2. Tracheostomy
A tracheostomy is a surgically created opening (stoma)
through the front of neck into the windpipe (trachea).
A tube is usually placed through this opening to provide
an airway and to remove secretions from the lungs. This
tube is called a tracheostomy tube
Endotracheal tubeTracheostomy tube
5. Tracheostomy
Objectives of tracheostomy
To assist respiration
Relief from airway obstruction
Reduction of the anatomical dead space(150ml)
Access for tracheobronchial toileting
Cuffed tube prevents aspiration and allows positive pressure
ventilation
All these objectives can be met by endotracheal intubation
initially. But the need for prolonged endotracheal intubation
requires tracheostomy
7. Tracheostomy
Steps of operation of emergency tracheostomy
1.Patient in supine position with neck extended
2.After local anaesthesia, 1.5” vertical skin incision is given
below cricoid in the midline
3.Skin, platysma,deep fascia and pretracheal fascia are
divided
4.Isthmus of thyroid is divided between ligatures
5.Cricoid hook is used to lift & stabilise trachea
6.The 2nd
, 3rd
& 4th
tracheal rings are divided with a knife
7.Tracheal wound is dilated with tracheal dilator
8.Tracheostomy tube is inserted and cuff inflated
9.The tube is fixed around neck with tapes
9. Tracheostomy
Elective tracheostomy
Transverse skin incision is placed
Inverted U shaped tracheal flap is raised and stitched to
skin incision
Aftercare of tracheostomy
Humidification
Intermittent suction of tracheobronchial secretions
Clearance of thick mucus by nebulisation and washing of
inner tube with sodabicarb and changing
Care of cuff with low pressure
Replacement of tube once in 3-4 days correctly
12. Parathyroid glands
Surgical anatomy
Four(2pairs) small, oval, yellowish brown glands located
on the posterior surface of thyroid gland
Superior parathyroids develop with the thyroid gland
from the 4th
branchial arch and are constant in position
Inferior parathyroids develop with thymus from 3rd
branchial arch descending lower along with thymus and
are variable in position
13. Parathyroid glands
Physiology
Chief cells of parathyroid produce parathormone(PTH)
PTH raises plasma calcium levels by
Increasing calcium absorption from intestine
Releasing calcium from bones by osteoclastic stimulation
Increasing the renal resorption of calcium
Calcitonin secreted by parafollicular cells of thyroid has
opposite action on calcium i.e. it lowers the serum calcium
levels.
14. Hypoparathyroidism
Usually due to damage to parathyroid gland during
thyroidectomy
Due to decreased PTH hypocalcemia develops leading to
tetany.
Clinical features
Circumoral tingling and numbness
Chvostek’s sign
Trousseau’s sign
Carpopedal smasm
Laryngeal stridor
17. Hyperparathyroidism
Increased secretion of PTH leading to hypercalcemia and
its clinical manifestations
Types
Primary hyperparathyroidism
Adenoma (solitary)
Hyperplasia
Carcinoma
Secondary hyperparathyroidism
Decreased calcium levels in CRF & Vit-D deficiency
Tertiary hyperparathyroidism
Prolonged stimulation by hypocalcemia
18. Hyperparathyroidism
Clinical features
Asymptomatic- detected by biochemical screening
Symptomatic cases
Renal stones
Diseases of bones
Bone pains
Pathological fractures
Cysts and pseudotumours of bones
Osteoporosis and subperiosteal erosions in skull and phalanges
Psychic moans
Abdominal groans
Peptic ulcers
Pancreatitis
19. Hyperparathyroidism
Diagnosis
Biochemical investigations
Raised calcium and PTH levels
Decreased serum phosphorus levels
Raised serum alkaline phosphatase levels
Radiological investigations
X-ray skull and phalanges
Usg neck
CT and MRI
Thallium-Technetium subtraction isotope scan
Selective angiography and venous sampling
20. Hyperparathyroidism
Treatment
Surgical removal of overactive glands
Adenoma-Excision
Hyperplasia –Excision of all 4 parathyroids and
autotransplantation of one parathyroid in forearm muscles
Carcinoma – radical excision along with thyroid