Hepatitis

1. Hepatitis
Dr. Indranil Bhattacharya, M.D.
Consultant Pathologist
Jagjivan Ram Hospital
Mumbai

2. Defination
Inflammation of the liver that results from a
variety of causes, both infectious and
noninfectious.
Infectious agents that cause hepatitis include
viruses and parasites.
Noninfectious causes include certain drugs
and toxic agents.
In some instances hepatitis results from an
autoimmune reaction directed against the
liver cells.

3. Etiology:
• Viral hepatitis
• Hepatotropic viruses (HAV, HBV, HCV, HDV, HEV) are
the most common cause worldwide
• Other common causes include:
• Alcoholic hepatitis
• Toxic and drug induced hepatitis
• Autoimmune hepatitis
• Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD)
• Ischemic hepatitis
• Giant cell hepatitis (in infants and children)
• Metabolic disorders

4. A Long History of Human Misery
500 B.C. written accounts of jaundice in Babylonia
400 B.C. Hippocrates describes “epidemic jaundice”
1883 jaundice noted to occur after inoculation of human sera
1941 post-vaccination jaundice occurs in >28,000 U.S. soldiers
1947 infectious hepatitis designated Hepatitis A; serum hepatitis
designated Hepatitis B
1963 Hepatitis B Surface Antigen identified
1973 Hepatitis A identified by electron microscopy
Mid-1970’s Hepatitis D recognized
Mid-1970’s Non-A, Non-B hepatitis described
Mid-1980’s epidemics of “non-hepatitis A” enteric hepatitis
1989 Hepatitis C cloned and serological tests developed
1990 Hepatitis E cloned and characterized

5. Clinical Features
• Acute hepatitis
• Initial symptoms are mostly nonspecific, such as nausea,
body ache, fever, vomiting, etc.
• Profound loss of appetite, choluria (dark urine), jaundice
and abdominal discomfort / pain are relatively specific
symptoms of hepatitis
• Small proportion of patients present with acute liver
failure
• Chronic hepatitis
• May be asymptomatic or with nonspecific constitutional
symptoms
• Often detected by laboratory evaluation
• Extensive damage may lead to features of cirrhosis and
portal hypertension

6. Viral Hepatitis (Common Features)
Early Prodromal Phase:
serum sickness like syndrome
occurs 2-3 weeks before jaundice
arthralgias, arthritis, rash, fever
Pre-icteric Phase:
GI symptoms
nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, anorexia, changes
in taste and smell, weight loss, malaise, myalgias,
headache, fever
Icteric Phase:
fever declines
constitutional symptoms improve
Convalescent phase:
full recovery usually within 6 months

7. Viral Hepatitis
Differential Features
Features Hepatitis A Hepatitis B Hepatitis C Hepatitis D Hepatitis E
Genome type Ss RNA Ds DNA Ss RNA Ss RNA Ss RNA
Genome size 7.5 kB 3.2 kB 9.4 kB 1.7 kB 7.5 kB
Incubation
period, days
(mean)
15-49
(30)
28-160
(70-80)
15-160
(50)
21-140
(35)
15-65
(42)
Fecal-oral
transmission
yes no no no yes
Parenteral
transmission
rare yes yes yes no
Sexual
transmission
no yes, common yes,
uncommon
yes,
uncommon
no
Fulminant
hepatitis
<1% <1% rare 2-7.5% ~1%, 30% in
pregnancy
Chronic
hepatitis
no 10% 85% 90% with
superinfection
no

8. Acute Hepatitis
Evaluation and Recommendations
Access for viral hepatitis A, B, C,
– Hep A IgM, Hep B Surface Ag, Core IgM, Hep C Ab (or PCR)
– Consider alcohol and drug toxicity, autoimmune hepatitis, ischemia
– Consider biliary tract disease: CBD stone, PSC
– Consider other viruses: CMV, EBV, HSV, etc.
Hospitalization for excessive anorexia, nausea, vomiting
– Rising total bilirubin >15
– Rising pro time > 15
– Rapidly falling transaminases while bilirubin is rising
– Liver failure: hepatic encephalopathy, ascites
Bed rest
Consider high protein high calorie diet
Minimize medications: phenothiazines, ? vitamin K are OK; stop
OCP’s, acetaminophen, etc.
LFT’s twice a week while LFT’s rising, and every 1-2 weeks while
improving
Immuno-prophylaxis for contacts of HAV, HBV

9. Hepatitis A
Picornaviridae
Transmitted by fecal oral route, contaminated food, water.
Most infections are sub clinical
– 80% infected children are anicteric
– 10-50% infected college students are anicteric
– High attack rate: 70-90% exposed become infected
>60,000 clinical cases per year.
– Incubation 15-49 days (mean 30 days)
– HAV Ag appears in liver at 1-2 weeks
– HAV then appears in bile and stool
– Fecal infectivity begins 2-3 weeks before jaundice, lasts 4-5 weeks,
ends 2 weeks after peak transaminitis
Chronic infection never occurs
– 60% have normal LFT’s at 2 months; 100% normal at 6 months

10. Hepatitis A
Atypical Features
Death is uncommon
– Overall mortality rate is 0.14%
– If age > 40, mortality rate is 1.1%
Prolonged cholestasis >3 months
– Severe pruritis, fatigue, weight loss, diarrhea
– May improve with steroids
Relapsing hepatitis
– Occurs in 6-12% of cases, 4-15 weeks after recovery
Extrahepatic manifestations
– Rash (14%), arthralgias (11%),
– Immune complex diseases: leukocytoclastic vasculitis,
glomerulonephritis, arthritis, cryroglobulinemia
– Extremely rare: myocarditis, transverse myelitis, optic neuritis,
polyneuritis, aplastic anemia

11. Hepatitis A prevention
General prevention
– Water chlorination
– Boil water 20 minutes
– Wash hands
– Avoid contaminated food
HAV Immunoglobulin
– Can prevent 85-95% infections if given within two weeks of exposure
– Household and sexual contacts
– Day care contacts
– Prison contacts
– Common source outbreaks
HAV Vaccine
– 90-98% successful with one injection, 100% with two injections
– Protection begins after 1-2 weeks, may last 20 years
– Give to all of the above
– Travelers to endemic areas
– Homosexuals, IV drug abusers
– Persons with HCV and HBV
– Military

12. Hepatitis B
Hepadnaviridae
Transmission route is variable
– HBV is found in blood and all body fluids except stool
– “Western” societies: percutaneous, hetero/homosexual contact is
most common
– “Non-western” societies: perinatal transmission is most common
Epidemiology
– Worldwide
2 billion people have markers of infection
400 million have chronic infection (5%)

13. Hepatitis B
90% cases are self-limited with spontaneous resolution
– >50% are anicteric
– 10% become chronic
– <1% are fulminant (10% if “E Ag mutant”)
Surface Ag appears 1-12 weeks after exposure
– Clinical hepatitis and Core IgM occur 4 weeks after Surface antigen
– E Ag indicates period of infectivity
– S Ab indicates resolving infection
– Rare “window period” occurs when Surface Ag disappears and before
Surface Ab appears; Core Ab will be positive
Extrahepatic manifestations
– Arthralgias and rash (25%)
– Angioneurotic edema, polyarteritis nodosa, mononeuritis,
membranoproliferative GN, arthritis, Raynaud’s phenomena, Type II
mixed essential cryoglobulinemia, Guillen Barre Syndrome,
pancreatitis, pericarditis

14. Chronic Hepatitis B
Persistent Surface Ag, E Ag, DNA > 6 months
Risk of chronicity is dependent on host age and immune status
– 90% perinatal infection
– 30% childhood infection age < 6 years
– 5% adult acute infection
– 30% with HIV co-infection
Prognosis is dependent on HBV stage
– Immune tolerant: Surface Ag +, E Ag +, DNA +, ALT normal
Prognosis good, hepatoma risk low
– Integrated state: Surface Ag +, E Ag -, DNA –, ALT usually normal
Prognosis good, hepatoma risk low
– Chronic active hepatitis: Surface Ag +, E Ag +, DNA +, ALT >2x normal
20% develop cirrhosis in 5 years
10% per year lose E Ag
1% per year lose S Ag
Increased risk of hepatoma 400 x

15. Hepatitis B prevention
Modify risk factors
– Eliminate high risk behavior; use condoms
– Incidence of acute HBV has decreased by 40% in U.S. over 15 years
Screen pregnant mothers for HBV Surface Ag
– HBIG + HBV vaccination at birth prevents 80-90% perinatal
transmission
Hepatitis B Immune Globulin
– Perinatal exposure
– Needle stick exposure
– Sexual, mucosal or percutaneous exposures
HBV Vaccination
– Perinatal exposure
– Persons with sexual, mucosal, percutaneous exposures
– Persons with HCV or IV drug abuse
– Homosexuals
– Health care workers
– Hemodialysis
– Universal vaccination for children

16. Hepatitis B treatment
Who to treat?
– Chronic active disease > 6 months
– Surface Ag +, DNA +, E Ag + or – (if E Ag mutant)
– ALT > 100, and/or active hepatitis on biopsy
Goal of treatment
– Stop viral replication, HBV DNA becomes neg
– Convert E Ag pos to neg, E AB becomes pos
– Improvement in histology, prevention of progression to
cirrhosis
– With successful treatment, loss of Surface Ag may occur
in 1-2% per year

17. Hepatitis B Treatment
Alpha-interferon 2b
5 mu sq qd for 16 weeks
40 % will have successful response and lose E Ag, 10% lose Surface Ag
Pros
– Short, finite duration of treatment
– Effective, viral response persists in 95%
Cons
– Expensive: $2000 per month
– Numerous side effects
– May cause cirrhosis to decompensate

18. Hepatitis B Treatment
Nucleoside Analogues
Lamivudine
– Inhibits HBV reverse transcription
– Minimal side effects
– YMDD escape mutants occur 15-30% per year
Adefovir
– Inhibits HBV reverse transcription
– Active against lamivudine resistance
– Minimal side effects (proteinuria, increased Cr)
– resistance is rare so far…..1.8-2.5% at 2 years
Famciclovir
– Inhibits DNA polymerase
– Less effective than lamivudine, numerous resistance mutations
– Minimal side effects
Entecavir Active against lamivudine resistance; phase 2 trials
Emtricitabine some cross resistance with lamivudine mutants, phase 2 trials
Clevudine phase 1-2 trials
B-L-Thymodine B-nucleoside, phase 1-2 trials

19. Liver Transplant in Hepatitis B
10% liver transplants are for HBV
Prior to effective immunoprophylaxis 80% of transplants
became reinfected with very poor survival
Most centers stopped transplanting for active HBV
Reinfection rate can now be reduced effectively:
– HBIG for 6-12 months
20% reinfected
– Addition of Lamivudine to HBIG
5-10% reinfected
2 year survival with transplant is now 70-80%

20. Hepatitis C
Flaviviridae
Transmission is primarily percutaneous; sexual and perinatal infection can
occur
– Transfusional HCV risk is now low: 1:1,935,000
– 50-90% of IV drug abusers have HCV
– 10% needle stick injuries transmit HCV
– 4% sexual partners have HCV; Risk of sexual transmission <0.5%/year
– Perinatal transmission 1-10%
100 million chronic carriers world wide (>3%)
Acute hepatitis is rare
– Fulminant hepatitis is extremely rare
– 15% can spontaneously resolve infection
– 85% develop chronic infection
– HCV RNA becomes + 2 weeks after exposure
– “incubation” period is 6-7 weeks
– HCV Ab becomes + by 12 weeks in most

21. Hepatitis C prevalence
Risk Factor Prevalence (%)
Clotting factors < 1987 87
IVDA 79
HIV + 25
Increased ALT 15
Hemodialysis 10
> 50 sexual partners 9
h/o STD 6
Homosexual 4
General population 1.8
Health care workers 1.0
Healthy blood donors 0.16

22. Hepatitis C
Extrahepatic Manifestations
Membranoproliferative GN
Essential Mixed Cryroglobulinemia
Porphyria Cutanea Tarda
Leukocytoclastic Vasculitis
Mooren Corneal Ulcer
Focal Lymphocytic Sialadenitits
Lichen Planus
Rheumatoid Arthritis
Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma
Diabetes Mellitus
+ANA 21%; +ASMA 21%; +ALKM 5%

23. HCV Natural History
30% with HCV have normal ALT
– 20% have normal or minimal histology
– 80% have abnormal histology
– 15% have advanced histology
– Disease progression is slower
Mean progression
– Chronic hepatitis 13.7 years
– Cirrhosis 20.6 years
– Hepatoma 28.3 years
– 20% have cirrhosis at 20 years
Complications of HCV Cirrhosis
– Decompensation 5% per year
– Hepatoma 1-4% per year

24. Hepatitis C
Factors Associated with Disease Progression
Age > 40
Male
Alcohol > 50 gm/d
Immunosuppression: HIV, transplant, etc.
Infection by blood transfusion
Co-infection with HBV
Genotype 1

25. Hepatitis C
Goals of Therapy
Biochemical response - normal ALT
Virological response - loss of HCV RNA
End of treatment response - loss of HCV RNA at end of
treatment
Early Virological response (EVR)
– HCV RNA neg or 2 log reduction at 12 weeks
Overall 67 % with EVR achieve SVR
80% who are HCV RNA neg achieve SVR
40% who are RNA +, but have 2 log reduction achieve SVR
– Patients w/o EVR
Only 1.6% achieve SVR
Sustained virological response (SVR)
– Undetectable HCV RNA 6 months after treatment ends
– 95% have persistent SVR over 10 years
– 80% have reduction in fibrosis

26. Hepatitis C
Treatment
Peg-interferon a-2b (Peg Intron)
– 1.5 ug/kg/wk sq
Peg-interferon a-2a (Pegasys)
– 180 ug/wk sq
Ribaviron
– 1000-1200 mg/d for genotype 1
– 800 mg/d for genotype non-1
Treat genotype 1: 48 weeks; genotype non-1: 24 weeks
Cost: $ 2000-2500 per month
Treatment SVR (%)
– Peg Intron overall 54
– genotype 1 42
– geno non-1 82
– Pegasys overall 57
– genotype 1 46
– geno non-1 76

27. Delta Hepatitis
Defective RNA virus, requires presence of HBV Surface Ag
7500 new cases/year in U.S.
– More common in southern, eastern Europe, Middle East, and South America
Transmission is similar to HBV
Diagnosis: HDV Ag, HDV RNA, HDV IgG and IgM
Acute Hepatitis
– Co-infection with HBV
Fulminant hepatitis more common (34%)
Progression to chronic infection is uncommon
– Super-infection of HBV
Acute exacerbation of ongoing hepatitis
Chronic liver disease occurs in 90%
Chronic Hepatitis B + D
– More progressive than HBV alone
– 15% have rapid progression to cirrhosis in 1 year
Treatment
– a-interferon 2b 3-9 mu sq tiw, Rx > 12 months
– 21-50% lose HDV RNA and have improved histology
– Relapse occurs in almost all patients stopping treatment
– Can stop treatment if HBV Surface Ag disappears (rare)

28. Hepatitis E
Related to Rubella virus
Endemic in equatorial regions of world
– India, Africa, Central America, Asia
– May account for 50% hepatitis cases in endemic areas
– Antibodies found in pigs, other mammals
Fecal oral transmission
– Contaminated water
– Household transmission rates are low 1-2%
Incubation period is 15-60 days (mean 40)
HEV IgM + at 27-39 days
1-4% overall mortality; 20-30% mortality if pregnant

29. Other Viruses Causing Hepatitis
Hepatitis G and GB related to HCV
TT Virus post-transfusional hepatitis in Japan
Sanban, Yonban, TLMV related to TT virus, post-transfusional hepatitis in
Japan
Giant Cell Hepatitis paramyxovirus; 7 small series ~100 patents
Herpes Viruses
– HSV 1 and 2 90% are immunosupressed or in last trimester of pregnancy
– HSV 6 and 7 case reports
– Cytomegalovirus after transfusion or transplant
– Epstein Barr Virus 11% become jaundiced
Rift Valley Fever Virus
Yellow Fever Virus
Lassa Virus
Marburg Virus
Ebola Virus
Adenoviures
Enteorviruses
Coxsackie Viruses
SARS 60% have hepatitis, virus found in liver by PCR

30. Microscopic (histologic) description
• Acute hepatitis - characterized by "lobular
disarray," which includes:
• Ballooning degeneration
• Spotty necrosis
• Predominantly sinusoidal and lobular
mononuclear cell infiltrate
• Kupffer cell hyperplasia
• Apoptotic bodies
• Canalicular cholestasis

31. Microscopic (histologic) description
• Chronic hepatitis - characterized by
varying degrees of:
• Portal inflammation
• Interface hepatitis
• Parenchymal inflammation and necrosis
• Fibrosis / cirrhosis

32. Alcoholic Hepatitis
• Liver damage caused by excessive alcohol
consumption
• Steatosis, steatohepatitis or perivenular and
pericellular fibrosis are typical histological
features

33. (A) Severe macrovesicular steatosis. (B) Ballooning of hepatocytes.
(C) Foamy degeneration of alcoholic hepatitis. (D) Severe cholestasis of
alcoholic hepatitis associated with foamy degeneration. (E) Mallory-Denk
bodies in alcoholic hepatitis. (F) Chicken-wire or pericellular fibrosis of
alcoholic hepatitis (MTS, 40×)
Histopathology of alcoholic hepatitis

34. Acute hepatitis pattern with significant lobular inflammation, ballooned hepatocytes
and apoptotic (Councilman) bodies (arrow)

35. This biopsy shows severe inflammation, with portal (P) to central (C)
bridging necrosis and numerous foci of lobular inflammation.

36. Cirrhosis is histologically characterized by fibrotic bands with loss of
architecture and nodule formation (Masson's Trichrome, 400×).

37. Cells rich in HBsAg have a ground-glass appearance (arrow) (A) H&E, 600×, (B)
HBsAg immunostain, 400×.

39. Conclusions
• Hepatitis is inflammation of liver resulting
in liver injury.
• Hepatitis is the most common pattern of
hepatic injury & either acute or chronic.

40. • World Hepatitis Day is observed each year on 28 July
to raise awareness of viral hepatitis, which causes
inflammation of the liver that leads to severe disease
and liver cancer.
• On World Hepatitis Day 2022, WHO is highlighting the
need for bringing hepatitis care closer to the primary
health facilities and communities so that people have
better access to treatment and care, no matter what
type of hepatitis they may have.

41. Thank You