaned as necessary.
 Header tanks should be completely covered with intact
and secure lids to prevent contamination.
 The complete water line – including drinkers, pipe work
and header tanks – should be regularly cleaned and flushed
through i.e. between batches* Check flow rates after flushing.

22. Water quality
 Microbiological, physical and chemical factors can
all affect water quality.
 Samples can be sent for analysis.
 Test water supplied from boreholes annually.

23. Water quality (chemical factors)
 pH
 Water pH ranging from 6.5 to 8.5 is considered acceptable to
pigs (NRC, 1998).
 A low pH (less than 6.5) may corrode and dissolve metals
from the plumbing and cause precipitation of medication
delivered via water.
 High water pH (greater than 8.5) gives the water a slippery
feeling and leaves scaly deposits (Kober, 1993).

24. Table 2. Water Quality Guidelines for Livestock1
Item
Maximum
Recommended Limit
(ppm)
Item
Maximum
Recommended Limit
(ppm)
Major ions Cobalt 1.00
Calcium 1000 Copper 5.00
Nitrate + nitrite 100 Fluoride 2.00
Nitrite alone 10 Iron
Sulphate 1000 Lead 0.10
TDS 3000 Manganese
Heavy metals and trace ions Mercury 0.003
Aluminium 5.00 Molybdenum 0.50
Arsenic 0.50 Nickel 1.00
Beryllium 0.10 Selenium 0.05
Boron 5.00 Uranium 0.02
Cadium 0.02 Vanadium 0.10
Chromium 1.00 Zinc 50.00
1Canadian Task Force on Water Quality 1987.

25. Total dissolved solids (TDS)
 The amount of soluble salts (commonly magnesium,
calcium and sodium bicarbonate, chloride, or sulphate
forms) in the water.
 Drinking water with less than 1,000 ppm is considered safe
while levels exceeding 7,000 ppm are unsafe for any class
pigs.
 At high levels (i.e. 1,000-5,000) water refusal or mild
temporary diarrhoea might occur (Kober 1993; NRC 1998).

26. Sulphates
 Of all mineral contaminants, sulphates are the cause of
most water quality problems with respect to pig production
in North America (NRC, 1998).
 Sulphate in the drinking water will lead to diarrhea in most
classes of swine (Veenhuizen et al. 1992).
 Water with 3,500ppm level is unfit for sows; water with
more than 4,500 ppm should not be used for any livestock
(Kober 1993).

27. Table 4. Effect of water sulphate on performance of weanling pigs1
Item Control (0 ppm) Sulphate (2402 ppm)2
Avg. daily gain, kg/d 0.40 0.33
Avg. daily feed intake, kg/d 0.79 0.71
Feed/gain 1.89 2.02
Avg. daily water intake, l/d 1.15 1.35
Scour days (week one only) 3.5 6.0
1Source: Anderson and Stothers 1978; 2sum of sodium and magnesium sulphate.

28. Table 5. Suggested water treatments for specific water quality problems
Problem Solution
Coliform count Chlorinate water
Water hardness Install a softener
High nitrates or other minerals Ion exchange or reverse osmosis
treatment systems
Iron Filtration
High water pH Acidification

29. Best practices for water use
 Repair leaking water lines promptly
 Water lines should be monitored routinely and leakage,
however, small should be fixed right away.
 This has also been identified in many parts of the world as a
major cause of water wastage in commercial hog production
units (Gonzalez 2008).

30. Best practices for water use
 Use a power washer to clean barns
 The amount of water used for cleaning purposes can be
substantial.
 Pre-soaking pig housing facilities to loosen dirt followed
by use of power washing can help reduce the total
amount of water used for cleaning.

31. Table 6. Effect of pre-soaking wash time (minutes) per pen (measuring 9 feet
by 22 feet)1
Item
Presoaking
Time saved (difference)
No Yes
Cold water 68.30 41.39 26.64
Hot water (~40°C) 52.61 32.01 20.60
Time saved (difference) 15.42 9.38
1
Hurnik 2003.

33. Best practices for water use
 Choose drinkers that minimize water wastage
 It has been known for a long time now that some drinker
devices lead to more water wastage than others.
 In particular, nipple drinkers tend to lead to more water
wastage than ball-bite nipple or bow drinkers.

37. Best practices for water use
 Ensure that drinkers and water flow rates are set
correctly
 Drinkers should be positioned 10 to 15cm above the pigs’
backline to minimize the amount of water waste (Gadd
1988a).
 If set too low, the pig turns sideways to drink and up to 60%
of water flows out the other side of the mouth (Gadd 1988b).

41. ON-FARM STRATEGIES
(HOUSING)

42. Guidelines (Pig houses)
 The building should be in the orientation that minimizes
the adverse effects on animal and eliminates hazards to
surroundings.

45. Minimum floor space requirements for all surface types except deep litter
Description Space (m²/pig) Comment
Growing pigs; up to 10 kg 0.14 Approximately 20-30% of space
allowance provides for a dunging area
11-20 kg 0.22 Approximately 20-30% of space
allowance provides for a dunging area
21-40 kg 0.36 Approximately 20-30% of space
allowance provides for a dunging area
41-60 kg 0.47 Approximately 20-30% of space
allowance provides for a dunging area
61-80 kg 0.57 Approximately 20-30% of space
allowance provides for a dunging area
81-100 kg 0.66 Approximately 20-30% of space
allowance provides for a dunging area
Sows (in crates) and litters 3.2 Piglets to four weeks of age
Adult sows in stalls 0.6 m x 2.2 m New stalls
Adult boars in stalls 0.7 m x 2.4 m New stalls
Adult pigs in groups 1.4 Nil
Boars in individual pens 6.0 Nil

47. Systematic approach
1. Calculate stocking rate (m2/pig)
2. Examine location, size and suitability of sleeping area
3. Examine pens for sharp and projecting edges
4. Examine floor conditions for rough areas and holes. Where
different floor materials meet (e.g. metal and concrete)
corrosion is common.
5. Check beddings esp. for mould
6. Check slat condition especially edges.

48. Systematic approach
7. Examine hygiene of pens, especially empty pens
8. Note the degree of unused floor space – such as
passageways
9. Review the slurry system and hygiene cleaning
programmes
10. On the outside of the building note condition of guttering
and wall security

52. Inadequate feed space – every feeder is working and
there are signs of aggression – pig arrowed.
Inadequate sleeping accommodation, some pigs have to
sleep in the defecation area

53. ON-FARM STRATEGIES
(WASTE MANAGEMENT)

54. Swine industry
 The hog industry is the second largest economic activity in the
agricultural sector of the Philippines.
 In 2016, the total hog inventory in the country was reported to
be at least 12.5 million heads.
 Eighty percent of total livestock production is accounted for the
swine industry of which 71% were raised in backyard farms
(ERG, 2010).
 Increase amount of manure produced

55. Table 3. Liquid waste disposal sites in surveyed swine farms.
Disposal site Smallholder Commercial Total
Drainage canal 12 1 13
Lake 3 2 5
Open space 18 1 19
Lagoon - 4 4
Septic tank 28 - 28
Creek 10 - 10
River 5 - 5
Irrigation 1 - 1
Rice field 3 1 4
Total 80 9 89
Source:
Paraso, M. G. V., M. V. O. Espaldon, A. J. Alcantara, C. C. Sevilla, S. A. Alaira, M. J. Sobremisana, R. O. Ravalo, K. R.
D. Macan, and C. A. Valdez (2010). A survey of waste management practices of selected swine and poultry farms in
Laguna, Philippines. Journal of Environmental Science and Management. Retrieved on 16 Apr 2018 from :
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/234840706

56. Size of farms # of hogs Waste
management
COMMERCIAL
to 999Small 21
heads
46% -Lagoon
40%-Settling Ponds
Medium 1000 to 9,999
heads
62%-Lagoon
7%-Biogas
Large 10,000 heads
of more
65%-Lagoon
9%-Biogas
BACKYARD 20 heads or
less
20%-Lagoon
20%-Open Pit
13% Septic Tank
As of 2002-2003
Source: The Philippine Livestock and Food Processing Waste Initiative of the Methaneto Markets Partnership,
USEPA, 2009.

57. Policies
 The Renewable Energy Act of 2008 – aims to
further increase renewable energy utilization in the
country, including biogas. The law provides for
income tax holidays, duty free importation of
equipment, 0% VAT, among other things.

58. Milestones of biogas technology
 70’s –BAI implemented a biogas project and installed nearly
400 floating dome type digester;
 90’s –introduction of Tubular Polyethylene Digester (TPED);
 2000’s –development of High Density Polyethylene Digester
(HDPED) and Scalable Polyethylene Drum Digester (SPEDD)
 2015 –Secretary Alcala signed AO #2 s 2015 – creation of the
National Animal Waste Resource Management Program
(NAWRMP).

59. Biogas
 A concoction of gases (i.e. CH4, NH4, CO2, H2S, moisture)
produced by the fermentation of animal wastes, human
sewage, etc. in an airtight or anaerobic condition.
 Rich in methane (55-70%) that could be used as fuel for
cooking stoves, heat lamps, and engines used to generate
electricity.

60. Biogas
 A renewable energy produced when biomass is subjected to
biological gasification and a methane-rich gas is produced
by anaerobic digestion.
 The waste that are usually disposed off into the sea, river,
or on the land are converted into biogas by anaerobic
fermentation.

61. Anaerobic digestion (AD)
 A microbiological is a microbiological process whereby
organic matter is decomposed in the absence of
oxygen.
 Using an engineered approach and controlled design,
the process is applied to process the organic
biodegradable matter in airproof reactor tanks
(digesters) to produce biogas*

62. Biogas digester
 Device that provides the anaerobic condition in the
biogas technology.
 May be made up of either a reinforced concrete,
cement, and coco lumber as construction materials.

64. Source: Vögeli et al, 2014

65. Source: Vögeli et al, 2014 adapted from Khalid et al, 2011
INPUTS: ORGANICS

66. Design Guidelines

67. Anaerobic Digestion / biomethanation / biomethanisation

68. Typical biogas composition from biowaste

69. TUBULAR POLYETHYLENE DIGESTER
(TPED)
Four units of Plastic tube
digester were installed at the
piggery in Soro-soro, Batangas
tosuitthefarmer’sneeds

70. HIGH DENSITY POLYETHYLENE DIGESTER
(HDPED)
The HDPED gives you the flexibility to
fabricate desired size and length; durable
and resilience hence reduce maintenance
and downtime

71. Tubular Overview

72. SCALABLE POLYETHYLENE DRUM
DIGESTER (SPEDD)

73. Floating drum digester for market and household waste in India
Constructed underground with
bricks and metals
Constructed above the ground with
fibre glass reinforced plastics
Vögeli Y., Lohri C. R., Gallardo A., Diener S., Zurbru ̈gg C. (2014).

74. STACKED DOME DIGESTER
Higher operating pressure thus more
versatile; compact and high efficiency due
to the mechanical stirrer

75. Fixed dome plant Nicarao design

76. Factors Fixed dome Floating drum Tubular design
Plastic
containers
Gas storage
Internal Gas
storage up to 20
m³ (large)
Internal Gas
storage drum size
(small)
Internal eventually
external plastic
bags
Internal Gas
storage drum sizes
(small)
Gas pressure
Between 60 and
120 mbar
Upto 20 mbar
Low, around 2
mbar
Low around 2mbar
Durability
Very high >20
years
High; drum is
weakness
Medium;
Depending on
chosen liner
Medium
Sizing
6 to 124 m³
digester vol Up to 20 m³
Combination
possible
Up to 6 m³
digester vol
Methane
emission
High Medium Low Medium

78. Covered Inground Aerobic Reactor
 There are several commercial swine farms in the
Philippines who have installed the CIGAR, resulting
to generation of electricity from biogas.

80. Solid waste & environmental mgt.
 For odorless and flies free swine farming, a
concoction of odor erasing microbes, emulsifiers,
nitrogen fixing bacteria, probiotics are mixed and
broadcasted to lagoons and manure.
 Inclusion rate of 5 grams per square meter

81. Solid waste & environmental mgt.
 Swine manure treated with the odor erasing premix can be
converted into organic fertilizer when mixed with equal
amount of bulking agents*
 Odorless pig houses for the organically and naturally
farmed pigs is possible by the addition of a odor eraser
premixes on a concrete less floor**

82. Swine lagoon treated with odor erasing microbes Septic tank treated with odor eraser Sludge for organic fertilizer

83. References
 Blaken, C. (2008). Ins and outs of good biosecurity. Retrieved on 6 Apr
2017 from http://www.thepigsite.com/articles/2156/ins-and-outs-of-good-
biosecurity/
 De los Santos, F. S. (2018). Prebiotics and probiotics boost pig growth and
health. Retrieved on 6 Apr 2017 from
http://www.thepigsite.com/articles/5422/prebiotics-and-probiotics-boost-
pig-growth-and-health/
 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations/World
Organisation for Animal Health/World Bank. 2010. Good practices for
biosecurity in the pig sector – Issues and options in developing and
transition countries. FAO Animal Production and Health Paper No. 169.
Rome, FAO.

84. References
 OIE. 2008. Terrestrial Animal Health Code. 17th ed. Paris. 510 pp.
 Philippine National Standard/Bureau of Agriculture and Fisheries
Standards (PNS/BAFS)(2016). Code of good animal husbandry
practices (draft). Department of Agriculture. Philippines.
 Pigsite (2013). Biosecurity top tips. Retrieved on 6 Apr 2018 from
http://www.thepigsite.com/
 Heather, T. (2015). Treatment of wastewater: solid phase, anaerobic
digestion, biogas digester/settler (small scale). Retrieved on 10 Apr
2018 from http://www.slideshare.com/