An introduction to ethical theories.

1. Philosophical Ethics
thinking about right and wrong
George Matthews
Spring 2016

4. ! This slide show presents a series of philosophical
theories on the nature of and justification for value
judgments about what is right and what is wrong.

5. ! This slide show presents a series of philosophical
theories on the nature of and justification for value
judgments about what is right and what is wrong.
! Each of these theories has had many supporters
throughout history and each continues to have
supporters now.

6. ! This slide show presents a series of philosophical
theories on the nature of and justification for value
judgments about what is right and what is wrong.
! Each of these theories has had many supporters
throughout history and each continues to have
supporters now.
! In evaluating each of these theories consider how well
supported it is by the argument given as well as any
positive and negative implications it may have.

7. Cultural Relativism

8. Cultural Relativism
Ruth Benedict
1887 – 1948

9. Cultural Relativism
Ruth Benedict
1887 – 1948
“The trouble with
life isn’t that there
is no answer, it’s
that there are so
many answers.”

10. Cultural Relativism
Ruth Benedict
1887 – 1948
“The trouble with
life isn’t that there
is no answer, it’s
that there are so
many answers.”
Ruth Benedict was an American
anthropologist whose studies of
other cultures convinced her that
there was no one set of universally
valid values.

11. Cultural Relativism
Ruth Benedict
1887 – 1948
We all disagree about the meaning
of terms such as “right” and ”wrong.”
Thus nothing is truly right or wrong,
only right or wrong from a particular
perspective.
the cultural differences argument

12. Cultural Relativism
We all disagree about the meaning
of terms such as “right” and ”wrong.”
Thus nothing is truly right or wrong,
only right or wrong from a particular
perspective.
the cultural differences argument
Relativism claims that the whole
idea of universally valid values is
mistaken, since value judgments
depend on one’s perspective.
Although this may seem to be an
appealing approach to value
judgments, it has its problems.

13. Cultural Relativism
We all disagree about the meaning
of terms such as “right” and ”wrong.”
Thus nothing is truly right or wrong,
only right or wrong from a particular
perspective.
the cultural differences argument
The major argument for cultural
relativism asserts that the fact of
cultural diversity negates the
possibility of their being universal
values. But is this really valid
reasoning?

14. Cultural Relativism
We all disagree about the meaning
of terms such as “right” and ”wrong.”
Thus nothing is truly right or wrong,
only right or wrong from a particular
perspective.
the cultural differences argument
The premise of this argument is
certainly true. But then what
follows from this fact?

15. Cultural Relativism
We all disagree about the meaning
of terms such as “right” and ”wrong.”
Thus nothing is truly right or wrong,
only right or wrong from a particular
perspective.
the cultural differences argument
Note that the conclusion makes
a much stronger claim than the
premise does. It says that because
we disagree on something nobody
could possibly be correct. But this
just doesn’t follow, hence this
argument is INVALID.

16. Cultural Relativism
We all disagree about the meaning
of terms such as “right” and ”wrong.”
Thus nothing is truly right or wrong,
only right or wrong from a particular
perspective.
the cultural differences argument
Not only is the main argument
for relativism invalid, this position
also implies that nothing is just
plain wrong – not even genocide –
as long as somebody believes that
it is acceptable.

17. Cultural Relativism
We all disagree about the meaning
of terms such as “right” and ”wrong.”
Thus nothing is truly right or wrong,
only right or wrong from a particular
perspective.
the cultural differences argument
But what if different cultures agree
deep down on basic values even if
they may implement those values
in widely divergent ways?

18. What values do cultures share?

19. What values do cultures share?
images from Peter Menzel,
Material World: A Global Family
Portrait

20. What values do cultures share?
China

21. What values do cultures share?
Japan

22. What values do cultures share?
Mali, West Africa

23. What values do cultures share?
America (1980’s)

24. What values do cultures share?
Saudi Arabia

25. What values do cultures share?
India

26. What values do cultures share?
Cuba

27. Divine Command Theory

28. Divine Command Theory
Saint Augustine
354 – 430

29. Divine Command Theory
Saint Augustine
354 – 430
“A thing is good and
pleasant only because
it is connected to Him.
Use it apart from its
Source, and it will come
to taste bitter. ”

30. Divine Command Theory
Saint Augustine
354 – 430
“A thing is good and
pleasant only because
it is connected to Him.
Use it apart from its
Source, and it will come
to taste bitter. ”
Augustine converted to Christianity as an
adult and then went on to become one
of the most influential Christian writers
of all times; his ideas made an indelible
mark on the young religion. He defended
the idea that God’s will determines what
is right and wrong.

31. Divine Command Theory
Saint Augustine
354 – 430
The only way for moral commands to
be objective and binding is for them to
have been issued by an absolute moral
authority.
There are some objective and binding
moral commands, some things we just
shouldn’t do.
So there must be an absolute moral au-
thority and this is God.
the argument from moral authority

32. Divine Command Theory
The only way for moral commands to
be objective and binding is for them to
have been issued by an absolute moral
authority.
There are some objective and binding
moral commands, some things we just
shouldn’t do.
So there must be an absolute moral au-
thority and this is God.
the argument from moral authority
Divine command theory argues
that we can only make sense
of moral ideas if they are based
on the commands of an ultimate
moral authority.

33. Divine Command Theory
The only way for moral commands to
be objective and binding is for them to
have been issued by an absolute moral
authority.
There are some objective and binding
moral commands, some things we just
shouldn’t do.
So there must be an absolute moral au-
thority and this is God.
the argument from moral authority
This seems like a strong claim, but
some things seem like they are just
wrong no matter what – such as
killing babies for fun.

34. Divine Command Theory
The only way for moral commands to
be objective and binding is for them to
have been issued by an absolute moral
authority.
There are some objective and binding
moral commands, some things we just
shouldn’t do.
So there must be an absolute moral au-
thority and this is God.
the argument from moral authority
Although this argument is valid,
there is a difficult problem with
trying to base moral rules on
divine commands.

35. Divine Command Theory
The only way for moral commands to
be objective and binding is for them to
have been issued by an absolute moral
authority.
There are some objective and binding
moral commands, some things we just
shouldn’t do.
So there must be an absolute moral au-
thority and this is God.
the argument from moral authority
If God says that murder is
wrong, does this mean that if He
had said murder was OK, would
this make it so? If not, then how
can God be the source of moral
rules?

36. Do values depend on authority or does legitimate authority depend on values?

37. Do values depend on authority or does legitimate authority depend on values?

38. Do values depend on authority or does legitimate authority depend on values?

39. Natural Law Theory

40. Natural Law Theory
Thomas Aquinas
1225 – 1274

41. Natural Law Theory
Thomas Aquinas
1225 – 1274
“The natural law is
nothing else than the
rational creature’s
participation in the
eternal law. ”

42. Natural Law Theory
Thomas Aquinas
1225 – 1274
“The natural law is
nothing else than the
rational creature’s
participation in the
eternal law. ”
Aquinas held that being ethical involved
living up to one’s potential as a self-
governing, rational being, whose passions
are held in check. He followed Aristotle
in thinking that all natural things have
an “end” or natural goal built-in to them
although unlike Aristotle he thought that
this end was built-in to us by God.

43. Natural Law Theory
Thomas Aquinas
1225 – 1274
Human beings have a set of built-in
functions and capacities.
Realizing these natural functions and
capacities is better than not doing
so.
So human nature provides a guide
for ethical action.
the argument from moral authority

44. Natural Law Theory
Human beings have a set of built-in
functions and capacities.
Realizing these natural functions and
capacities is better than not doing
so.
So human nature provides a guide
for ethical action.
the argument from moral authority
Natural law theory claims that
some things are inherently wrong:
those things that violate the
natural functions and capacities
built in to us.

45. Natural Law Theory
Human beings have a set of built-in
functions and capacities.
Realizing these natural functions and
capacities is better than not doing
so.
So human nature provides a guide
for ethical action.
the argument from moral authority
Is what is natural always what is
best?

46. Natural Law Theory
Human beings have a set of built-in
functions and capacities.
Realizing these natural functions and
capacities is better than not doing
so.
So human nature provides a guide
for ethical action.
the argument from moral authority
Isn’t it up to us to decide what is
right and what is wrong, whatever
human nature may tell us?

47. Do values come from nature or from human choices?

48. Do values come from nature or from human choices?
Edward Burtynsky, Manufactured Landscapes

49. Do values come from nature or from human choices?
Edward Burtynsky, Manufactured Landscapes

50. Do values come from nature or from human choices?
Edward Burtynsky, Manufactured Landscapes

51. Do values come from nature or from human choices?
Edward Burtynsky, Manufactured Landscapes

52. Do values come from nature or from human choices?
Edward Burtynsky, Manufactured Landscapes

53. Do values come from nature or from human choices?
Edward Burtynsky, Manufactured Landscapes

54. Psychological Egoism

55. Psychological Egoism
Max Stirner
1806 – 1856

56. Psychological Egoism
Max Stirner
1806 – 1856
“For me you are nothing
but – my food, even as
I too am fed upon and
turned to use by you.”

57. Psychological Egoism
Max Stirner
1806 – 1856
“For me you are nothing
but – my food, even as
I too am fed upon and
turned to use by you.”
Max Stirner was a German philosopher
who held that all actions are by
definition self-centered since we all must
act on the basis of our own plans and
ideas. Perhaps he was a product of his
own times, the early days of industrial
capitalism in Europe when workers were
ruthlessly exploited in appalling condi-
tions as documented by Charles Dickens
and Karl Marx.

58. Psychological Egoism
Max Stirner
1806 – 1856
All decisions are made by individuals
based on their own understanding
and interests.
Thus all decisions made by anyone
must be self-serving and any
apparently altruistic action must
have an underlying selfish motive.
in defense of psychological egoism

59. Psychological Egoism
All decisions are made by individuals
based on their own understanding
and interests.
Thus all decisions made by anyone
must be self-serving and any
apparently altruistic action must
have an underlying selfish motive.
in defense of psychological egoism
Psychological egoism claims that
we cannot, by definition, act for
the sake of others.

60. Psychological Egoism
All decisions are made by individuals
based on their own understanding
and interests.
Thus all decisions made by anyone
must be self-serving and any
apparently altruistic action must
have an underlying selfish motive.
in defense of psychological egoism
If this is the case then morality
would be a pointless thing to try
to follow.

61. Psychological Egoism
All decisions are made by individuals
based on their own understanding
and interests.
Thus all decisions made by anyone
must be self-serving and any
apparently altruistic action must
have an underlying selfish motive.
in defense of psychological egoism
But doesn’t this theory paint an
excessively cynical view of human
beings? We can certainly interpret
all action in terms of hidden
motives, but does this mean that
is all that moves us?

62. Ethical Egoism

63. Ethical Egoism
Ayn Rand
1905 – 1982

64. Ethical Egoism
Ayn Rand
1905 – 1982
“Self-sacrifice? But it
is precisely the self that
cannot and must not be
sacrificed.”

65. Ethical Egoism
Ayn Rand
1905 – 1982
“Self-sacrifice? But it
is precisely the self that
cannot and must not be
sacrificed.”
Ayn Rand was a highly influential novelist who
emigrated from Russia to the U.S. She
defended the capitalist idea that the good of
all was only to be achieved by ignoring the
demands of others and pursuing selfish gain.
Among her contemporary followers are Alan
Greenspan and Ron Paul who named his son
Rand after her.

66. Ethical Egoism
Ayn Rand
1905 – 1982
The most important human value is
the value of the individual.
Acting for the sake of others requires
denying the value of the individual.
Thus one should never act for the
sake of others.
Rand’s argument against altruism

67. Ethical Egoism
The most important human value is
the value of the individual.
Acting for the sake of others requires
denying the value of the individual.
Thus one should never act for the
sake of others.
Rand’s argument against altruism
Aren’t there also values to be
found in cooperative activity?

68. Ethical Egoism
The most important human value is
the value of the individual.
Acting for the sake of others requires
denying the value of the individual.
Thus one should never act for the
sake of others.
Rand’s argument against altruism
Is life really a “zero sum game,”
in which my benefit requires your
loss?

69. Ethical Egoism
The most important human value is
the value of the individual.
Acting for the sake of others requires
denying the value of the individual.
Thus one should never act for the
sake of others.
Rand’s argument against altruism
Is it always rational to ignore
others’ interests?

70. Social Contract Theory

71. Social Contract Theory
Thomas Hobbes
1588 – 1674

72. Social Contract Theory
Thomas Hobbes
1588 – 1674
Without enforceable social
rules we should expect
“continual fear, and danger
of violent death; And the
life of man, solitary, poor,
nasty, brutish, and short.”

73. Social Contract Theory
Thomas Hobbes
1588 – 1674
Without enforceable social
rules we should expect
“continual fear, and danger
of violent death; And the
life of man, solitary, poor,
nasty, brutish, and short.”
Thomas Hobbes was the first modern political
philosopher. He thought that social rules –
moral and political – should be based on self-
interest. We all have an interest in living under
the rule of law rather than in the anarchy of
the “state of nature.”.

74. Social Contract Theory
Thomas Hobbes
1588 – 1674
We owe allegiance to rules only if they
serve our interests.
Social rules are in our best interests to
follow since living by them is better than
fending for ourselves.
So we should follow the basic rules of
society and trade some individual liberty
for the rule of law.
In Defense of the Social Contract

75. Social Contract Theory
We owe allegiance to rules only if they
serve our interests.
Social rules are in our best interests to
follow since living by them is better than
fending for ourselves.
So we should follow the basic rules of
society and trade some individual liberty
for the rule of law.
In Defense of the Social Contract
We all share basic interests such
as life, liberty and the pursuit of
happiness.

76. Social Contract Theory
We owe allegiance to rules only if they
serve our interests.
Social rules are in our best interests to
follow since living by them is better than
fending for ourselves.
So we should follow the basic rules of
society and trade some individual liberty
for the rule of law.
In Defense of the Social Contract
In a state of nature we have
greater liberty, but also much
greater insecurity than in society‘.

77. Social Contract Theory
We owe allegiance to rules only if they
serve our interests.
Social rules are in our best interests to
follow since living by them is better than
fending for ourselves.
So we should follow the basic rules of
society and trade some individual liberty
for the rule of law.
In Defense of the Social Contract
Even if we may have an interest
in accepting basic rules, what if
the payoff for cheating on these
rules is high enough to tempt us
to cheat?

78. Social Contract Theory
We owe allegiance to rules only if they
serve our interests.
Social rules are in our best interests to
follow since living by them is better than
fending for ourselves.
So we should follow the basic rules of
society and trade some individual liberty
for the rule of law.
In Defense of the Social Contract
What if we could get away with
not paying taxes, or otherwise
taking advantage of “public
goods” for private gain – why
shouldn’t we?

79. The Tragedy of the Commons

80. The Tragedy of the Commons
Even if we all have an interest in a clean world . . .

81. The Tragedy of the Commons
we also all have an interest in getting something for nothing . . .

82. The Tragedy of the Commons
and taking more than our fair share.

83. The Tragedy of the Commons
What might prevent such selfish behavior?

84. Utilitarianism

85. Utilitarianism
John Stuart Mill
1806 – 1873

86. Utilitarianism
John Stuart Mill
1806 – 1873
“The Greatest-Happiness
Principle holds that actions
are right in proportion as
they tend to promote
happiness, wrong as they
tend to produce the reverse
of happiness.”

87. Utilitarianism
John Stuart Mill
1806 – 1873
“The Greatest-Happiness
Principle holds that actions
are right in proportion as
they tend to promote
happiness, wrong as they
tend to produce the reverse
of happiness.”
John Stuart Mill was a British economist,
philosopher and social reformer. He
assumed that humans were self-
interested, yet that we could also be
convinced to act for the good of others.
Mills philosophy of utilitarianism remains
popular to this day among economists
and policy makers.

88. Utilitarianism
John Stuart Mill
1806 – 1873
We are all after the same thing –
happiness.
There is no reason why my happiness
should be considered more important
than anyone else’s happiness
So we should always act to maximize
overall happiness, by choosing what
leads to the greatest benefit for the
most people involved.
An argument for utilitarianism

89. Utilitarianism
We are all after the same thing –
happiness.
There is no reason why my happiness
should be considered more important
than anyone else’s happiness
So we should always act to maximize
overall happiness, by choosing what
leads to the greatest benefit for the
most people involved.
An argument for utilitarianism
Even if different things might
make different people happy we all
share the quest for happiness.

90. Utilitarianism
We are all after the same thing –
happiness.
There is no reason why my happiness
should be considered more important
than anyone else’s happiness
So we should always act to maximize
overall happiness, by choosing what
leads to the greatest benefit for the
most people involved.
An argument for utilitarianism
If happiness is valuable in itself
then what reason can I have for
saying that my happiness counts
but yours doesn’t?

91. Utilitarianism
We are all after the same thing –
happiness.
There is no reason why my happiness
should be considered more important
than anyone else’s happiness
So we should always act to maximize
overall happiness, by choosing what
leads to the greatest benefit for the
most people involved.
An argument for utilitarianism
Utilitarianism bases the value of
an action purely on the
consequences of that action.

92. Is what is “good” always what is “right?”

93. Is what is “good” always what is “right?”
Does the end always justify the means?

94. Is what is “good” always what is “right?”
How do we know what the ultimate consequences of our actions are?

95. Is what is “good” always what is “right?”
Can we put a price on human lives?

96. Is what is “good” always what is “right?”
Is anything just plain wrong?

97. Kantian ethics

98. Kantian ethics
Immanuel Kant
1724 – 1804

99. Kantian ethics
Immanuel Kant
1724 – 1804
“Act in such a way that you
treat humanity, whether in
your own person or in the
person of another,
always at the same time as
an end and never simply as
a means.”

100. Kantian ethics
Immanuel Kant
1724 – 1804
“Act in such a way that you
treat humanity, whether in
your own person or in the
person of another,
always at the same time as
an end and never simply as
a means.”
Kant was a major figure in the intellectual
movement known as the Enlightenment. He
sought to provide a rational basis for the
values of the French Revolution – liberty,
equality, fraternity.

101. Kantian ethics
Immanuel Kant
1724 – 1804
Acting selfishly always involves
assuming that others will follow the
rules I break.
An act can be a moral act only if it
can be universally accepted.
Selfish action cannot be universally
accepted since it contradicts itself.
So selfish action is fundamentally
wrong.
Kant’s argument for universal morality

102. Kantian ethics
Acting selfishly always involves
assuming that others will follow the
rules I break.
An act can be a moral act only if it
can be universally accepted.
Selfish action cannot be universally
accepted since it contradicts itself.
So selfish action is fundamentally
wrong.
Kant’s argument for universal morality
If I lie or make false promises I am
assuming that you value telling the
truth and keeping one’s promises
otherwise you’d never take me at
my word.

103. Kantian ethics
Acting selfishly always involves
assuming that others will follow the
rules I break.
An act can be a moral act only if it
can be universally accepted.
Selfish action cannot be universally
accepted since it contradicts itself.
So selfish action is fundamentally
wrong.
Kant’s argument for universal morality
To say that something is morally
acceptable or unacceptable is to
make an unconditional claim.

104. Kantian ethics
Acting selfishly always involves
assuming that others will follow the
rules I break.
An act can be a moral act only if it
can be universally accepted.
Selfish action cannot be universally
accepted since it contradicts itself.
So selfish action is fundamentally
wrong.
Kant’s argument for universal morality
What makes immoral action
wrong is that it fails to treat
others as equals by acting on a
double standard.

105. Kantian ethics
Acting selfishly always involves
assuming that others will follow the
rules I break.
An act can be a moral act only if it
can be universally accepted.
Selfish action cannot be universally
accepted since it contradicts itself.
So selfish action is fundamentally
wrong.
Kant’s argument for universal morality
This is the basis for the idea that
there are universal human rights –
fundamental limits in the way we
should treat each other.

106. Universal Rights

107. Universal Rights
Democracy is based on the idea that we all deserve equal protection of the law.

108. Universal Rights
Discrimination is wrong because it fails to treat equals as equals.

109. Universal Rights
What happens when a society fails to protect the rights of its citizens?

110. Universal Rights
Is deliberate violation of unjust laws acceptable?

111. Feminist Ethics

112. Feminist Ethics
Carol Gilligan
1936 –

113. Feminist Ethics
Carol Gilligan
1936 –
“My research suggests that
men and women may speak
different languages that they
assume are the same, using
similar words to encode
disparate experiences of self
and social relationships.”

114. Feminist Ethics
Carol Gilligan
1936 –
“My research suggests that
men and women may speak
different languages that they
assume are the same, using
similar words to encode
disparate experiences of self
and social relationships.”
Carol Gilligan refused to accept that standard
models of moral development did justice to
the moral experience of women.

115. Feminist Ethics
Carol Gilligan
1936 –
Philosophy and psychology presume that
morality requires following impartial and
universal rules.
This “masculine” approach to moral
decision-making leaves out “feminine”
concerns with concrete relationships.
A complete picture of morality requires
balancing abstract rules with particular
relationships.
Gilligan’s argument

116. Feminist Ethics
Philosophy and psychology presume that
morality requires following impartial and
universal rules.
This “masculine” approach to moral
decision-making leaves out “feminine”
concerns with concrete relationships.
A complete picture of morality requires
balancing abstract rules with particular
relationships.
Gilligan’s argument
The dominant theory of moral
development, that of Lawrence
Kohlberg, argues that moral ma-
turity requires following universal
rules regardless of the human costs
involved.

117. Feminist Ethics
Philosophy and psychology presume that
morality requires following impartial and
universal rules.
This “masculine” approach to moral
decision-making leaves out “feminine”
concerns with concrete relationships.
A complete picture of morality requires
balancing abstract rules with particular
relationships.
Gilligan’s argument
In Kohlberg’s tests female subjects
tended to focus on social contexts
at the expense of universal rules.

118. Feminist Ethics
Philosophy and psychology presume that
morality requires following impartial and
universal rules.
This “masculine” approach to moral
decision-making leaves out “feminine”
concerns with concrete relationships.
A complete picture of morality requires
balancing abstract rules with particular
relationships.
Gilligan’s argument
Rather than accept that these
subjects were “under-developed”
Gilligan defends the idea of
differing and complementary
moral “voices.”

119. Feminist Ethics
Philosophy and psychology presume that
morality requires following impartial and
universal rules.
This “masculine” approach to moral
decision-making leaves out “feminine”
concerns with concrete relationships.
A complete picture of morality requires
balancing abstract rules with particular
relationships.
Gilligan’s argument
Do men and women have different
moral “styles?”

120. Feminisms

121. Feminisms
First wave: allow women to participate!

122. Feminisms
Second wave: end discrimination!

123. Feminisms
Third wave: autonomy now!