1. Many educators and members of the public fail to grasp the distinctions between criterion-
referenced and norm-referenced testing. It is common to hear the two types of testing referred
to as if they serve the same purposes, or shared the same characteristics. Much confusion can
be eliminated if the basic differences are understood.
The following is adapted from: Popham, J. W. (1975). Educational evaluation. Englewood
Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Criterion-Referenced Norm-Referenced
Dimension
Tests Tests
To determine whether each To rank each student with respect to
student has achieved specific skills the
or concepts. achievement of others in broad areas
Purpose of knowledge.
To find out how much students
know before instruction begins To discriminate between high and
and after it has finished. low achievers.
Measures specific skills which
make up a designated curriculum.
Measures broad skill areas sampled
These skills are identified by
from a variety of textbooks, syllabi,
Content teachers and curriculum experts.
and the judgments of curriculum
experts.
Each skill is expressed as an
instructional objective.
Each skill is tested by at least four Each skill is usually tested by less
items in order to obtain an than four items.
adequate sample of student
Item performance and to minimize the Items vary in difficulty.
Characteristics effect of guessing.
Items are selected that discriminate
The items which test any given between high
skill are parallel in difficulty. and low achievers.
Score Each individual is compared with Each individual is compared with
Interpretation a preset standard for acceptable other examinees and assigned a

2. achievement. The performance of score--usually expressed as a
other examinees is irrelevant. percentile, a grade equivalent
score, or a stanine.
A student's score is usually
expressed as a percentage. Student achievement is reported for
broad skill areas, although some
Student achievement is reported
norm-referenced tests do report
for individual skills.
student achievement for individual
skills.
The differences outlined are discussed in many texts on testing. The teacher or administrator
who wishes to acquire a more technical knowledge of criterion-referenced test or its norm-
referenced counterpart, may find the text from which this material was adapted particularly
helpful.

3. A comparison of norm-referencing and criterion-referencing methods
for determining student grades in higher education
The essential characteristic of norm-referencing is that students are awarded their grades on
the basis of their ranking within a particular cohort. Norm-referencing involves fitting a
ranked list of students’ ‘raw scores’ to a pre-determined distribution for awarding grades.
Usually, grades are spread to fit a ‘bell curve’ (a ‘normal distribution’ in statistical
terminology), either by qualitative, informal rough-reckoning or by statistical techniques of
varying complexity. For large student cohorts (such as in senior secondary education),
statistical moderation processes are used to adjust or standardise student scores to fit a normal
distribution. This adjustment is necessary when comparability of scores across different
subjects is required (such as when subject scores are added to create an aggregate ENTER
score for making university selection decisions).
Norm-referencing is based on the assumption that a roughly similar range of human
performance can be expected for any student group. There is a strong culture of norm-
referencing in higher education. It is evident in many commonplace practices, such as the
expectation that the mean of a cohort’s results should be a fixed percentage year-in year-out
(often this occurs when comparability across subjects is needed for the award of prizes, for
instance), or the policy of awarding first class honours sparingly to a set number of students,
and so on.
In contrast, criterion-referencing, as the name implies, involves determining a student’s
grade by comparing his or her achievements with clearly stated criteria for learning outcomes
and clearly stated standards for particular levels of performance. Unlike norm-referencing,
there is no pre-determined grade distribution to be generated and a student’s grades is in no
way influenced by the performance of others. Theoretically, all students within a particular
cohort could receive very high (or very low) grades depending solely on the levels of
individuals’ performances against the established criteria and standards. The goal of criterion-
referencing is to report student achievement against objective reference points that are

4. independent of the cohort being assessed. Criterion-referencing can lead to simple pass-fail
grading schema, such as in determining fitness-to-practice in professional fields. Criterion-
referencing can also lead to reporting student achievement or progress on a series of key
criteria rather than as a single grade or percentage.
Which of these methods is preferable? Mostly, students’ grades in universities are decided on
a mix of both methods, even though there may not be an explicit policy to do so. In fact, the
two methods are somewhat interdependent, more so than the brief explanations above might
suggest. Logically, norm-referencing must rely on some initial criterion-referencing, since
students’ ‘raw’ scores must presumably be determined in the first instance by assessors who
have some objective criteria in mind. Criterion-referencing, on the other hand, appears more
educationally defensible. But criterion-referencing may be very difficult, if not impossible, to
implement in a pure form in many disciplines. It is not always possible to be entirely
objective and to comprehensively articulate criteria for learning outcomes: some subjectivity
in setting and interpreting levels of achievement is inevitable in higher education. This being
the case, sometimes the best we can hope for is to compare individuals’ achievements relative
to their peers.
Norm-referencing, on its own — and if strictly and narrowly implemented — is undoubtedly
unfair. With norm-referencing, a student’s grade depends – to some extent at least – not only
on his or her level of achievement, but also on the achievement of other students. This might
lead to obvious inequities if applied without thought to any other considerations. For
example, a student who fails in one year may well have passed in other years! The potential
for unfairness of this kind is most likely in smaller student cohorts, where norm-referencing
may force a spread of grades and exaggerate differences in achievement. Alternatively, norm-
referencing might artificially compress the range of difference that actually exists.
Criterion-referencing is worth aspiring towards. Criterion-referencing requires giving thought
to expected learning outcomes: it is transparent for students, and the grades derived should be
defensible in reasonably objective terms – students should be able to trace their grades to the
specifics of their performance on set tasks. Criterion-referencing lays an important
framework for student engagement with the learning process and its outcomes.
Recognising, however, that some degree of subjectivity is inevitable in higher education, it is

5. also worthwhile to monitor grade distributions – in other words, to use a modest process of
norm-referencing to watch the outcomes of a predominantly criterion-referenced grading
model. In doing so, if it is believed too many students are receiving low grades, or too many
students are receiving high grades, or the distribution is in some way oddly spread, then this
might suggest something is amiss and the assessment process needs looking at. There may be,
for instance, a problem with the overall degree of difficulty of the assessment tasks (for
example, not enough challenging examination questions, or too few, or assignment tasks that
fail to discriminate between students with differing levels of knowledge and skills). There
might also be inconsistencies in the way different assessors are judging student work.
Best practice in grading in higher education involves striking a balance between criterion-
referencing and norm-referencing. This balance should be strongly oriented towards
criterion-referencing as the primary and dominant principle.
In summary:
1. begin with clear statements of expected learning outcomes and levels of achievement;
2. communicate these statements to students (they should be written so they make sense
to students);
3. measure student achievement as objectively as possible against these statements, and
compute results and grades transparently on this basis; and
4. keep an eye on the spread of grades or scores that are emerging to be alert to anything
amiss in assessment tasks and assessor interpretations.