notes

1. Theme 1: The Development Project (Week: 8) (11Sept. – 15 Sept.)
Topics
• What is development? And why do we study it?
• Theories of development
• Colonialism and development
• Development as a political project
Key Concepts
• Development project
• Modernisation theory
• Colonial division of labour
• Import substitution industrialisation
Readings
1. McMichael, Phillip. (2008). ‘Instituting the Development Project’, Ch. 2 in
Development and Social Change: A Global Perspective. Los Angeles: Pine Forge
Press.
2. Rostow, Walt. (1960). ‘The Five Stages of Economic Growth – A Summary’, Ch. 2
in The Stages of Economic Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto. Cambridge,
UK: Cambridge University Press.
3. Isbister, John. (2006). ‘Promises Not Kept: Poverty and the Betrayal of Third World
Development’. Bloomfield, CT: Kumarian Press. pp. 30-41.
4. Nyerere, Julius. (1973). ‘Freedom and Development’, Ch. 12 in Freedom and
Development. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Theme 2: Development under Critique (Week: 9) (18 Sept. – 22 Sept.)
Topics
• How did scholars respond to the failure of the development project?
Answer: Scholars have responded to the failure of development projects in various ways. Here are
some common responses:
1. Critique of the development paradigm: Some scholars argue that the failure of development
projects is rooted in the flawed assumptions and approaches of the development paradigm itself.
They question the focus on economic growth and modernization, arguing that it often neglects social
and environmental considerations.
2. Structural analysis: Scholars influenced by Marxist or dependency theories analyze the failure of
development projects as a result of structural inequalities and power imbalances. They argue that
development initiatives often benefit the elites and perpetuate existing inequalities.

2. 3. Post-development theory: Post-development scholars challenge the entire concept of
development, arguing that it is a Western-centric idea that imposes a particular vision of progress
on non-Western societies. They advocate for alternative approaches that prioritize local knowledge,
cultural diversity, and self-determination.
4. Participatory approaches: Some scholars emphasize the importance of involving local
communities in the design and implementation of development projects. They argue that
participatory approaches can lead to more sustainable and context-specific solutions.
5. Policy recommendations: Scholars also provide specific policy recommendations to address the
failures of development projects. These may include improving governance, promoting social
inclusion, investing in education and healthcare, and prioritizing environmental sustainability.
It is important to note that scholars have diverse perspectives on the failure of development projects,
and their responses may vary depending on their theoretical frameworks and research interests.
• What is the relationship between wealth and poverty on a global scale?
Answer & Explanation:
Answer: The relationship between wealth and poverty on a global scale is complex and multifaceted.
Generally, wealth and poverty are inversely related, meaning that as wealth increases, poverty
decreases, and vice versa. However, this relationship is influenced by various factors such as
economic systems, political structures, historical legacies, and global inequalities.
1. Global Wealth Distribution: The global distribution of wealth is highly unequal. A small percentage
of the world's population holds a significant portion of global wealth, while a large portion of the
population lives in poverty. This unequal distribution contributes to the persistence of poverty on a
global scale.
2. Economic Systems: Different economic systems, such as capitalism or socialism, can influence
the relationship between wealth and poverty. Capitalist systems tend to create wealth concentration,
while socialist systems aim to reduce poverty through wealth redistribution. However, the
effectiveness of these systems in addressing poverty varies across countries.
3. Globalization: Globalization has both positive and negative effects on wealth and poverty. It has
led to economic growth in some countries, resulting in reduced poverty rates. However, it has also
widened the wealth gap between developed and developing countries, exacerbating poverty in
some regions.
4. Structural Inequalities: Historical legacies, colonialism, and structural inequalities contribute to the
persistence of poverty. These factors have shaped the distribution of resources, access to
education, healthcare, and opportunities, creating barriers for individuals and communities to
escape poverty.
5. Policy Interventions: Government policies and international initiatives play a crucial role in
addressing poverty and reducing wealth disparities. Policies such as social welfare programs,
progressive taxation, and investment in education and infrastructure can help alleviate poverty and
promote wealth redistribution.
In conclusion, the relationship between wealth and poverty on a global scale is influenced by various
factors. While wealth and poverty are generally inversely related, the persistence of poverty is
shaped by economic systems, globalization, structural inequalities, and policy interventions.
Addressing global poverty requires comprehensive approaches that tackle systemic issues and
promote equitable distribution of resources.
• What is the relationship between development and gender?

3. Answer & Explanation:
Gender Gender the attitudes , norms , expectations and behaviors that societies construct around
being male or female . à Special hardships Gender disempowerment
The relationship between development and gender is that gender plays a significant role in
determining the level of development and empowerment within a society. Gender refers to the
attitudes, norms, expectations, and behaviors that societies construct around being male or female.
In many societies, there are special hardships faced by individuals based on their gender,
particularly women and girls who often experience gender disempowerment. This means that they
may face discrimination, limited access to resources and opportunities, lower social status, and
restricted decision-making power. These factors can hinder their ability to fully participate in society
and contribute to their own development. Therefore, addressing gender inequalities is crucial for
achieving sustainable development goals.
Tutorial 1: What is development?
Answer & Explanation:
Answer: Development refers to the process of improving the economic, social, and political
conditions of a country or region. It involves various aspects such as increasing income levels,
reducing poverty, improving education and healthcare, promoting gender equality, and ensuring
sustainable environmental practices. Development can be measured using indicators such as Gross
Domestic Product (GDP), Human Development Index (HDI), and poverty rates. It is a
multidimensional concept that takes into account not only economic growth but also social progress
and environmental sustainability. Development can be achieved through various strategies and
policies, including investment in infrastructure, education, healthcare, and technology, as well as
promoting good governance and reducing inequality. It is important to consider the needs and
aspirations of the local population and ensure that development is inclusive and sustainable.
Tuesday 19 September
Tutorial questions:
1) How does each theory explain development? (Identify the authors and theorists
associated with each theory)
Answer & Explanation:
Answer:
There are several theories in sociology that explain development. Here are some of the key theories
and their associated authors:
1) Modernization Theory: This theory suggests that societies develop by adopting modern
industrial and technological practices. It was popularized by authors like Walt Rostow and Daniel
Lerner.
2) Dependency Theory: This theory argues that underdeveloped countries are dependent on
developed countries for their economic growth and development. The key proponents of this theory
include Andre Gunder Frank and Fernando Henrique Cardoso.
3) World Systems Theory: This theory views the world as a global system where countries are
interconnected and interdependent. It was developed by Immanuel Wallerstein.

4. 4) Structural-Functionalism: This theory emphasizes the importance of social structures and
institutions in promoting development. Prominent theorists associated with this perspective include
Talcott Parsons and Robert Merton.
5) Conflict Theory: This theory posits that development is influenced by power struggles and social
inequalities. Karl Marx and Max Weber are notable figures associated with this theory.
6) Symbolic Interactionism: This theory focuses on how individuals interact and create meaning
in society. While not explicitly focused on development, it can provide insights into the social
processes that contribute to development. Key theorists include George Herbert Mead and Erving
Goffman.
It is important to note that these theories offer different perspectives on development and may have
their limitations. Sociologists often use a combination of these theories to gain a comprehensive
understanding of development.
2) What does Isbister, (2006) mean by the concept of the development project? And how was
it institutionalised?
Answer:
In his book "Promises Not Kept: Poverty and the Betrayal of Third World Development" (2006),
Isbister discusses the concept of the development project. The development project refers to the
efforts made by governments, international organizations, and other actors to promote economic
growth, social progress, and poverty reduction in developing countries.
Isbister argues that the development project was institutionalized through various means. One key
aspect was the adoption of modernization theory, which emerged in the 1950s and 1960s.
Modernization theory posited that developing countries could achieve development by following
the path of industrialization and adopting Western values and institutions.
The development project was also institutionalized through the establishment of international
development institutions such as the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF).
These institutions provided financial assistance and policy advice to developing countries,
promoting a particular model of development based on market-oriented reforms and liberalization.
Additionally, the development project was institutionalized through the implementation of specific
policies and programs at the national level. These included strategies such as import substitution
industrialization, which aimed to promote domestic industries and reduce dependence on imports.
However, Isbister argues that the development project has not lived up to its promises. Despite
decades of development efforts, poverty and inequality persist in many developing countries.
Isbister critiques the top-down approach of the development project, which often neglects the
needs and aspirations of local communities and reinforces existing power imbalances.
Overall, Isbister's analysis highlights the institutionalization of the development project through
theories, international institutions, and national policies, while also questioning its effectiveness in
achieving meaningful and sustainable development.
3) Briefly explain what Nyerere (1973) meant by Ujama and what was his understanding of
development?
Answer:

5. Nyerere (1973) was the former President of Tanzania and a prominent advocate of African
socialism. He introduced the concept of Ujamaa, which means "familyhood" or "extended family" in
Swahili. Nyerere's understanding of Ujamaa was based on the idea of communal living and
cooperation, where individuals work together for the collective benefit of society.
According to Nyerere, Ujamaa was a response to the challenges faced by Tanzania, such as
poverty, inequality, and underdevelopment. He believed that the capitalist model of development,
which emphasized individualism and profit maximization, was not suitable for African societies.
Instead, Nyerere proposed a socialist model that focused on social justice, equality, and self-
reliance.
Nyerere's understanding of development was rooted in the principles of Ujamaa. He argued that
development should not be measured solely in terms of economic growth or material progress, but
also in terms of social cohesion, cultural preservation, and the well-being of the community. He
emphasized the importance of education, healthcare, and infrastructure development as essential
components of development.
Nyerere's vision of development was centered around the idea of self-sufficiency and the
empowerment of local communities. He believed that development should be driven by the people
themselves, rather than relying on external aid or foreign investment. Nyerere promoted collective
farming, cooperative enterprises, and community-based initiatives as means to achieve
sustainable development and reduce dependency on external forces.
In summary, Nyerere's concept of Ujamaa emphasized communal living, social justice, and self-
reliance. His understanding of development went beyond economic growth and focused on holistic
well-being, community empowerment, and the preservation of African values and traditions.
Tutorial 2: Critiques of Development
Tuesday 26 September
Tutorial questions:
1. How does dependency theory (as represented by Rodney and Frank) think about the relationship
between wealthy countries and poor countries? Contrast this position to the position of
modernization theory.
Dependency theory, as represented by scholars like Walter Rodney and Andre Gunder Frank,
views the relationship between wealthy countries and poor countries as one of exploitation and
unequal power dynamics. According to this theory, wealthy countries (referred to as the "core")
exploit and extract resources from poor countries (referred to as the "periphery") in order to
maintain their own economic growth and development.
Dependency theorists argue that this exploitation is rooted in the historical legacy of colonialism
and imperialism, where wealthy countries established economic and political dominance over poor
countries. They argue that this unequal relationship perpetuates underdevelopment in poor
countries, as they are forced to remain dependent on the core for economic resources and
technology.
In contrast, modernization theory takes a different perspective on the relationship between wealthy
and poor countries. Modernization theorists argue that poor countries can achieve development by
adopting the practices and institutions of wealthy countries. They believe that economic growth
and development can be achieved through industrialization, technological advancement, and the
adoption of Western values and institutions.

6. Modernization theory emphasizes the role of internal factors, such as education, infrastructure,
and governance, in promoting development. It suggests that poor countries can catch up with
wealthy countries by following a linear path of development, similar to the experiences of Western
countries.
In summary, while dependency theory sees the relationship between wealthy and poor countries
as exploitative and perpetuating underdevelopment, modernization theory believes that poor
countries can achieve development by adopting the practices and institutions of wealthy countries.
2. For Wallerstein, what is the difference between economic activities characterized by “Monopoly”
and those characterized by “competition”? How do these explain income inequality between
countries?
Answer:
According to Wallerstein, economic activities characterized by "monopoly" refer to situations where
a small number of dominant countries or corporations control and dominate the global market for a
particular product or resource. In this scenario, these dominant entities have the power to set
prices, control production, and accumulate profits, leading to a concentration of wealth and income
in their hands.
On the other hand, economic activities characterized by "competition" involve a larger number of
countries or corporations competing in the global market. In this situation, there is a relatively
equal distribution of power and resources, leading to a more balanced income distribution among
countries.
These differences in economic activities between monopoly and competition help explain income
inequality between countries. Monopoly-based economic activities tend to concentrate wealth and
income in the hands of a few dominant countries or corporations, leading to income inequality
between these dominant entities and other countries. This concentration of wealth and income in
the hands of a few leads to a disparity in economic development and standards of living between
countries.
In contrast, competition-based economic activities allow for a more equitable distribution of wealth
and income among countries. When there is competition, multiple countries have the opportunity
to participate in the global market, leading to a more balanced income distribution. This can
contribute to reducing income inequality between countries.
Overall, Wallerstein argues that the dominance of monopoly-based economic activities contributes
to income inequality between countries, while competition-based economic activities can help
mitigate this inequality.
3. Beneria argues that, while the increasing role of the market has changed social life under
capitalism and globalization, the links to the market have been different for men and women. Explain
some aspect of how interaction with the market is gendered.
Answer:
Beneria's argument highlights that the interaction with the market is gendered, meaning that men
and women have different experiences and roles within the market economy. Here are some aspects
that illustrate the gendered nature of market interaction:
1. Occupational segregation: Women and men tend to be concentrated in different types of jobs.
This is often referred to as occupational segregation. Women are more likely to be employed in low-
wage, precarious, and feminized sectors such as domestic work, caregiving, and retail. On the other
hand, men are more likely to be employed in higher-paying and male-dominated sectors such as
engineering, finance, and technology.

7. 2. Gender pay gap: Women, on average, earn less than men for performing similar work. This
gender pay gap is influenced by various factors, including occupational segregation, discrimination,
and undervaluation of women's work. The pay gap reflects the unequal power dynamics and
gendered division of labor within the market.
3. Unpaid care work: Women often bear the burden of unpaid care work, including household
chores, childcare, and eldercare. This unpaid labor is essential for the functioning of the market
economy as it supports the reproduction of the labor force. However, it is often undervalued and
invisible in economic terms, leading to women's economic disadvantage and limited opportunities
for market participation.
4. Glass ceiling and glass escalator: Women face barriers in advancing to higher positions within
organizations, commonly known as the glass ceiling. This limits their access to higher-paying jobs
and positions of power. In contrast, men often benefit from the glass escalator phenomenon, where
they are more likely to be promoted quickly in female-dominated professions such as nursing or
teaching.
5. Gendered consumption patterns: Market forces shape gendered consumption patterns, with
specific products and services targeted towards men and women. Advertising and marketing
strategies often reinforce gender stereotypes and perpetuate gendered norms and expectations,
influencing individuals' choices and preferences.
These aspects demonstrate how the interaction with the market is gendered, with women facing
various forms of disadvantage and discrimination compared to men. Understanding these gendered
dynamics is crucial for addressing gender inequalities and promoting more equitable and inclusive
economic systems.
Tutorial 3: Rescuing development
Tuesday 3 October
Tutorial questions:
1. What does Mkandawire say about the claim that developmental states are impossible in
Africa?
Answer & Explanation:
Mkandawire says that this claim was rooted in the contrasts between the experiences of African
countries and the highly successful East Asian industrializers (South Korea, Singapore, Taiwan and
Hong Kong) during the crisis years of the global recession wherein, the growth performances of sub-
Saharan Africa and East Asia, were not dissimilar but beyond those years, the divergence in growth
performance was huge because African countries opted for import substitution strategies instead of
the reliance on markets and export orientation strategies which were pursued by the Asian countries.
Mkandawire however, argues that developmental states are possible in Africa (making reference to
Botswana and Mauritius) if we pursue democratic instead of the Asian authoritarian developmental
states.
Mkandawire discusses the claim that developmental states are impossible in Africa. This claim is
based on the comparison between African countries and successful East Asian industrializers like
South Korea, Singapore, Taiwan, and Hong Kong during a global recession. During this time, both
sub-Saharan Africa and East Asia experienced similar growth performances. However, after the
crisis years, there was a significant divergence in growth performance between the two regions.
The reason for this divergence is attributed to the different strategies adopted by African countries
and Asian countries. African countries chose import substitution strategies, which involve relying on

8. domestic production to meet local demand instead of relying on international markets and export-
oriented strategies pursued by Asian countries.
Mkandawire challenges this claim by arguing that developmental states are indeed possible in
Africa. He points out examples like Botswana and Mauritius as evidence of successful
developmental states in Africa. However, he suggests that instead of following authoritarian models
seen in East Asia, African countries should pursue democratic approaches to development.
In summary, Mkandawire disagrees with the notion that developmental states are impossible in
Africa and argues that they can be achieved through democratic means rather than authoritarian
methods employed by some Asian countries.
2. How does Sen’s conceptualization of development differ from modernization theory?
Answer:
Sen's conceptualization of development is viewed as a process of expanding the real freedoms that
people enjoy. This include the achievements of human rights, social capabilities and opportunities.
In contrast, the modernization theory views development only in terms of economic growth where
there is growth in the GNP, the rise in personal incomes, technological advances and social
modernization.
3. Which development perspectives would you categorize the writings of Mkandawire and
Sen (Provide a reason for your answer)?.
Answer: [Development perspectives]
Explanation: The writings of Thandika Mkandawire and Amartya Sen can be categorized under the
development perspectives of postcolonialism and human development, respectively.
1. Thandika Mkandawire: Mkandawire is a prominent scholar in the field of development studies,
particularly known for his work on African development. His writings often reflect a postcolonial
perspective, which focuses on understanding the impact of colonialism and imperialism on the
development of countries in the Global South. Postcolonialism emphasizes the need to challenge
and overcome the legacies of colonialism, including economic exploitation, political domination, and
cultural imperialism. Mkandawire's work critically examines the structural constraints and power
dynamics that hinder development in Africa, and he advocates for policies that promote self-reliance,
social justice, and inclusive growth.
2. Amartya Sen: Sen is a Nobel laureate economist and philosopher who has made significant
contributions to the field of development economics. His writings are primarily associated with the
perspective of human development. Sen argues that development should not be solely measured
by economic growth but should also focus on enhancing people's capabilities and freedoms. He
emphasizes the importance of addressing social inequalities, poverty, and deprivation in order to
achieve genuine development. Sen's capability approach highlights the significance of education,
healthcare, political participation, and social justice in promoting human well-being and
development.
In summary, Mkandawire's writings align with the postcolonial perspective, which emphasizes the
historical and structural factors that shape development in the Global South. On the other hand,
Sen's writings are rooted in the human development perspective, which focuses on enhancing
people's capabilities and freedoms as the ultimate goal of development.
Tutorial 4: Thinking about Work: historical perspective & work under capitalism
Tuesday 17 October
Tutorial questions:

9. 1. How was work organized prior to colonialism in the global South?
2. What is Stewart’s distinction between “Work” and “Labour”? Is it possible to have an
economy where there is only “Work” and no “Labour”?
Answer & Explanation:
Answer:
Stewart's distinction between "Work" and "Labour" is based on the idea that work encompasses all
human activities that involve effort and produce value, while labor specifically refers to activities that
are performed for wages or in exchange for monetary compensation. In other words, work includes
both paid and unpaid activities, such as household chores, volunteering, and creative pursuits, while
labor is limited to activities that are part of the formal economy and involve a contractual relationship.
According to Stewart, it is possible to have an economy where there is only "Work" and no "Labour."
In such an economy, all activities that contribute to the production of goods and services would be
undertaken voluntarily and without the expectation of monetary compensation. This could be
achieved through various means, such as a system of communal sharing, where individuals
contribute their skills and efforts for the collective benefit of the community.
However, it is important to note that in contemporary societies, the distinction between work and
labor is not always clear-cut. Many activities that were traditionally considered unpaid work, such as
caregiving and household chores, are increasingly being recognized as forms of labor. Additionally,
the majority of economic activities in modern societies are organized within a market-based system,
where labor is typically remunerated. Therefore, while it is theoretically possible to have an economy
based solely on voluntary work, it is not the prevailing model in most societies today.
3. How does the land dispossession that Plaatje describes relate to the history of work in
South Africa?
Answer & Explanation:
Answer: The land dispossession described by Plaatje relates to the history of work in South Africa
in several ways.
Firstly, the dispossession of land had a direct impact on the livelihoods of the indigenous people. As
their land was taken away, they were forced to find alternative means of survival, often through wage
labor. This led to the emergence of a labor force that was dependent on working for others in order
to sustain themselves.
Secondly, the dispossession of land created a system of cheap labor. With limited access to land
and resources, indigenous people were compelled to work for low wages in order to survive. This
created a labor market characterized by exploitation and inequality, where workers were often
subjected to harsh working conditions and low wages.
Furthermore, the dispossession of land also contributed to the development of the mining industry
in South Africa. As indigenous people were displaced from their land, mining companies were able
to exploit the mineral resources that were previously inaccessible. This led to the growth of the
mining sector and the increased demand for labor in the mines.
Overall, the land dispossession described by Plaatje played a significant role in shaping the history
of work in South Africa. It led to the emergence of a labor force dependent on wage labor, created
a system of cheap labor, and contributed to the growth of the mining industry.
4. How did work change under capitalism? Explain and apply the concept of the precariat to
Maria’s burden, and other workers such as EPWP and platform workers or the ‘digital gig
economy’

10. Answer & Explanation:
Answer:
Under capitalism, work underwent significant changes compared to previous economic systems.
One key aspect of this change is the emergence of the precariat, a term coined by Guy Standing to
describe a growing class of workers who experience precarious employment conditions and lack of
job security.
The concept of the precariat can be applied to Maria's burden and other workers in various sectors,
including EPWP (Expanded Public Works Programme) and platform workers in the digital gig
economy. These workers often face unstable and insecure employment arrangements, low wages,
lack of benefits, and limited social protections.
Maria's burden can be understood as a manifestation of precarity. She may be working in a job with
irregular hours, uncertain income, and limited access to benefits or job security. This can lead to
financial instability, stress, and a constant struggle to make ends meet.
EPWP workers, who are often employed in temporary public works projects, also experience
precarity. They may have limited job security, low wages, and little opportunity for career
advancement. This can result in a cycle of temporary employment and economic vulnerability.
Platform workers in the digital gig economy, such as those working for ride-sharing or food delivery
apps, also face precarity. They often work as independent contractors, lacking the benefits and
protections of traditional employment. They have little control over their working conditions, face
income volatility, and are subject to algorithmic management.
Overall, the concept of the precariat helps us understand how work has changed under capitalism,
with increasing numbers of workers facing precarious employment conditions. This has implications
for workers' well-being, social inequality, and the need for policies that address the challenges faced
by the precariat.
Assignment for Part III
The assignment is due on the 10th of 0ctober (No Tutorial that week)
Write an essay in which you address two key issues:
1) Discuss how each theory has defined the concept of “development”. Answer &
Explanation:
Answer:
The concept of "development" has been defined differently by various theories in sociology.
Here, I will discuss three prominent theories and their definitions of development:
1) Modernization Theory: According to modernization theory, development is seen as a linear
process of societal progress and advancement. It emphasizes economic growth,
industrialization, and technological advancements as key indicators of development.
Modernization theorists argue that societies need to adopt Western values, institutions, and
practices to achieve development.
2) Dependency Theory: In contrast to modernization theory, dependency theory views
development as a complex and unequal process. It argues that underdeveloped countries
are dependent on developed countries for their economic growth and progress. Dependency
theorists highlight the exploitative nature of global capitalism and the unequal power relations
between developed and underdeveloped nations.

11. 3) World Systems Theory: World systems theory defines development within the context of a
global capitalist system. It suggests that development is not a linear process but rather a
result of the hierarchical structure of the world economy. According to this theory,
development is unevenly distributed, with core countries benefiting the most and peripheral
countries experiencing exploitation and underdevelopment.
These theories offer different perspectives on development, highlighting the importance of
economic factors, power relations, and global structures in shaping the concept. It is
important to critically analyze these theories and consider their limitations when studying and
understanding development.
2) Discuss how each theory of development views the role of the state. How has each of
these theories changed the idea of what a state should do if it is trying to achieve
development?
Answer & Explanation:
Answer:
The three main theories of development are modernization theory, dependency theory, and world-
systems theory. Each theory has a different perspective on the role of the state in achieving
development.
1. Modernization theory: This theory views the state as a key actor in promoting development.
According to modernization theorists, the state should play an active role in facilitating economic
growth and modernization. This includes implementing policies that promote industrialization,
infrastructure development, and technological advancement. The state is seen as a catalyst for
development, providing necessary resources and creating an enabling environment for economic
progress.
2. Dependency theory: In contrast to modernization theory, dependency theory argues that the state
is often constrained by external forces and global power dynamics. According to this theory, the
state is seen as a subordinate actor in the global capitalist system. Dependency theorists argue that
the state should focus on reducing dependency on external actors and promoting self-sufficiency.
This includes implementing policies that protect domestic industries, promote import substitution,
and prioritize the needs of the local population over global markets.
3. World-systems theory: World-systems theory takes a broader perspective on the role of the state
in development. It argues that the state is embedded within a global capitalist system characterized
by core, semi-peripheral, and peripheral countries. The state's role in development is influenced by
its position within this global hierarchy. Core countries have more power and resources to shape
development policies, while peripheral countries are often marginalized and exploited. World-
systems theorists argue that the state should challenge the existing global power dynamics and
work towards a more equitable distribution of resources and opportunities.
Overall, these theories have changed the idea of what a state should do to achieve development.
Modernization theory emphasizes economic growth and industrialization, while dependency theory
highlights the need for self-sufficiency and protection of domestic industries. World-systems theory
calls for a more critical examination of global power dynamics and the pursuit of a more equitable
development path. These theories have influenced policy debates and shaped the strategies
adopted by states in their pursuit of development.

12. In your essay you should discuss modernization theory AND at least two of the ‘critical’
theories; Dependency, World-Systems, Post-Development, Gender, AND the Capabilities
Approach.
Write an essay in which you address two key issues:
1) Discuss how each theory has understood “development” and “underdevelopment”.
2) Discuss how each theory views the role of the state. In your answer, discuss which role
you think the state should play to achieve development.
In your essay you should critically discuss modernisation theory AND at least two of the ‘critical’
theories; (a) Dependency, (b) World-Systems, (c) the Capabilities Approach and (b) Gender
Essay
The emergence of development in the colonial era had stimulated a vast number of countries in the
world to an extent where development became to be viewed as a universal necessity (McMicheal,
2008). However, this raised a problematic question to the sociologists of what exactly is
development. In this essay, various developmental theories are going to be presented and
scrutinized to get their understanding of development. First, the essay will present the modernization
school and its essential claims. Secondly, the essay will present the dependency theory with its
plausible criticisms of modernization theory. Thirdly, the capabilities approach as a response to
modernization theory. Finally, I will conclude by showing the relationship between these theories.
It is paramount to keep in mind that the modernization theory was developed almost exclusively in
the major universities that are situated in developed countries (Ibister, 2006). The modernization
school explained the underdevelopment of the third world based on their traditional ways of living.
The third world is seen as a traditional society that is stagnant and refusing to change (Isbister,
2006).
People in the third world are perceived to be having rhythms of circular life with no innovative ways
of improving their living standards from one level to another. Due to these traditional ways of living,
the third world has no interest in economic development, and they will remain underdeveloped
because there will never be industrial technologies, capitalism, trading, advanced education of
science, etc.
The modernization theorists understood development more similarly to the development project.
The development project views development as the destiny, and it takes national industrialization
as an important route that will lead to development (McMicheal, 2008).
Modernization theorists as well as the development project demand that there should be a
relationship between the rich countries and the poor countries. However, in this relationship the rich
countries will help the poor countries to make industrializations, giving advanced education, making
opportunities to peasants, the transformation of traditional agriculture, etc.
This was also asserted by Rowstow (1960) in his imagination of airplane, his main point was to say
that the countries in the third world should seek help and advice from the developed countries so

13. that they can also develop. They seem to imply that for the third world to progress it should absorb
western values and resources in the form of investments, loans, and aid. The fundamental claim in
this modernists school is that for a third world to develop there should be a shift from tradition to
modernity so that they can 'catch up' with the developed countries (Isbister, 2006).
The state must create conditions for good competition and trade free liberation. African countries
have been working together with the rich core countries for many decades ever since the colonial
era up to now in neocolonialism, but is there any African country that has developed? It is unfortunate
that all African countries are still underdevelopment while some are still developing. This is one of
the reasons that stimulated Paul Prebisch to establish the dependency theory as a wonder of
underdevelopment of the third world.
This theory consists of many theorists who are outside the rich core countries and most of them are
an outgrowth of Marxism (Isbister, 2006). These theorists say that the relationship between the rich
core countries and the poor peripheral countries is the one that makes the peripheral countries not
to develop. Hence, African countries are still under development although there had been a
relationship between Africa and the rich core countries.
The dependency theorists have a consensus about how underdevelopment was caused, however,
they differ with regards to what should be done to develop the peripheral countries. Some say that
capitalism had been operating for a long time in the peripheral countries, but it has not benefited the
disadvantaged majority, it only benefits the minority from rich core countries and by this, it should
be completely abolished (Isbister, 2006).
On the other side, some say that capitalism should still be implemented but with the absence of
assistance from the rich core countries and this capitalism should be in the best interest of the
majority. This should be done in the same way as Japan which emerged from the huge devastation
of the Second World War with a massive capitalist economy (Ibsiter, 2006).
However, most dependency theorists are calling for a full socialist revolution in the third world. They
want to expropriate all properties owned privately to all people and make an egalitarian society
where they restore the peace and kindness amongst the citizens. The main aim is to delink the
relationship between rich central countries and the peripherical countries. The state is required to
play a mediatory, it must be active and intervene in the socio-economic affairs (Isbister, 2006).
This can also be seen in South Africa during apartheid's regime when there were racial oppressive
laws that did not set the majority of people free in their daily lives. People were not allowed to vote,
they did not have the choice to choose where they wanted to live, unequal opportunities, etc. In
general, people did not have freedom, but it is said that their country was developing only because
there was a rise in GNP. He is against the measurement of development by the rise of economic
growth (GNP) because people can develop economically but still not having free lives. Sen serves
as a significant critique or threat to modernization theorists. Sen defines 'development as freedom'

14. (Sen, 1999, p 4). He argues that the rise in income or GNP can only be used as ameansto increase
the freedoms that are enjoyed by society.
There are many aspects of freedom that needs to be considered other than only constraining
ourselves to GNP. Sen calls these aspects of freedom as constituent components of development,
for instance, political freedom, health care facilities and diseases, level of criminal records, economic
freedom, life expectancy, etc. Sen offers two reasons why freedom is central to development. The
first one is the 'evaluative reason', the assessment of achievement should be done based on
whether the people's freedoms are enhanced or not (Sen, 1999).
The second one is the ‘effectiveness reason', the agency is the major engine of development (Sen,
1999). Sen’s perception of development is more similar to Julias Nyerere's way of describing
development. Nyerere wants development to serve people's interests and their freedom (Nyerere,
1973).
In conclusion, the modernization theory together with the development project understood
development as having industrial technologies, advanced education, and capital. Modernists further
claim that for the third world to develop it should abandon its' tradition and 'catch up ‘to modernity.
Most of the dependency theorists call for a full socialist revolution in the third world and they want
to delink the relationship between the core countries and the peripheral countries. Sen and Nyerere
extend the definition/description of modernists' development to freedom. Sen asserts that GNP is
just a constituent component of development while there are still more aspects of freedom which
need to be considered when assessing development. Having discussed all these theories, I can
support the dependency theory for calling upon a full socialist revolution in the third world.
Essay 2
Answer: [In the context of development and underdevelopment, modernisation theory posits that
societies progress from being traditional to becoming modern through stages of economic growth.
It views underdevelopment as a lack of progress or a failure to modernise. Dependency theory, on
the other hand, sees underdevelopment as a result of exploitation by developed nations. It argues
that the economic activities of the developed nations hinder the development of the underdeveloped
ones. World-Systems theory also views development and underdevelopment in terms of a global
economic system, but it focuses on the structural inequalities within this system. It posits that the
world is divided into core, semi-periphery, and periphery nations, with the core nations exploiting the
periphery ones, leading to their underdevelopment.]
Explanation: [Modernisation theory is based on the idea of progress and evolution, suggesting that
societies must go through certain stages to achieve development. It implies that underdeveloped
societies are simply at an earlier stage in this process. Dependency theory challenges this view by
arguing that underdevelopment is not a stage but a condition created by the economic activities of

15. developed nations. It suggests that these nations enrich themselves at the expense of the
underdeveloped ones, creating a dependency relationship. World-Systems theory extends this
argument by looking at the global economic system as a whole. It suggests that this system is
structured in a way that benefits the core nations (developed) while disadvantaging the periphery
ones (underdeveloped).]
Answer: [The role of the state varies significantly across different theories of development.}
Modernisation theory views the state as a catalyst for development, promoting industrialisation,
education, and modern values.
Dependency theory, on the other hand, sees the state as a victim of global capitalist systems, often
exploited by more developed countries.
World-Systems theory also views the state as part of a global system, but emphasizes its role in
maintaining the status quo of core, semi-periphery, and periphery countries.
The Capabilities Approach focuses on the state's role in enhancing individual capabilities, promoting
social justice and human development.
Gender theory emphasizes the state's role in addressing gender inequalities, promoting women's
rights and gender mainstreaming in development policies.
In my view, the state should play a role that combines elements from the Capabilities Approach and
Gender theory. It should focus on enhancing individual capabilities and addressing gender
inequalities to achieve sustainable development.]
Explanation: [Modernisation theory, originating from the 1950s, posits that societies progress
through similar stages of development, and that today's underdeveloped areas are thus in a similar
situation to that of today's developed areas at some time in the past. The state, in this theory, is
seen as a catalyst that can help society progress through these stages more quickly.
Dependency theory, developed in the late 1950s, argues that poor countries are exploited by rich
ones, leading to a state of dependency that hinders development. The state, in this theory, is often
seen as a victim of these global capitalist systems.
World-Systems theory, developed by Immanuel Wallerstein in the 1970s, views the world as a single

16. capitalist system, divided into core, semi-periphery, and periphery countries. The state, in this theory,
is seen as part of this global system, often maintaining the status quo of these divisions.
The Capabilities Approach, developed by Amartya Sen, focuses on the different capabilities
individuals have to lead the kind of lives they value – and have reason to value. The state, in this
theory, is seen as a facilitator that can help enhance these individual capabilities.
Gender theory, which has gained prominence in recent decades, emphasizes the importance of
addressing gender inequalities in development. The state, in this theory, is seen as a key player in
promoting women's rights and gender mainstreaming in development policies.
In my view, the state should play a role that combines elements from the Capabilities Approach and
Gender theory. It should focus.