2. introduction
The primary tools for communicating information in business include e-mail messages, memos,
letters, reports, phone calls, meetings, and conversations. To determine which is the best to use in
a given situation, start by asking yourself the following questions:
How much information do I have to pass along?
How many people will receive the message?
How quickly does it need to reach them?
How much time do the recipients need to respond to it?
How formal should the presentation be?
Is the message confidential?
How are people likely to respond to it?
E-mail Messages
Because of its speed and informality, e-mail is ideal for routine communication between
coworkers. For instance, an e-mail message is usually the best means of announcing a new
policy, introducing a recent hire, informing colleagues of a meeting time, and reminding an
employee of an approaching deadline. E-mail messages are also useful for day-to-day or
extremely timely exchanges with people outside the company. Because of their low cost, they
often are preferred for communicating with overseas contacts.
Memos
Although e-mail messages are now used instead of memos for most intercompany
communication, memos are still suitable for notes sent to people higher in the company
hierarchy, especially in conservative companies.
The memo is also appropriate for lengthy, formal communications to coworkers that may
eventually be circulated to your supervisors or to contacts in other companies.
Letters
The letter is now used primarily for formal correspondence with clients, customers, and others
outside the company, particularly people you have not met.
Imagine, for instance, that you need to ask for advice or information from someone you do not
know personally. The person will likely give a letter more attention than an e-mail message
because a letter conveys an added element of formality and courtesy.
Reports
A complex document of more than ten pages, especially one that will be shown to outside
contacts, is best presented as a report. A routine report can be easily produced using a word
3. processor and a laser printer. Important reports for potential clients, stockholders, or others you
might want to impress usually should be professionally designed and printed, often in full color
on heavy or glossy paper.
Phone Calls, Conversations, and Meetings
The main advantage of a phone conversation is that it allows both parties to respond to each
other immediately. If you and a coworker have several questions for each other, asking them in a
single phone call is usually less time-consuming than exchanging a long series of e-mail
messages. Personal matters or topics that might elicit a highly emotional response are best
discussed in person. As common sense will tell you, sending an e-mail or memo reading “You’re
fired!” is not the most delicate or responsible way of dealing with a difficult situation.
Face-to-face meetings are usually the safest way of communicating confidential information.
Meetings are also useful when a quick group decision is needed on a particular problem or issue.
Important side benefits of meetings are that they allow employees in different departments or
divisions to become acquainted and can often foster a sense of shared mission among coworkers.
Active vs. Passive Voice
A verb in the active voice emphasizes the person or thing that performs the action the verb
describes.
Bobby threw a ball.
Jane called Loraine on the phone.
A verb in the passive voice emphasizes the person or thing that receives the action.
A ball was thrown by Bobby
Loraine was called on the phone by Jane.
When to Use the Active Voice
When to Use the Active Voice Generally the active voice will produce a more concise and more
powerful sentence than the passive. An active construction immediately identifies the sentence’s
subject so readers can quickly understand and visualize who is doing what.
Because of its clarity, the active voice is almost always the best choice in documents that are
intended primarily to communicate information, such as business letters and memos.
When to Use the Passive Voice
When to Use the Passive Voice Using the passive voice is not always a mistake, however.
Inserting an occasional passive sentence into a document lends some variety to your sentence
construction. A passive construction is also frequently used when the subject of a sentence is
obvious or unimportant. In this sentence, the subject is unstated. A reader, though, would have
no problem assuming that the police arrested George and discovered his fingerprints. In this
sentence, the receiver of the action (George) is more significant than the actor (the police), so a
passive construction places emphasis on the proper person.
4. If the role of the officers was of crucial importance, the sentence would be more forceful if stated
in the active voice.
Addresses in Text
When a street address appears in text, spell out all words even if their abbreviated forms are
familiar.
Incorrect: 315 N. Buckingham St.
Correct: 315 North Buckingham Street
Exceptions to this rule are the words northwest, northeast, southwest, and southeast. When they
follow a street name, use the two-letter abbreviations for these directions (NW, NE, SW, SE).
Note that both letters should be set as capitals without punctuation or spaces between them. A
comma should be added after the abbreviation when a city or town name follows.
Matthew lives at 430 South Nathan Road NW, Springfield.
Express numbers in addresses as numerals, except for a numbered street preceded by a street
number.
42nd Street
But: 9112 Forty-Second Street
Set e-mail addresses in all lowercase letters. If embedded in text, they may be italicized to make
them easier for the reader to see them as a single unit. In all other contexts, however, they should
be set in roman type.
Dates
In text express the day and year of a date in numerals. Spell out and capitalize the name of the
month.
Incorrect: He was born on 12/8/60.
Correct: He was born on December 8, 1960.
Or: He was born on 8 December 1960.
Day-Month-Year vs. Month-Day-Year
The elements of a date are ordered in one of two sequences: day-month-year or month-day-year.
Day-month-year dates have no internal punctuation. Month-day-year dates include a comma
before and after the year. (If the date is followed by another punctuation mark, however, omit the
comma after the year.)
Month and Year Only
In a date consisting of only a month and year, do not insert a comma before or after the year.
5. Month and Day Only
In a date consisting of only a month and day, express the day as a cardinal number (e.g., 2, 17,
28) even though it is read as an ordinal (e.g., 2nd, 17th, 28th).
Day Only
If the day stands alone, it may be expressed as an ordinal numeral or spelled out in words.
Ethnically and Racially BiasedWords and Phrases
Words used to describe people of an ethnic or a racial group should be chosen carefully. A
sensitive approach involves more than just eliminating obvious slurs, which are, of course,
inappropriate in all spoken or written English. It also requires that you consider the perspective
of the group described and try as much as possible to represent its members as they want to be
represented. The following guidelines are tools to help you avoid inadvertently using terms or
labels for ethnic and racial groups that could be considered offensive.
Do not mention a person’s ethnicity or race unless it is relevant.
Before citing a person’s race or ethnicity, ask yourself if there is a reason that your readers need
to know this information. If there is not, omit the reference.
Be as specific as possible.
Avoid using a term that includes a broad range of peoples if you are talking only about a specific
group. For instance, do not label a group as Asian if it includes only Laotians or as Hispanic
Americans if it is made up entirely of Mexican Americans. Use the more specific name instead.
Use the name the group itself uses.
It is always preferable to describe an ethnic or a racial group by the term its members use. If the
term is widely unfamiliar and your document is for a large audience, you may choose to note in
parentheses the name by which the group is more generally known.
Do not use dated terms.
Some terms that were commonly used in the past to refer to American racial or ethnic groups are
now considered at best old-fashioned and at worst offensive. The list below notes the terms that
are now most widely accepted as well as ones that should no longer be used.
People of African ancestry: African Americans and blacks (with a lowercased b) are generally
acceptable, although each has its critics. Afro-Americans is not likely to offend, but it has so
fallen out of use that it is inappropriate in most contexts. Negro and colored should be avoided.
Native peoples of North America: Native Americans and American Indians are both considered
acceptable terms and may be used interchangeably. (Keep in mind, though, that some people are
6. uncomfortable with both of these phrases.) Wherever possible, use the names of specific tribes or
groups in place of these general terms. In Canada, the terms natives, Natives, and native peoples
are common, but these are too unfamiliar in the United States for use in documents intended for
an exclusively American audience
.
People of Asian ancestry: Asian Americans, although not offensive, is often criticized for being
too general. Wherever possible, use instead a more specific term such as Japanese Americans or
Vietnamese Americans. Do not use Oriental or Asiatic, both of which are now considered
derogatory; use Asian instead.
Spanish-speaking peoples of Mexico, the Caribbean, and Central and South America: Hispanic
Americans is usually acceptable, but use a more specific term (e.g., Haitian Americans) if
appropriate. Some groups prefer the term Latino to Hispanic in referring to people of Latin
American ancestry. Chicano is sometimes used as a synonym for Mexican American, but you
should use the term only with extreme caution. It is considered an ethnic slur by many people.
Re-examine accepted expressions.
Stereotypes lurk in some common and seemingly harmless phrases that refer to specific ethnic
and racial groups. For instance, Indian giver, Dutch courage, and welsher are still used without
thought to the negative qualities they ascribe to American Indians, the Dutch, and the Welsh. The
stereotypes suggested by these phrases may be largely forgotten (does anyone now consider
Wales to have more than its share of swindlers?); even so, they are still offensive and, therefore,
should not appear in informal or formal writing.
See also Biased Language; Gender-Biased Words and Phrases; Nationalities, Peoples, and Races
Gender-Biased Words and Phrases
In the past decade, English word usage has changed dramatically in the area of gender-biased
language. Readers have become far more sensitive to words and phrases that are biased against
women or reinforce offensive male and female stereotypes. Many writers, particularly those
creating documents used in the workplace, have recognized an obligation to treat both genders
fairly and accurately through the language they use to represent them.
Following the guidelines below can help ensure that your writing is free of overt gender bias. An
even more basic step you can take, however, is to become accustomed to thinking carefully
about your choice of language as your write. Always ask yourself whether the words you use
could be construed as offensive to either gender; if you suspect they could be, take the time to
rethink and rewrite.
Identifying Genders
Before identifying a person’s gender, determine whether it is essential that your readers know
this information. If it is not, leave the identification out.
7. Words and Expressions Including Man
Whenever possible, find substitutes for words and expressions that include the word man but are
applied to people of both genders. Also, use expressions that contain other gender-specific words
with caution.
Nouns with Feminine Endings
Avoid describing a woman with a feminine version of a noun; especially a word formed with one
the following endings:
e: blonde, brunette euse: chanteuse, masseuse ette: suffragette, usherette enne: comedienne,
equestrienne ess: actress, stewardess ix: aviatrix, executrix
Use instead a general term that could be applied to someone of either gender; for instance,
author for authoress or unmarried person for bachelorette.
Demeaning Words
Avoid nouns that promote gender stereotypes or that describe people of either gender in a
demeaning way. Also, seek out alternatives for adjectives that are almost always assigned to only
one gender. For instance, fickle and catty are usually reserved for women, while hen-pecked and
castrated are generally used to describe men.
Woman as an Adjective
If necessary, you can use the word woman as a modifier. The word lady, however, inevitably
sounds condescending when used in this way.
Using Girl and Boy
Use the words girl and boy only to refer to a child. Young woman and young man are appropriate
for a teenager; woman and man, for an adult.
Describing Physical Appearance
Bias often creeps into identifications of people: The physical appearance of a woman is often
described, whereas a man’s is rarely mentioned. Avoid describing how a woman looks unless
there is a compelling reason to do so.
Phrases with a Feminine and a Masculine Noun
Before using a phrase such as men and women or girls and boys, ask whether there is a reason
that the two genders need to be considered separately. If not, use instead a general term that
includes persons of both genders, such as people, human beings, or children.
8. If you do need to list both a feminine and masculine noun, make sure that the terms are
comparable. In such phrases, the masculine noun too often appears before the feminine noun. To
avoid this subtle bias, consider occasionally listing the feminine noun first.
Slang
The word slang is applied to informal words and phrases of the most recent vintage. Like most
innovations, slang expressions are often fresh and exciting—hence the temptation many writers
feel to use them to add energy to their work.
Unfortunately, the strengths of slang terms are directly related to their weaknesses as
communication tools. Because slang is so new, the broader your audience, the more likely your
readers will be unfamiliar with the meaning of a slang expression. If your audience is
multicultural or multigenerational, the probability rises that slang you find provocative will be
little more than gibberish to the people reading your work. Despite its appeal, slang is usually
best left out of written documents, both informal and formal.
The list below includes some commonly heard words and phrases that are widely considered to
be slang:
badmouth bean counter big bucks bigwig bush-league cash cow cheapskate circular file
deadbeat dirty pool ego trip eighty-six fall guy fast buck free lunch gofer golden parachute goof-
off gravy train gung ho headhunter heave-ho high roller hired gun idiot-proof kickback (when
used to mean the return of money paid as part of a secret agreement or coercive sale) knee-jerk
loose cannon low-ball megabucks number cruncher panic button power trip quick fix rainmaker
(when used to mean a person capable of getting things done, particularly in politics or business)
rookie (when used to mean a person who is inexperienced, or new at something) rubber check
schmooze sellout (when used to mean a person who has betrayed another person or a cause for
personal gain) short fuse snow job song and dance (when used to mean a complicated story used
as an excuse or a deception) sound bite spin control stressed-out veep walking papers whistle
blower whole hog windbag (when used to mean a braggart or longwinded person)
Word Choice
When you speak, your expression, a hand gesture, or the inflection of your voice can say nearly
as much as your words. In written documents, however, words alone must convey every nuance
of meaning. Only by selecting your words thoughtfully and purposefully can you be sure that
your readers will truly understand what you intend to say.
The list below offers eight factors worth considering whenever you are trying to choose the right
word for a particular context.
Conciseness
Some writers make the mistake of believing that the more words they use, the more authority
their writing will have. In fact, no readers appreciate having to wade through wordy prose. They
tend to give much more weight to economical writing, in which the presence of every word can
be justified. (See Wordy Phrases for more information.)
9. Connotation
Be alert to not only a word’s denotation (dictionary definition) but also its connotation—the set
of ideas that is associated with it. For instance, psychiatric hospital and madhouse are synonyms,
but the former conjures up an image of an organized institution while the latter suggests a den of
chaos and squalor.
Familiarity
A word may communicate your meaning exactly, but if your readers have never heard it before,
it is obviously not a good choice. Although you cannot know the exact range of your readers’
vocabulary, you can usually make some assumptions about their familiarity with many words. A
common foreign phrase, for instance, will likely be understood by a doctoral candidate but leave
a junior high school student baffled. The same student may have no trouble with a slang
expression that would be meaningless to someone from another country. If you suspect that your
audience could be unfamiliar with a word, use a more universally known synonym instead.
Formality
You would naturally use a different vocabulary in a note to your best friend than in a memo to
your company’s president. The reason has to do with levels of formality. Your friend would
expect you to use informal language and slang. The same words, however, might make the
company president question whether you take your job seriously enough. Determining the proper
level of formality is sometimes difficult. If in doubt, err on the side of formality: Standard words
and proper grammar and punctuation are unlikely to offend any reader. (See Informal Words and
Phrases and Slang for a discussion of when informal language is appropriate.)
Freshness
Your readers’ attention is likely to stray if you litter your work with too many overused words or
phrases. Keep your writing fresh by trying to find new ways of saying things instead of relying
on trite expressions. (See Clichés for examples of phrases to be avoided.)
Precision
Avoid using vague words. Writing, for example, that a lecture was “interesting” is to say little.
Entertaining, informative, or controversial are all better choices because these adjectives provide
more precise information. When choosing between synonyms, think carefully about the small
ways in which their definitions differ, and select the word that most closely fits your meaning.
Simplicity
Almost always, the simplest word or phrase you can use to make a point is the best. Simple
language is likely to be understood by the broadest possible audience. It also has the advantage
of never seeming mannered or pretentious.
10. Sound
Even when reading silently, you are sensitive to the sound of words. You hear in your head the
way combinations of vowels and consonants flow together. A group of short words will make
you read quickly, but you will instinctively slow down when you encounter a series of
multisyllabic ones. Be conscious of the rhythm of your prose: Sometimes it will dictate which
word from a group of synonyms will have the greatest impact in your work.
Wordy Phrases
One of the most prevalent errors in word choice is using a wordy phrase when a single word
would suffice. Too often, insecure writers mistakenly believe that extraneous words give their
writing an air of authority; in fact, readers are far more likely to be annoyed than impressed by
wordiness, particularly in business documents. Note the difference in the readability of the two
sentences below:
At the present time, I am of the opinion that we have the ability to meet our quota in the near
future. [22 words]
I now think we can meet our quota soon. [9 words]
At less than half the length of the first sentence, the second is far easier to read and understand.
The list below includes some of the most commonly used wordy phrases. Whenever possible,
substitute the words in the parentheses for these phrases in your own writing.
after the conclusion of (after) any and all (any) as a result of (because of) as long as (if, since) at
the present time (now) at this time (now) by means of (by) by the name of (named) by the time
(when) come in contact with (meet) draw attention to (show) due to the fact that (because) during
the time that (while) first and foremost (first) for the amount of (for) for the purpose of (to) has
occasion to be (is) has the ability to (can) if and when (if) in a serious manner (seriously) in a
timely fashion (quickly) in advance of (before, in front of) in connection with (with, concerning)
in lieu of (instead of) in order to (to) in receipt of (have) in regard to (about) in spite of the fact
that (although) in the event that (if) in the near future (soon) in the vicinity of (near) in this day
and age (today) insofar as (as) is of the opinion (thinks) large in size (large) large number of
(many) of great importance (important) on account of (because) on the part of (by) one of the
reasons (one reason) prior to the time that (before) provided that (if) put in an appearance
(attend) small in size (small) small number of (few) still and all (still) take action on (act) take
into consideration (consider) the fact that (that) with the exception of (except, except for)
Jargon
Jargon is vocabulary used exclusively by a particular group, such as the members of a profession
or a subculture. Although jargon sometimes communicates new ideas, it also serves to separate
people inside the group from people outside of it. By its very definition, jargon is only
understood by a select few and is therefore usually not the most effective tool available to you
for communicating your ideas.
11. Medicine, law, education, the military, the entertainment world, and most academic disciplines
have their own jargons. The jargons of bureaucracy and business, however, are probably the
most widespread and are thus the jargons many people know best and are most tempted to use.
In many business settings, using jargon is almost required, but you should try to avoid it as much
as possible. While some of your colleagues may see jargon as the badge of true insider, many
others will regard it as pretentious, smug, and evidence of a lazy mind.
The list below includes examples of business jargon that have been resoundingly derided in
recent years:
bottom line: The bottom line is that he should be fired.
use instead: main point or result
communication: You should send a communication to his firm.
use instead: a specific method of communication (e.g., a letter, a telephone call, an e-mail, etc.)
credentialed: The applicant is properly credentialed.
use instead: has (have) credentials
dialogue (as a verb): We need to dialogue about the problem.
use instead: have a discussion
expedite: What can we do to expedite the process?
use instead: speed up or accelerate
facilitate: A manager should facilitate her staff’s efforts.
use instead: help or make easier
feedback: Let me know your feedback.
use instead: response
impact (as a verb): How will this impact our deadline?
use instead: affect or have an effect on
implement: Implement this plan as soon as possible.
use instead: put into action
in the affirmative: The supervisor replied in the affirmative.
use instead: yes
input: I would like to have your input.
use instead: opinion
interface: We need to interface with other departments.
use instead: interact
12. leverage: To get approval on the plan, we need more leverage.
use instead: clout, power, or authority
liaise: You should liaise between the two departments.
use instead: act as a liaison
optimize: What should we do to optimize morale?
use instead: improve
parameters: We need to set precise parameters.
use instead: limits
prioritize: I need to prioritize my goals.
use instead: set priorities (among)
proactive: A proactive approach will allow us to continue to dominate the market.
use instead: a phrase that suggests anticipation of future events (e.g., “anticipating what may
happen in the future” instead of “a proactive approach”)
process: We should all participate in the decision-making process.
use instead: a more direct phrase (e.g., “making the decision” instead of “the decision-making
process”)
same: If you took my stapler, please return same.
use instead: it or that
scenario: If the market shifts, what scenario will follow?
use instead: events or sequence of events
time frame: I will finish the report within an acceptable time frame.
use instead: period of time
utilize: How should we best utilize this information?
use instead: use
viable: Let me know if this plan is viable.
use instead: feasible
13. Paragraphs
A paragraph is a group of sentences that relate to the same main idea. Paragraphs are the building
blocks of all documents. Creating coherent and well-developed paragraphs, therefore, is one of
the most important skills for any writer to learn.
Using a Topic Sentence
Although the main idea of a paragraph may be merely implied, it is more often stated outright in
a topic sentence. In primarily informational documents, such as business letters and memos,
paragraphs usually begin with a topic sentence followed by sentences that explain or support it.
The second most common position for a topic sentence is the end of a paragraph. In this case, the
final sentence draws a conclusion from the details offered by the previous sentences.
Organizing Your Ideas
Wherever you position the topic sentence, you should present the information in a paragraph in a
logical order. Common methods of organizing material within a paragraph include
presenting a sequence of events in chronological order
describing the spatial relationship between items in the same place
moving from specific ideas to a generalization that they suggest
moving from a generalization to specific ideas that support it
The information you want to convey should dictate the way you organize a paragraph. A variety
of organizing techniques can keep the structure of your paragraphs from becoming too stale and
predictable. On the other hand, a series of similar points are often best presented in a parallel
format. Too much variety can at times be more confusing than enlivening, especially in business
documents.
Making Transitions
As important as arranging sentences in the appropriate sequence is establishing thoughtful and
smooth transitions between the sentences. Without adequate transitions, the reader may not be
able to see how the ideas presented in a paragraph relate to one another.
Among the ways to create transitions between sentences are
inserting transitional words and phrases
using repeated phrases and parallel constructions
using the same subject (or words that refer to the same subject)
referring to the topic discussed at the end of one sentence at the beginning of the next
14. Length of Paragraphs
To lend variety to a document, use paragraphs of several different lengths. In most cases, your
paragraphs will naturally range from three to eight sentences long. If you are discussing a
complicated point, you may be tempted to keep all related points in the same paragraph.
Remember, though, that a reader’s attention is likely to wander without the relief of an
occasional paragraph break. A very short paragraph of one or two sentences can jar the reader
and therefore is a good device for emphasizing a point or signaling an abrupt change of thought.
In a printed document, too many short paragraphs can make your prose seem choppy and your
argument hard to follow. If a document will be read on a computer, however, using many short
paragraphs is usually preferable because they are much easier to read on-screen.
Formatting Paragraphs
Mark the beginning of each new paragraph by indenting its first word slightly from the left
margin or inserting an extra line space between it and the previous paragraph. Either of these
methods is acceptable for most documents, but do not use both in one document.
Planning a Document
Before you put pencil to paper or fingers to keyboard, always take some time to plan what you
want to say, how you want to present it, and whom you want to reach. In many cases, only a few
minutes of thought will be enough to clarify your goals in writing a document.
To make sure you have a solid plan, ask yourself the following questions:
What is the purpose of the document?
A document may be used for many purposes—for instance, to inform, persuade, entertain, or all
of these at once. Think about why you are writing your document and what impact you want it to
have.
Who is my audience?
Being able to identify your readership is the first step to serving them well. Consider, for
instance, the background of your readers. How well do they know the material you are writing
about? If they are familiar with it, they will be bored and annoyed by lengthy background
information; if they are not, they will be lost without it. Think, too, about your relationship to
your readers. A letter to a board of directors should obviously have a different tone and different
content than one to your best friend.
What format should I use?
Be sure to choose the format that is most appropriate for your message. You may be accustomed
15. to sending memos, but perhaps what you want to say is better suited to the informality and short
length of an e-mail message. Also think about how the document will be read. If it will be
reviewed on-screen, for instance, using short paragraphs and a large font size will make it easier
to read.
How long should the document be?
If you have been asked to write the document by an employer or instructor, you may have little
choice in the matter. If the length is up to you, though, make a careful evaluation of how much
space you need before starting to write. Also consider your readers. Do they really want to read a
20-page report, or would they rather you condense your most important points into a 2-page
memo.
Do I have all of the necessary information?
If you are writing on a tight schedule, you may feel compelled to start writing before you have
all the facts you need. Instead of producing a document full of gaps and unanswered questions,
ask yourself honestly if you have done enough research. If not, consult other sources before
proceeding any further.
How much time do I have?
If you have a formal deadline, assign a chunk of the time available to each stage of the writing
process: outlining, writing a first draft, writing a revision, editing, and proofreading. Unless you
have a schedule, you may be tempted to skimp on one or more steps, and your document will
likely suffer. If you have not been given a deadline, make your own, and vow to stick to it.
Researching a Document
In the broadest sense, researching means collecting all of the information you need to write a
document. Many documents—such as routine business memos and correspondence—require
little research. For instance, you may need only to refer to an old file for the date of a meeting or
ask coworkers a few questions dealing with their specific areas of expertise.
Although research is a relatively minor matter in writing these types of documents, you should
not ignore it completely. Even if most of the content of the document will be drawn from your
own ideas and experience, be sure to ask yourself whether consulting other sources would help
you bolster your argument or form a more accurate conclusion. If it might, do more research
before you start to write.
16. Defining Your Subject
Research will require much more time and attention if you are writing a lengthy document, such
as a business or school report. Before plunging into researching your topic, first make sure that
you have a clear idea of what it is. If your subject is too vaguely defined, in the end your
document is bound to reflect your confusion and uncertainty.
Also beware of choosing a subject too all-encompassing for the length of your document and the
period of time you have to write it. If, taking these factors into consideration, the scope of your
document seems too broad, try to narrow it by consulting a few general sources to get a better
sense of the subtopics within the subject. If you still have trouble making your subject specific
enough, ask your employer, your instructor, or someone else knowledgeable on the subject for
help.
Planning Your Research
Just as important as narrowing the scope of your subject is narrowing the scope of your research.
Research into nearly any topic could continue indefinitely, but most likely you do not have an
endless amount of time to devote to it. Before beginning, determine how long you can afford to
spend researching. Keep in mind that some forms of research can take far longer than others. If
your research requires only a quick trip to a local library, you can safely put aside as little as a
few hours for researching. However, if you must conduct a series of interviews with a number of
people, you may need several weeks or even several months just to accommodate your subjects’
schedules. Your familiarity with your subject will also affect your research time. If you do not
know your subject well, schedule as much extra time as you can. In researching, you will very
likely unearth new information that may require you to stop and rethink your subject and your
approach to it.
Writing a First Draft
Some writers feel most comfortable writing relatively finished initial drafts. Others prefer to
write freely on their first effort, writing as quickly as possible without worrying about how rough
their prose is. Whatever your preference, keep in mind that at the draft stage time spent making
every sentence flawless can be wasted time. When you revise your draft, you will often need to
reorder sentences or cut entire paragraphs or even larger sections that break the flow of your
argument. You are likely to regret an hour spent making one paragraph perfect if later you
realize it does not belong in the finished document at all.
Of course, you should not ignore proper spelling, punctuation, and word choice completely as
you write an initial draft. Getting these right from the start will ultimately save you time and
energy. Keep in mind, though, that the most important goal of a first draft is to sketch out a
structure in which your ideas are presented in a logical sequence. Topics should flow from one to
another easily, with smooth transitions between them.
17. Starting to Write
For most people, beginning a first draft is the most difficult step in writing a document. Even
experienced writers find themselves frozen when they first confront an empty screen or a blank
sheet of paper.
If you have trouble beginning to write, try free associating—typing out anything about your topic
that comes to your mind. Writing even a few random phrases or sentences can help you relax and
provide assurance that you do in fact have something of worth to say about your subject.
Another way to start writing is to begin with the material you know best, even if it belongs in the
middle of the document. Once you feel surer of yourself, you can go back and draft the
beginning.
If neither of these techniques works, try talking to someone else or even to yourself about what
you want to say in your document. Hearing your own words out loud can focus your thinking
and help you develop the right tone for your work.
Working with an Outline
In the frenzy of composing a first draft, you may accidentally veer off into tangents and asides.
To keep yourself on track, refer to your original outline from time to time. If you find that what
you are writing is far afield from the outline’s content or structure, stop for a moment and ask
yourself whether it is your draft or your outline that is off-course.
If your draft seems right, rethink and revise your outline based on your new ideas before you
begin to write again. If your outline still makes sense, discard the parts of the draft that do not
follow it, and force yourself to stick to the outline more closely as you continue writing.
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18. Public Opinion
INTRODUCTION
Public Opinion, attitudes, perspectives, and preferences of a population toward events, circumstances,
and issues of mutual interest. It is characteristically measured by the sample survey or public opinion
poll.
OPINION FORMATION
Public opinion is shaped both by relatively permanent circumstances and by temporary influences.
Among the former are the ideas that characterize the popular culture of a given place at a given time.
In the U.S., for example, the youth-oriented culture of the late 20th century affects the attitudes of
many people toward aging and the elderly. Other fairly permanent circumstances such as race,
religion, geographical location, economic status, and educational level can strongly influence the
opinions of an individual or a particular group about many subjects. Certain temporary factors also
affect the public's attitudes. Among these are the impact of current events; the opinions of influential
or authoritative persons; the effect of the mass communications media; and the concerted campaigns
of public relations professionals (see Public Relations).
HISTORY
The systematic measurement of public attitudes is a 20th-century development. Although occasionally
opinion polls were conducted before the 1930s, they were generally neither systematic nor scientific.
They dealt with unrepresentative samples or used methods that made certain people far more likely to
be included in the poll than others. For example, in “straw polls” the only people counted were those
who volunteered to take part.
Public opinion polling improved vastly in the 1930s when business and educational organizations
began to develop methods that allowed the relatively unbiased selection of respondents and the
systematic gathering of data from a wide cross section of the public. By present-day standards these
polls were crude, but their results were in some ways useful. Among the pioneers were George H.
Gallup, Elmo Roper, and Archibald M. Crossley.
Two events encouraged polling agencies to further refine their methods. In 1936 a poll conducted by
the Literary Digest incorrectly determined that the Republican candidate, Alf Landon, w ould win the
U.S. presidential election. The error arose largely because of biases that caused wealthy people to be
overrepresented in the poll. In the 1948 election, most polls mistakenly predicted a victory for the
Republican candidate, Thomas E. Dewey, over President Harry S. Truman, again because poor people
were underrepresented and also because the polling agencies missed last-minute changes of attitude
19. among the voting public. Since 1948 techniques of public opinion research and polling have improved
considerably. Efforts are now made to select respondents without bias, to improve the quality of
questionnaires, and to train able and reliable interviewers.
USES
Opinion polls are generally accepted as useful tools by business, political organizations, the mass
media, and government as well as in academic research. Hundreds of public opinion polling firms
operate around the world. Best known in the U.S. are the organizations, such as the Gallup Poll and
Harris Poll, the findings of which regularly appear in major newspapers.
In business, polls are used to test consumers' preferences and to discover what it is about a product
that gives it appeal. Response to commercial polls aid in planning marketing and advertising strategies
and in making changes in a product to increase its sales (see Marketing).
In politics, polls are used to obtain information about voters' attitudes toward issues and candidates,
to put forward candidates with winning potential, and to plan campaigns. Polling organizations have
also been successful in predicting the outcome of elections. In addition, by polling voters on election
day, it is often possible to determine the probable winner even before the voting booths close.
Newspapers, magazines, radio, and television are heavy users of public opinion polling information,
especially political information that helps to predict elections or gauge the popularity of government
officials and candidates. The public's attitude toward various social, economic, and international issues
is also considered newsworthy.
Governments use opinion polls to tap public sentiment about issues of interest. In addition,
government agencies use polling methodology to determine unemployment rates, crime rates, and
other social and economic indicators.
Polls have been employed extensively in academic research, particularly in the social sciences, where
they have proven valuable in studying delinquency, socialization, political attitudes, and economic
behavior. Among the prominent organizations that primarily serve academic research purposes are the
Survey Research Center at the University of Michigan and the National Opinion Research Center at the
University of Chicago.
METHODS AND TECHNIQUES
Public opinion polling involves procedures to draw a representative sample of the population under
study. If, for example, one is studying the attitudes of all adults in the U.S., the survey organization
would seek to draw up a list of the entire adult population of the country and then select at random a
sample to be surveyed. When proper techniques are used and the sample is large enough—1000 to
1500 people—the results obtained are likely to be very close to the results one would get if the entire
population were surveyed. Thus, if 60 percent of the sample says it approves of the president's
20. policies, statistical theory shows that if the entire population were surveyed, the probability is 95
percent that between 58 to 62 percent of the people would express the same approval as the sample.
The criterion of excellence in a sample is representativeness, not size.
Sampling is vital to the validity of an opinion poll. In practice, however, sampling can be a complicated
procedure involving a great deal of estimation and guesswork. The population to be surveyed usually
cannot be precisely enumerated. Efforts must be made to break down the population into sampling
units of approximately equal size. A certain amount of interviewer discretion is necessary, and
complications arise when a proposed respondent is not at home, has moved, or is unwilling to be
interviewed. Often only about two-thirds of the intended respondents are actually interviewed and
give valid responses. When mail questionnaires are used, problems of nonresponse are higher.
Great care must be used when fashioning the questionnaire or interview schedule, and testing the
questions before using them in the field is always advisable. Ideally, questions should be short, clear,
direct, and easily comprehended. Apart from such an obvious necessity as trying to avoid bias, many
subtle problems arise in framing a question. A word or phrase, for example, may mean different
things to different people. In making a question simple enough to be understood by everyone , the
issue may be so oversimplified that it has no meaning to the more sophisticated respondent.
Sometimes the order in which questions are asked can affect the response. In addition, the tone or
wording of the question may alter the measured response: A study once found that the percentage of
the public in favor of “forbidding” speeches against democracy was 16 points lower than the
percentage in favor of “not allowing” such speeches.
Other problems can be traced to interviewer effects. Age, sex, class, or racial differences between the
respondent and the interviewer can sometimes affect the respondent's answer.
Once the opinion data have been gathered, the analyst must seek to find meaning in the results,
keeping in mind the problems of sampling variability, question-wording biases, and interviewer
effects. The results are tabulated and analyzed using various statistical techniques to determine
patterns. Much successful analysis involves comparison: comparing subgroups of the population as
they react to the same question; comparing the results of surveys conducted at different times to
discover opinion trends; and comparing the responses to different questions. Because of comparison-
based analysis, the survey often is divided into small subgroups for comparison—for instance,
educated, politically active women with educated, politically active men.
CRITICISMS OF THE RESEARCH
Criticisms of public opinion research come from a variety of sources. Many people simply are not
convinced that the opinions of a small sample of the population are a viable representation of the
opinions of the whole. On this matter, however, the polling agencies can point to the science of
statistics and also to decades of experience from which it can be shown, for example, that the same
question asked on two different sample surveys at the same time will almost always generate similar
21. results. Other criticisms deal with sample procedures that, for reasons of economy or expediency,
sometimes use outdated population data or make compromises with rigorous statistical requirements.
Even assuming that the basic poll data are valid, analyses of the data may be casual and superficial.
In some cases, the raw data are simply presented as the public's “opinion” on an issue without deep
and careful analysis to probe nuance and possible bias. The subtle influence of variations in question
wording on the measured response is often ignored.
In the political area, criticism sometimes focuses on the appropriateness of opinion polling, rather than
on its validity. It is argued that elected officials may be too willing to act on what a poll says their
constituents think rather than deciding the issues on their merits. Some experts believe that polls may
influence voters to favor certain political candidates who seem to be enjoying a notable popularity at
the moment. The information that a certain candidate is far ahead in the polls may discourage people
from voting at all or encourage them to vote for that candidate and thus may affect the results of the
election.
