1_LitRevExample-WomeninCombat.docWomen in CombatPAGE Cent.docx

1_LitRevExample-WomeninCombat.doc
Women in Combat
PAGE Central Michigan University
Master of Science in Administration (MSA) ProgramCourse
Title:
MSA 600 Administration Research and Report Methods
Submitted to:
[Professor’s Name]
Submitted by:
[Student’s Name]
[Street Address]
[City, State and Zip Code]
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[703-555-1234]
Home/Cell Phone:
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Research Project Title:
LITERATURE REVIEW EXAMPLEGlobal War on Terrorism
Policy Analysis on the Implications of Removing Assignment
Limitations OF Women to Army Combat UnitsCERTIFICATE
OF AUTHORSHIP:
I certify that I am the author of this paper and that any

assistance I receive in its preparation is fully acknowledged and
disclosed in this paper. I have also cited any sources from
which I used data, ideas, or works, either quoted directly or
paraphrased. I also certify that this paper was prepared by me
specifically for this course.
Student’s Signature:
Instructor’s Comments:
Note: This literature review is from a completed MSA685
project so it is a little longer than what you might produce as a
preliminary literature review in MSA600. But it demonstrates
how to synthesize literature in a way that best relates to your
research questions.Global War on Terrorism Policy Analysis on
the Implications of Removing Assignment Limitations OF
Women to Army Combat Units
MSA 600 Administrative Research and Report Methods
Submitted by:
Daniel Akeredolu
Project Instructor:
Dr. Thomas KesslerDecember 2008
Table of Contents
Page Number
List of Tables

ii
List of Figures
ii
Chapter 1
Problem Definition
1
Chapter 2
Literature Review
7
Chapter 3
Research Methodology
15
Chapter 4
Data Analysis

[Future]
Chapter 5
Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations
[Future]
Terminology and Definitions
Page 18
References
Pages 19-22
Appendix A
Permission to Conduct Study
Appendix B
Transmittal Letter/Survey Instructions
Appendix C
Survey/Interview Questions
Chapter 2
Literature ReviewBackground

The literature review that follows discusses information written
about in five main areas of the women in combat debate: (a) the
policy evolution, (b) the state of the current policy, (c) the
pro/con arguments, (d) contemporary GWOT implications and
(e) attitudes surveyed from select groups. This review focuses
on discussions surrounding US Army combat units in the
aggregate sense with the issues raised applicable to any specific
unit.
The Policy Evolution
During the post Vietnam era Congress first re-examined the
issues of women in the Armed Services. They did this within
the context of and discussions surrounding the establishment of
the All Volunteer Force (AVF). During his period, it is
apparent that lawmakers simultaneously advanced and restricted
the roles of women in the services. For instance, the 2% ceiling
was eliminated on total numbers allowed to serve, while the
restrictions prohibiting direct land combat was codified but left
to the Secretary of the Army to interpret the Congressional
intent (CMR, 2003). In 1977, the Secretary of the Army did
just that by issuing a Combat Exclusion Policy prohibiting
women from serving in Infantry, Armor, Cannon Field Artillery,
Combat Engineer, and low altitude Air Defense Artillery units
of battalion/squadron size or smaller (Putko & Johnson, 2008).
In 1988, the Department of Defense established the “Risk
Rule.” Ostensibly the purpose of the “risk rule” was to clear
barriers for women to volunteer for military service and not
have to be concerned with the dangers of serving in front-line
units (CMR, 2003). The Risk Rule read as follows: “[R]isks of
direct combat, exposure to hostile fire, or capture are proper
criteria for closing non-combat positions or units to women,
when the type, degree, and duration of such risk are equal to or

greater than the combat units with which they are normally
associated within a given theater of operations” (CMR, p. 2,
Para 4 April 2003). This rule proved to be confusing to some
and troubling to other military leaders as it made ‘proximity’
the standard for where a female could be assigned. The rule
also purported to capture the sentiment of the majority of the
enlisted soldiers, by quoting a 1988 GAO survey suggesting
90% of female enlistees did not want to be treated just like men
(CMR, 2003). Thus this prohibition was made official
Department of Defense policy.
The next major revision would not occur until after the first
Gulf War.
In the fall of 1991, Congress passed an amendment introduced
by then Representative Patricia Schroeder to repeal the law
exempting women from combat aviation (CMR, 2003). With the
arrival of a new administration following the 1992 fall elections
additional changes would follow.
.
President Clinton’s Secretary of Defense Les Aspin issued new
regulations eliminating the DoD “Risk Rule,” and thus it had
the effect of exposing women in support units to the same risk
of capture as men in close combat units. However, some
restrictions did remain. They were allowed exemptions where
retrofitting cost; unit collocation doctrine, special operation
missions, and physical qualification considerations were
previously established and vetted as bona fide (CMR, 2003).
As a response to the Secretary of Defense’ new guidance, Army
leadership sent him a memorandum that specified their
intentions. In essence, the Army was going to open the
following units and occupations (listed below) to women as
reported on page 5 of National Defense Research Institute’s

monograph Assessing the Assignment Policy for Women:
· maneuver brigade headquarters
· division military police companies
· chemical reconnaissance and smoke platoons
· divisional forward support battalions (FSBs)
· engineer companies
· military intelligence collection and jamming companies
· Washington DC stationed ceremonial units.
This change in DoD policy also granted the Army the flexibility
with regard to opening positions within its headquarters along
with other type of units such as the Special Forces Group.
Currently, there are over 48,000 active duty women in the Army
who have the opportunity to serve in over 92% of the Army
Military Occupational Specialties (Harrell et al., 2007).
The US Army has been looking and re-looking at all angles of
this issue from the onset of the AVF. Their first step was to
develop a full understanding of all the potential issues with an
expanded role for women—which by the way, was a necessity as
the draft ended in favor of the All-Volunteer Force concept.
Studies sponsored by the Army Research Institute (ARI) for the
Behavioral and Social Sciences sought, as a baseline
understanding, to look at gender integration in the Combat
Service (CS) and the Combat Service Support (CSS) career
fields with the premise of “What percentage of women will it
take to degrade unit performance (Harris, Simutis & Gantz, p. 1,
Para 2, 2002)?”ARI functions as the Army’s preeminent
laboratory for personnel/training research, studies and analyses

(Harris et al., 2002). In this spirit, the Army asked ARI to
study Army Basic Combat Training (BCT) which lends itself as
the obvious logical starting point when considering increased
gender integration throughout the service.
In 1976, ARI began its work by conducting a survey of BCT
participants. Bottom line; the findings from this survey
suggested that trainee attitudes and motivations were positive
both at the beginning and end of training. Using the results
from this survey along with other performance data the
conclusion was reached that the best effect for men and women
would be achieved if BCT were gender integrated at the
company level instead of at the previously specified higher
battalion levels (Harris et al., 2002).
In 1982, the US Army’s Training and Doctrine Command
(TRADOC) appeared to abruptly end gender-integrated BCT
while other advanced gender-integrated training continued i.e.
Advanced Individual Training (AIT) for Combat Support and
Combat Service Support trainees. In 1992 the Commander,
TRADOC requested another study performed at Fort McClellan
on three battalions. One integrated at the squad level (see Table
1) and the other two at the platoon level. The findings again
recommended to the Army to “train as we fight” by gender
integrating BCT at the lowest level possible (Harris et al.,
2002).
Table 1: The Notional USA Organizational
Structure/Breakdown
Designation
Number Assigned
Army
50,000 +
Corps
20,000 – 45,000
Division

10,000 – 15,000
Brigade
3,000 – 5000
Battalion
300 – 1000
Company
62 – 190
Platoon
16 – 44
Squad
9 – 10
However, another subsequent study conducted at Fort Jackson
arrived at different results…thus their recommendation to the
Army Chief of Staff (CSA) was to remain with the current
system and not to integrate units at lower levels. The CSA
sought additional assistance from ARI to resolve these
conflicting views (Harris et al., 2002). This next study would
serve as the unofficial “tie breaker” thus signaling to senior
Army leadership which direction they should ultimately
endorse.
ARI conducted a 1993 study with one all-male company, one
all-female company, and one that was gender integrated. The
results indicated that performance decreased slightly for males
within gender integrated units but increased for females when
comparing both to their respective single gender units (Harris et
al., 2002). Subsequently, the CSA directed BCT gender
integration for CS and CSS specialties at the squad level (Harris
et al., 2002). The key finding here was that the performance
decrease for males was not as significant as the decline for
females relative to their respective control groups. However,
the overall average of gender integrated units was lower when
compared to exclusive males units but higher when compared to
those consisting of only females.
In 1997, Secretary of Defense, William S. Cohen commissioned
another study Chaired by former Senator Nancy Kassebaum

Baker to assess gender integrated training and related issues for
the Armed Services. This commission’s findings suggested that
studied newer recruits were arriving with a lower proclivity
towards discipline among other things and as such the Army
should segregate the sexes at the platoon level during BCT to
mitigate potential discipline issues and other distractions from
the training environment (Harris et al., 2002). The Army did
not agree and stated the recommendations of the Kassebaum-
Baker committee were in essence a step backwards (Harris et
al., 2002).
Finally, ARI reported findings that indicated the overall
attitudes regarding the integration of women throughout the
Army have become more favorable especially in the CS and
CSS specialties and with male senior level commissioned and
Non Commissioned Officers (Harris et al., 2002). One of their
findings reported that over 70% of men stated females in the
unit have no negative impact on cohesion. Additionally, most
of the surveyed males disagree that women lack the strength,
stamina, or mental toughness to be effective in combat
situations. ARI research indicates that excellent leadership and
training have more impact on unit effectiveness than does the
gender mix of soldiers within the unit (Harris et al., 2002).
Thus Army senior leadership believes the supremacy of this
emphasis will overcome any marginal performance degradation
brought forth by gender integration.
State of the Current Policy
In 2005, Representative Duncan Hunter introduced a bill
prohibiting women from serving in any company size unit that
provided support to combat battalions or their subordinate
companies. In effect, if this bill would have been adopted, it
would have increased the number of assignments restricting
women by prohibiting many fields previously opened (Stone,
2005). Representative Hunter believed he was representing the
will of the American people by proposing this legislation.

However, senior Army leadership, led by its Vice Chief of Staff
stated “The proposed amendment will cause confusion in the
ranks, and will send the wrong signal to the brave young men
and women fighting the Global War on Terrorism.” (Bender, p.
1, Para 3, 2005). In essence he was trying to communicate that
this bill would cripple their efforts with effectively supplying
the on-going GWOT with the right manpower mix.
Intervention was required by Secretary of Defense Rumsfeld
who met with Representative Hunter in a successful effort to get
him to modify this legislation. The resulting “amended” bill
simply required DoD to notify Congress within 30 days if
women are going to be assigned to or collocated with ground
combat units (Donnelly, 2008). Congress also directed a review
on how the Army is deploying women as it works through
transformation and implements its new Brigade Combat Team
construct (Putko & Johnson, 2008). It is from this point the
debates have again resurfaced.
The Pro/Con Debates
Opposition to further expansion of the use of women in the
Armed Forces seems to fixate on certain central themes. The
first argument is an attitudinal one suggesting the American
public is still not and never will be ready to deliberately expose
it’s “daughters” to violence unless said violence association
with women becomes an accepted societal norm beyond the
military environment (Glazov, 2003). The second argument
invokes the physical strength and endurance argument by
suggesting “women are not “little men” and men are not “big
women” (Kirkwood, Para 18, 2003). Lastly the unit
cohesion/morale angle is often cited as becoming irreparably
disrupted by the introduction of the opposite gender—in essence
turning “a band of brothers into a gaggle of competing chimps”
(Glaznov, Para 15, 2003).

The American public argument from the opposition’s
perspective is by and large a traditional viewpoint on the roles
of women in our society. This opposing view is best
summarized in an article by Cort Kirkwood of
LewRockwell.com when he argues that the debate ought
consider two questions from the American public ‘s perspective;
can women handle the rigors of combat with the second
question being should they have to (Kirkwood, 2003)? He
answers both questions succinctly when he states “no” because
it is un-American, un-Christian, and immoral (Kirkwood, 2003).
While some would point to the ordeal endured by PFC Jessica
Lynch as evidence of a ‘can-do spirit’…others such as
Kirkwood see it differently asking whether she should have
been placed in a combat zone to begin with (Kirkwood, 2003).
This perspective rallies around the notion that just because
women have been placed in harm’s way in the past doesn’t mean
they should be in the future. The only leeway some opponents
give when considering whether to utilize females in combat is if
the scenario dictated that national survival depended upon it
(Kirkwood, 2003). Otherwise their thinking holds that using
women in combat will require training women and men to
regard violence upon and utilized by women as normal and
acceptable. A concept always considered an anathema to our
American mores (Kirkwood, 2003).
The American public support argument against also has
proponents that view the discussion from what some might
suggest is another traditionalist viewpoint. FrontPage Magazine
held a symposium whereby four individuals were invited to
debate their perspectives on the wisdom of “G.I Janes” as they
called it. One of those participants, David Gutmann (Emeritus
Professor of Psychology and Behavioral Sciences at
Northwestern University Medical School) stated that it is an
obscene notion to him to place a woman’s body in front of
machine guns or under shell fire because they are the “bearer of
mystery with the power to bring forth life (Glazov, Para XX,

2003).” He goes on to argue that the history supports the notion
that the lives of men are more expendable than women (Glazov,
2003). His rationale being that due to our low birth rate and the
female’s relatively brief window of fertility, that for a society
to place its women into the fighting ranks is tantamount to
population extinction (Glazov, 2003).
The next major opposition theme goes to the heart of the
biological differences between men and women. That women
and men are built differently is not a point of contention. What
these differences mean and how relevant they are to the modern
battlefield is where there is a wide diversity of opinion. On this
issue the proponents for women in combat tend to be on the
defensive.
The baseline opposition argument states that the strongest
woman is only as strong as the weakest man and it is the
weakest man that is “weeded out” of most training programs
(Kirkwood, 2003). Additionally, they are quick to introduce
empirical data bolstering the claim that women suffer higher
skeletal stresses leading to fractures along with having to
contend with the other physiological factors such as
menstruation and pregnancy (Kirkwood, 2003). Adding to this
argument a FrontPage Magazine symposium panelist Anthony
Mirvish (Naval and military analyst member of the US Naval
Institute) posits there are some standard military tasks that have
been failed by 100% of the women attempting them. Some of
those tasks include carrying another soldier, digging a foxhole
in hardened ground, and lowering a P250 pump into a
compartment (Glazov, 2003). All this to suggest the physical
limitation evidence alone is fairly conclusive.
Finally, the cohesion/lower morale argument rounds out the
major opposition position for using women in combat. This
argument is also the most difficult to quantify as it is highly
subjective and relies heavily on establishing a common core
understanding for defining cohesion and morale. The ARI study

looking and gender integration for BCT evaluated data from an
all-male unit, an all female unit, and then an experimental
gender integrated unit. The results did corroborate one notion
of increased single-gender cohesion in that they reported that
the all-male units having the highest cohesion while the all
female units had the lowest (Harris et al., 2002).
The afore mentioned Anthony Mirvish offered a more colorful
example as to why and how unit cohesion/morale can be
affected. He recalls a personal observation from the Israeli War
of Independence when he trained with an Israeli Marine
commando unit that included women. His observation was that
the “Alpha Males” were quickly linked to these women and the
other not so fortunate males were left to foment a hatred he
believes might’ve been expressed in friendly fire incidents had
the unit actually gone into battle (Glazov, 2003).
The counter debate or proponents for expanded use of women in
combat units address each point head-on using contemporary
(with anecdotes) evidence to blunt such concerns. Addressing
the attitudinal argument one researcher offered statistics
showing a marked increase in the American public’s acceptance
of women placed in combat positions. Opinions in favor appear
to have risen from 19% in 1979 to 72% in 2005 (Putko &
Johnson, 2008). The strongest counter argument against the
physical strength notion is best captured with assertions that
many of the so-called physical standards are arbitrary in nature
and where they are not then the logic doesn’t follow that all
women should be precluded from even competing.
Additionally, it is noted that even fitness standards for men are
age-normed to some extent thus sometimes standards are not
absolute.
The unit cohesion/morale theory is where the proponents of
expanded utilization of women in combat go on the offensive.
First, they’d ask for a common understanding of the term
“cohesion.” One theory breaks the term cohesion into the
subcategories of social and task cohesion (Harrell & Miller,

1997). According to this theory social cohesion deals with the
quality of the emotional bonds experienced between members.
The task cohesion concept refers to a shared commitment of
assigned members toward accomplishing unit goals (Harrell &
Miller, 1997). Proponents offer research suggesting an over-
emphasis on high social cohesion (the male bonding variety)
can have a negative effect on performance (Harrell & Miller,
1997). This rationale has it that members will be more
concerned about the social aspects than the task the unit was
assembled to perform. The military establishment also
recognizes the inherent dangers of too much social cohesion by
virtue of its enforcement of various regulations prohibiting its
defined inappropriate relationships. These types of
relationships are universally known as fraternization. Lastly,
RAND’s 1997 monograph on New Opportunities for Women
offers findings that rebuke the notion that gender differences
are at fault when there are any performance issues attributable
to a lack of cohesion. In fact, they report that cohesion is
reported highest where the command emphasized unity and the
important role all members have toward goal accomplishment
(Harrell & Miller, 1997).
Bottom line for cohesion and morale, it is the supremacy of
military training, discipline, and leadership that trumps mere
gender differences (Harris et al., 2002). On writer posits ‘In
order to maintain cohesion, experts agree that all members of
the military must be treated equally. A standard must be
maintained to make every member feel as if he/she is part of
one single unit, not separated by gender’ (Willens, Para 9
1996). In fact, the 1997 RAND monograph reported that when
there was division along the lines of gender, it was found to
have been introduced by male commanders warning junior
members to stay away from female members in the unit (Harrell
& Miller, 1997). Perhaps in attempt to eliminate the potential
for misunderstanding but in this instance such preventative
medicine actually hastens the introduction of the malady.
These arguments are viewed from three main perspectives of the

debate while incorporating the various corollaries to these main
point/counterpoints. First there is the view of politicians who’d
claim to speak for the American public. However, in the
literature reviewed for this analysis it was largely inconclusive
as to how much they were synchronized with the contemporary
public opinion. Next there is the objectively obtained unbiased
view of the American public that has seen a dramatic increase in
utilization of its female service members to include their very
placement into “harm’s way.” The collective American public
shift in attitudes is most telling post Gulf War I. Finally, there
is the viewpoint from the field (focus on the US Army) that
appears increasingly amenable to the fullest utilization of
women within their ranks. Admittedly, the true nature of senior
Army leadership attitudes proves to be ambiguous as to whether
it is driven out of a genuine attitude of acceptance; or a
temporary marriage of convenience when faced with current
manpower challenges. There is evidence in support of both
possibilities.
Implications for the GWOT Going Forward— Challenges
If the US Army is to successfully transform itself into its
desired lighter and leaner agile force it must finally resolve the
issue of restricting the utilization of nearly 15% of its force
structure. To follow the current policy to the letter, female
service members should be precluded from serving in any
conceivable role where combat action is possible. The question
is how to determine and predict what combat roles are to look
like. Unlike previous conflicts, the modern battle is
noncontiguous and highly ambiguous. That is, there are no
clearly defined front and rear areas anymore (Putko & Johnson,
2008). As a result, female soldiers are indeed exposed to
combat on a fairly routine basis. The implication here is that
the Combat Exclusion Policy is becoming less effective in
achieving its intended goals of allowing females to serve in the
military without exposure to direct combat. RAND’s National

Defense Research Institute (NDRI) put together a monograph
assessing the assignment policy for Army women to address
differences between the Army and the Department of Defenses’
rules of engagement.
The first consideration is to understand that the DoD policy
does restrict the assignment of women to units whose primary
mission is direct ground combat. However, the Army merely
restricts the assignment to units that have a routine mission of
direct combat. Secondly, the Army also restricts assignment to
units that collocate with direct combat units. Finally, this same
RAND monograph reports that the Army and the DoD define
combat differently. The Army’s definition adds as a
requirement that there must be a risk of capture, and it also
includes “repelling the enemy’s assault.” Curiously, the Army
chose not to update its policy when the legal restrictions against
women serving in combat aircraft and on combatant ships were
repealed in 1994. Additionally, they didn’t even change or
update their policy when Secretary of Defense Les Aspin
revised the DoD policy in 1994, decisions they are perhaps
regretful of today (Harrell et al., 2007).
As a result of DoD’s 1994 policy change, more Army units and
occupations were opened to women resulting in positions for
women within the headquarters unit and at various other
organizational levels. As a result of the Army’s recent
modularization efforts, which seeks to adapt it forces for the
current GWOT and beyond, concerns were arising among
certain congressional members and other interested parties as to
defined roles for female soldiers. Of particular concern to some
is how women are being utilized in Iraq in relation to Public
Law 109-164 (Harrell et al., 2007). To become better prepared
to deal with these questions, NDRI’s research compiled a
monograph looking at these issues and provided the results to
senior DoD leadership.
To help meet the existing congressional intent as currently

understood, the Army had long ago developed a coding system
to implement the current policy. Essentially there are two
classifications. A coding containing a “P1” designation
represents closed to female soldiers while a “P2” code denotes
open. Next, in order to determine how to properly code a
unit/position there are four questions to be considered:
1. Does the specialty/position require routine engagement in
direct combat?
2. Is the position in a unit with a mission of routine engagement
in direct combat?
3. Is the position in a unit that routinely collocates with a unit
whose mission is to engage in direct combat?
4. Is the position in part of a unit that routinely collocates with
a unit whose mission is to engage in direct combat?
(Department of the Army, p. 3, 1992)
A “yes’ answer to any question will code a position as P1,
closed to females. This coding system has been in effect since
1992. When it was first adopted, it allowed females to serve in
over 67 percent of the Army’s specialties (Putko & Johnson,
2008).
As combat operations commenced in Iraq, there was widespread
belief that these codes went largely unnoticed and unchallenged
(Putko & Johnson, 2008). In the final analysis, it appears that
legislators and senior Army leaders, were either unaware or
chose not consider the limitations associated with this policy
(Putko & Johnson, 2008). However, not everyone was silent.
There were journalists who did raise awareness of the unique
nature of female soldier involvement during the earlier days of
Operations in Iraq (Putko & Johnson, 2008).
The organization known as the Center for Military Readiness
(CMR) has been an outlet for vocal critics of any policy

liberalization. They allege that the Department of Defense has
blatantly violated the Combat Exclusion Policy by using
semantical distinctions as a method for defining direct combat
areas. Elaine Donnelly President of the Center of Military
Readiness sums it up well when she states:
“All deployed soldiers, men and women, are serving ‘in harm’s
way.’ But even without a ‘front line,’ the missions of direct
ground combat units have not changed. Infantry, armor, and
Special Operations Forces attack the enemy with deliberate
offensive action under fire. These fighting battalions, and
support units that ‘collocate’ with them 100% of the time, are
required by Defense Department regulations to be all male.
If the Army wants to change the ‘collocation rule,’ the
Secretary of Defense must approve and formally report the
change to Congress approximately three months (30 legislative
days) in advance. (Para 3 & 4, 2008)
The current conflict has introduced many unanticipated
challenges with “winning the peace” to enable a decreased
military presence. Insurgent populations claiming resentment
of the US military presence have become increasingly
belligerent and destructive. They have even proven not to have
any compunction about utilizing women in the service of their
“combative” activities. Female soldiers have played critical
roles in preventing the exploitation of the indigenous female
population by these combatants. Their story is just now being
told.
Directors Meg McLagan and Daria Sommers produced a
documentary on five female soldiers deployed to Iraq. They
were deployed in support specialties but then re-assigned to
male US Marine patrol teams to conduct house-to-house
searches. Women in such units were affectionately dubbed
“Team Lioness.” This documentary discussed their experiences
adjusting to a role they claim they were ill-prepared for along

with their lamentations for the lack of
acknowledgment/recognition for their efforts as they too have
coped with issues of post traumatic stress (2008).
This documentary led to the post-film discussion surrounding
the main arguments for and against increased combat roles for
women. Arguments against were best summarized as: physical
differences, romantic disruptions, lack of aggression, sexual
assault potential, and our social traditions. Arguments for can
best be summarized as: unwarranted sexual discrimination,
proven capabilities, additional troop strength, non-linear
battlefield, and the universal nature of POW experienced sexual
abuse. This discussion ended in a stalemate as members left
comfortable in their willingness to agree to disagree.
Implications for the GWOT Going Forward—Benefits
Currently the Army struggles to fill its ranks with qualified
soldiers thus the notion that every person counts is beyond
cliché and a distinct reality. The literature reviewed for this
analysis showed a distinct aversion for fighting domestic
ideological battles along with foreign terrorist from the Army
senior leader perspective and even within the DoD at-large..
Fact of the matter is the Army does not have enough male
soldiers qualified in the necessary skills to fill all of the
approximate 22,000 soldier positions in the forward support
companies (Eberhart, 2004). Additionally, the Army states they
have been moving forward with plans to fortify their warrior
ethos by shifting the thought process away from “tribe
identification” (cooks, clerks, infantryman etc) to a more
collective warrior mindset of all members considering
themselves a soldier first (Putko & Johnson, 2008). Legislation
and policy changes that mettle with this endeavor they’d claim
confuses and confounds the force at the most inopportune times.
Furthermore the literature reviewed in this analysis has

uncovered evidence suggesting this exclusion policy is fraught
with many potential contradictions and unintended
consequences. Women are indeed needed to serve as MPs in
various locations throughout Iraq and as part of Combat Patrol
Teams (CPT) seeking to ferret out insurgents (Schult, 2003).
This duty has exposed and is exposing them to hostile fire and
at times placed them squarely in the midst of fire-fights with
enemy combatants. One of the major benefits of their presence
has been their ability to perform culturally sensitive duties such
as searching the indigenous female populations who have been
increasingly utilized by terrorist groups in many subversively
destructive ways. The emerging truth is that there are some
duties where it is politically untenable to have a male soldier
perform in a Muslim country. Lastly, though not popular to
discuss but as Abu Grahib incident has shown us, the potential
for sex inspired misconduct has to be factored as a challenges
toward “winning the peace.” Using males to perform certain
task are highly problematic in bringing about those desired
effects. By all accounts, making progress winning the “hearts
and minds” battle is truly the best method for bringing about a
sustainable victorious ending to GWOT operations, in Iraq for
starters.
When viewed from the lens of what women are doing and have
done, proponents suggest the current combat exclusion really
fosters little more than a culture of exclusion. This term is
commonly used to reflect “a group which has its own culture
maintained through the establishment of barriers impeding
access for others (Putko & Johnson, p. 33 Para 2, 2008).” In the
Army, a female cannot serve in any capacity in a combat arms
battalion, not because of her proven ability but rather due to
gender (Putko & Johnson, 2008). Thus, in this instance and
according to the accepted definition the combat arms units are
appropriately perceived as “cultures of exclusion (Putko &
Johnson, 2008).” The combat exclusion policy, originally
intended to protect females, has an unintended consequence of

fostering a sense of alienation of women by men based on the
mere existence of an all male bastion.
Perspectives from the Pentagon and in the Field
Any changes to the policy will of course require a clear
understanding at the various execution levels. As part of the
NDRI’s 2007 monograph, semi-structured interviews with 11
senior DoD, Army and Joint Staff (JS) leaders were conducted.
The purpose of these interviews were to determine the extent to
which they held a common understandings of the policy; their
opinion on the objective of the policy; and finally whether they
felt those objectives were appropriate (Harrell et al., 2007).
The participants were the five senior civilian DoD members and
six general officers listed in Table 2.
This collection of senior DoD leadership was asked a series of
specific questions that sought answers on their perspectives of
the assignment policy for women. First, members were asked
whether there was a shared interpretation of this policy relating
to female soldiers (Harrell et al., 2007). They were next asked
if they thought the Army was complying with this assignment
policy…as they understood it to be (Harrell et al., 2007). This
question was followed up with two additional clarifying
inquiries. One question asked if women were assigned to direct
combat units below the brigade level (Harrell et al., 2007). The
second question asked if women were assigned to units that
collocated with direct combat units (Harrell et al., 2007).
Finally, the last broad based question sought their opinion on
whether the language and concepts in the assignment policy
were appropriate to future Army operations (Harrell et al.,
2007).
The answers reported provided this research team the necessary
insight for basing the following conclusions. First, their

finding suggested that neither Army nor the senior DoD persons
interviewed had a clear understanding of the assignment policy
for women (Harrell et al., 2007). There appeared to be
semantically based misunderstandings. The terms: enemy,
forward, and collocation proved to be the primary sources of
confusion (Harrell et al., 2007). The researchers suggested this
disconnect fell under the classification of understanding the
“letter” of the policy distinction whereas the additional
questions spoke to the “spirit’ of the policy (Harrell et al.,
2007).
The follow up questions designed to gather additional clarifying
data shed the most light on where the source of tensions arise
for proponents and opponents alike. Consistent with the policy
intent, women are not assigned to units below the brigade level.
However, the researchers found instances where some of the
support units that women were assigned to had connectivity
(Harrell et al., 2007) with such units that was tantamount to
being assigned to them. Additionally, they found it could be
argued that women were in fact collocated with direct combat
units if one leans toward the proximity definition for
collocation (Harrell et al., 2007).
Another aspect of valuable insight from findings in this NDRI
monograph came from the opinions on the way forward for
perhaps a revision, rescission, or other suggestion in regard the
assignment policy for female soldiers. The NDRI research
verdict states that current policy for assigning women is not
appropriate for operations in Iraq because of the many
ambiguities involved in that theatre of operations (Harrell et al.,
2007). Furthermore, they add as an example that missions such
as self-defense would need much greater levels of clarity.
Finally, other aspects speaking to the appropriateness of the
policy they’d claim are inherently subjective and well beyond
the scope of this evaluation (Harrell et al., 2007).

Table 2: NDRI Senior DoD Survey Respondents
Name
Title
David S. Chu
Under Secretary of Defense for Personnel and Readiness
Paul W. Mayberry
Dpty Under Secretary of Defense for Readiness
Kathryn A. Condon
Asst Dpty Chief of Staff, Office of the Dpty Chief of Staff for
Operations
Mark R. Lewis
Dpty Chief of Staff, Office of the Dpty Chief of Staff for
Personnel
Mark D. Manning
Special Assistant to the Assistant Secretary of the Army
LTG Walter L Sharp
Director, Joint Staff
LTG James L. Campbell
Director, Army Staff
MG Rhett Hernandez
Commander, US Army Human Resource Command
Brig Gen KC McClain
Commander, Joint Task Force for Sexual Assault Prevention &
Response
RADM Donna Crisp
Joint Staff Personnel
BG Robert H. Woods
Director, Enlisted Personnel Management Directorate
At the mid-grade officer level there is also an acute need for
understanding DoD policies for executing the congressional
intent. At this level, feedback should be encouraged in order to
provide that information back up to senior DoD leadership and
ultimately lawmakers on how well “congressional intent” is

being met or if there are any major unintended consequences
impeding the military missions set forth. Each of the three
military departments has a “War College” for providing a venue
for select military officers and government civilians to reflect
on and use their career experience toward exploring a wide
range of strategic issues.
As part of the US Army War College class of 2006, a
compendium report was assembled by two editors (COL
Michele Putko and Douglas Johnson) with seven other
contributors, looking at the very subject of Women in Combat.
This compendium came about as a request from Colonel
Michele Putko to obtain sponsorship for a “Women in Combat
Study” to be used as a multi-student elective fulfilling an
academic requirement. The researchers were granted
permission with the caveat to make a point of including the
perspectives of male officers who had commanded units with
women.
From this compendium comes a survey of their classmates
which sought to sample the perspective of mid-level officers
identified by their respective service as “on-target” for future
senior leadership assignments. Additionally, a paper included
by Colonel Mark Lindon buttresses this report by documenting
the progressive change in American public opinion.
As the extent to which women should be employed in combat
roles, continues to be debated, the reality endures daily in the
Iraq and Afghanistan theatres of operation. The Combat
Exclusion Policy ought to mesh with the reality of the Army’s
transformation initiatives and best fit the war in which the
nation is engaged and projected to fight into the near future.
This presumes an acute need for the United States is to
maximize fullest utility of its armed forces in support of
national security objectives.

The Army and DoD may have suffered a minor set-back in early
2006 in their cause to revise the policy into a doctrine that
could be more easily understood and used in the context of the
current GWOT. January 2006, the 1994 Combat Exclusion
policy was made law (Putko, & Johnson, 2008). What this
means is that congressional oversight is now required for any
revisions to the policy. This elevates the debate above the
realm of the pragmatic into the body politic. References
Ackmann, M. (2003, April). Restricting women's military role
hurts all .
Retrieved September 2, 2008, from
http://www.mtholyoke.edu/offices/comm/oped/Military.shtml
Bender, B. (2005, May). Combat Support Ban Weighed for
Women [Electronic version]. Boston Globe, p. 1, 2. Retrieved
November 13, 2008, from
http://www.boston.com/news/nation/washington/articles/2005/0
5/18/combat_support_ban_weighed_for_women/?
Carlson, D. K. (2005). Do Americans Give Women a Fighting
Chance?. In The Gallup Poll Tuesday Briefing (pp. 16-17).
Princeton, NJ: The Gallup Organization.
Center for Military Readiness. CMR analyzes 1997 RAND
study. (2006, Mar).
http://www.cmrlink.org/WomenInCombat.asp?docID=263
Center for Military Readiness. Disrespect for regulations,
Congress, and Army
women. (2008, Mar). Retrieved September 2, 2008, from
Center for Military Readiness. Grim toll of military women
killed in war. (2008,

Aug). Retrieved September 2, 2008, from
Center for Military Readiness. The definition of "cohesion" in
close combat units
(2008, Jan).Retrieved September 2, 2008, from
Center for Military Readiness. Why American service women
are serving at
greater risk: women in land combat. (2003, April). Retrieved
September 2, 2008, from
http://www.cmrlink.org/CMRNotes/M38V8CCMRRPT16.pdf
Department of the Army. (1992, April 27). Army policy for the
assignment of female soldiers (Department of the Army).
Retrieved November 15, 2008, from
http://www.army.mil/USAPA/epubs/pdf/r600_13.pdf
Department of the Army. (1994, June 14). United States Army
chain of command (Department of the Army). Retrieved
November 14, 2008, from
http://www.apd.army.mil/pdffiles/p10_1.pdf
Donnelly, E. (2008, March 3). Co-ed combat on William F.
Buckley’s Firing
Line team. Retrieved September 2, 2008, from
Donnelly, E. (2006, June 16). Rumsfeld dithers on women in
combat.
Eberhart, D. (2004, December 10). Pentagon wants women in
combat. Retrieved
http://archive.newsmax.com/archives/articles/2004/12/9/133043
.shtml

Gallup, G.H. (1980). Public Opinion 1979. In The Gallup Poll
(p. 151).
Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources Inc.
Gallup, G. H. (1993). Public Opinion 1992. In The Gallup Poll
(p.198).
Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources Inc.
Glazov, J. (2003, September 1). G.I. Janes. Retrieved
http://www.frontpagemag.com/Articles/Read.aspx?GUID=9D0D
BC00-
2577-4F55-8A96-7B084ACE45DC
Harrell, M.C., Becket, M.C, Chiaying, S.C., & Sollinger, J.M.
(2002). The status of gender integration in the military.
(Document MR-1380-OSD). Sata Monica, CA: RAND
Corporation. Retrieved September 2, 2008, from
http://www.rand.org/pubs/monograph_reports/MR1380/index.ht
ml
Harrell, M.C. & Miller, L. (1997). New opportunities for
military women: effects on readiness, cohesion and morale.
(Document MR-896-OSD). Santa Monica, CA: RAND
Corporation. Retrieved September 2, 2008, from
http://www.rand.org/pubs/monograph_reports/MR896/
Harrell, M.C., Werber L.C., Schirmer, P., Hallmark, B.W.,
Kavanaugh, J., Gershwin, D., Steinberg, P., (2007). Assessing
the assignment policy for Army women. (Document MG-590-1-
OSD). Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation. Retrieved
October 29, 2008, from
http://www.rand.org/pubs/monographs/MG590-1/
Harris, B. C., Simutis, Z.M. & Gantz, M.M. (2002, May).
Women in the Army: an annotated bibliography. Retrieved

http://www.hqda.army.mil/ari/pdf/WomenInTheArmy-
DrHarris.pdf
Kirkwood, C. (2003, April). What Kind of Nation Sends
Women Into Combat? Retrieved: September 2, 2008, from
http://www.lewrockwell.com/orig3/kirkwood3.html
Putko, M. & Johnson, D.V. (2008, January). Women in combat
compendium.
http://www.strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil/pdffiles/PUB830.
pdf
McLagan, M. & Sommers, D. (Directors). (2008, October 12).
Lioness
[Television Broadcast]. Washington DC: PBS
Sagawa, N. & Campbell, N. D. (1992, October). Women in the
military issue
paper: women in combat. Retrieved 5 November, 2008, from
http://www.nwlc.org/pdf/Combat.pdf
Schult, M. (2003, March). Female Soldiers Assist with Cultural
Sensitivities.
http://www.defendamerica.mil/articles/mar2003/a033003b.html
Stone, A. (2005). Panel's decision reheats women-in-combat
debate. USA Today.
http://www.usatoday.com/news/washington/2005-05-19-women-
combat_x.htm

Willens, J. (1996, August 7). Women in the Military: Combat
Roles Considered.
http://www.cdi.org/issues/women/combat.html

(Dept of the Army, 1994)
(Harrell et al, 2007)
PAGE
2_LitRevExample-LeadershipEffStudy.doc
Leadership Effectiveness Study
Title:
Submitted to:
Submitted by:

[Student’s Name]
[Street Address]
Work Phone:
[703-555-1234]
Home/Cell Phone:
[804-555-1111]
Email:
[Month, Day, Year]
LITERATURE REVIEW EXAMPLELeadership Effectiveness
StudyCERTIFICATE OF AUTHORSHIP:
Note: This literature review is from a completed MSA685
project so it is a little longer than what you might produce as a
preliminary literature review in MSA600. But it demonstrates
how to synthesize literature in a way that best relates to your
research questions.

LEADERSHIP EFFECTIVENESS STUDY IN THE
OFFICE OF THE CHIEF, ARMY RESERVE
ARLINGTON, VIRGINIA
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE DEPUTY, CHIEF OF STAFF
Submitted by:
Nora Rentillo
Project Instructor:
Table of Contents
Page Number
List of Tables
ii
List of Figures

ii
Chapter 1
Problem Definition
1
Chapter 2
Literature Review
7
Chapter 3
15
Chapter 4
Data Analysis
[Future]
Chapter 5
[Future]

References
Pages 19-22
Appendix A
Permission to Conduct Study
Appendix B
Transmittal Letter/Survey Instructions
Appendix C
Survey/Interview Questions
Chapter 2
Literature Review
References were reviewed with interest in studies surrounding
the leadership effectiveness and job satisfaction of Soldiers in
the Office of the Chief, Army Reserve, Arlington, Virginia. A
brief analysis is included in this literature review of research
studies, journals, articles and website.
Leadership Effectiveness Studies
Doty and Gardes (2000) article indicate that the characteristics
of humility are often purposely left out in leadership
discussions because it is considered a weakness. The authors
believe that this characteristic is ultimately more important than

competence because it is the foundation of the quality of that
leader. Humility does not have a face and is not a permanent
characteristic. A leader can lose or gain humility because this
virtue is imperfect in the human makeup. Individuals are taught
humility by a parent, friends, mentor, teachers or coach.
Leaders who are not selfish and direct their full attention to
their subordinates will enhance effective group performance.
The fact of the matter, humility should not be regarded as a
weakness. It is quite the contrary; a leader who maintains a
level of unassuming personality is likely to instill a sense of
camaraderie and esprit de corps within his organization.
In an article by Doty and Gardes (2008), defines command
climate as the moral foundation of the Army and the climate of
a unit. Leaders at all levels are responsible and accountable for
establishing the climate by their actions as to what they say and
do; which can fail or succeed. There have been questions in
isolated command climate resulting in behaviors that are not in
line with the military ethics or a result of leadership believing
that his unit was only conducting the mission based on what the
situation required. Apparently, the leadership factored this
behavior into their command climate and Soldiers will follow as
to what they did and why they did it. The leaders must change
negative command climate, they must set and enforce the
standards. Leaders can set the climate for an open and honest
communication within the organization. They can also include
the core values; which are nonnegotiable doctrine that is
essential to the unit success or failure. Overall, ethical and
moral leadership will positively profit in Soldiers’ commitment
and loyalty, which benefits the organization and their goals for
a positive command climate.
A study by authors Sasnett and Ross (2007), examined the
following: leadership frames, the number of leadership frames

used by directors and the relationship between leadership
frames and their perceptions of their effectiveness as a manager
and as a leader. In addition, the study also identified that
directors knew what their greatest strengths and weaknesses
were based on their leadership frames and their effectiveness.
Their greatest strengths were in the human resource area and
structural skills and the use of political and symbolic skills
were not used regularly. The management and leadership in this
organization primary strength are in the human resource skills
and this may explain how they perceive themselves as leaders
rather than managers. The study had limitation identified on the
three weaknesses. The first weakness study was general and
limited based on response bias rate of 40.4 percent as to those
individuals willing to respond to an online survey may not
necessarily reflect the beliefs of all directors in the
organization. The second weakness relied entirely on director’s
self-perceptions of their own effectiveness. The evidence of 75
percent clearly indicated that the respondents placed themselves
in the top 40 percent as effective managers and leaders. To
improve this measure, the study should use either a subjective
measure of effectiveness by surveying superiors or subordinates
or developing a more objective measure of effectiveness. The
final weakness indicates that there was a lack of pertinent
information as to the length of the training program, the
program size, and the background of the program in order to
acquire a true response. The study found that human resource
training was commonly used in orientation of the directors,
along with the number of leadership training used by managers
and these results varied widely throughout other industries.
Authors Sashkin, M. and Sashkin, M.G., (2003) research
focused on transformational leadership (charismatic) behaviors
which has a positive effect on employees productivity and job
performance to include their lives. In addition, organizations
with transformational leaders are an important factor for

organizational productivity, performance, and perhaps even
survival of the organization. Empowerment comes into play
because transformational leaders must establish challenges and
opportunities for employees to learn how to successfully deal
with situations they may face in their work environment. There
are many tools such as globalization and democratization of
information and technology that will assist the transformational
leader to empower employees. The authors know that there are
many books written about leadership but they have their own
views on how to describe leadership. First, they used an
extensive range of researched-based and theory information
sources. Second, they focused on areas involving leadership
behaviors, leadership characteristics, and the social context of
leadership. And third, they realized that other author’s views
will be different than theirs. Their views on leadership involve
more than motivating your employees to succeed at their goals
and to have them validate certain goals they wish to achieve.
Leaders will also develop an initial vision that will include a
positive future state for their employees. The ultimate goal for
leaders is to have the employees attain the leaders’ vision.
Madlock (2008), studied the influence of supervisor
communicator competence and leadership style on employee job
and communication satisfaction. A total of 220 (116 men and
104 women) full-time employees from various companies in the
Midwest were involved in this research. The research found a
strong relationship between supervisors’ communicator
competence and their task and relational leadership styles, with
supervisor communicator competence being a stronger
predicator of employee job and communication satisfaction. In
addition, other findings indicated that supervisor communicator
competence accounted for 68% of the difference in subordinate
communication satisfaction and 18% of the difference in
subordinate job satisfaction, to include that there is a
connection between communication, leadership, and employee

job and communication satisfaction. Further research indicated
that leaders that communicate competently and effectively to
their employees are seen as positive leaders and this may
contribute to employee job satisfaction and rewarding to the
organization.
In Covey’s (2001), book The Seven Habits of Highly Effective
People, his vision was to apply these habits in companies. The
seven habits are being proactive, beginning with the end in
mind, putting first things first, thinking win-win, seeking first
to understand, synergizing, and sharpening the saw.
Leadership, by contrast, primarily deals with influence.
Leaders must base their actions on values instead of using their
emotions. Next, leadership must have a mission statement in
place in order to provide meaning, purpose, and direction for
employees. An important element for a leader is time
management, in order to remain organized, set essential
priorities, and undertake important decisions immediately. An
effective leader must be able to communicate, coordinate, and
negotiate with a variety of individuals, seek, respect other ideas
and perspectives, and continually improve themselves and their
employees through training and experience. According to
Covey, a leader who pursues these key concepts will appreciate
the positive outcome of management-employee relations, job
satisfaction, and company success.
In a study by Kouzes and Posner (2003), they discovered that
your average individuals, who paved the way for others, follow
similar paths and experiences. The authors included a few
historic figures that were considered exemplary leaders, based
on a situation or context that they were known for: Susan B.
Anthony – Women’s rights; Mahatma Gandhi – National
independence; Abraham Lincoln – Civil War; Florence Kelly –
Fought for child labor laws; Martin Luther King, Jr. – Civil

rights; Nelson Mandela – National liberation movement; and
Mother Teresa – Served the poorest of the poor. The
researchers can ask the question, what do these individuals have
in common? The answer may vary because each challenge that
they faced, whether grand or not, had a significant impact
because they stood up for their beliefs during times of intense
challenges and radical changes. They also had a clear set of
principles and a vision to guide them through these challenges.
Regardless of the time period, each case Kouzes and Posner
studied, leadership was unique in each aspect about these
historic figures mentioned above, some relation to their patterns
of action also marked their course. Personality does not play
into being a leader; it’s about practicing leadership. The
attempt for this study is to offer guidance for leaders to practice
as they attempt to keep their own style and guide others to
achieve their goals. They took a deeper look into the
complexity of the process of leadership, through case analyses
and survey questionnaires, and they uncovered five practices
common to personal-best leadership experiences. The five
practices of exemplary leadership are: model the way; inspire a
shared vision; challenge the process; enable other to act; and
encourage the heart. A company or organization does not
privately own these leadership practices; they are available to
anyone in any organization or situation, who wants to accept the
challenge. These practices are nothing new; they are just as
much relevant to today as they were when they first began their
investigation over two decades ago.
An article written by Taylor (2000), researched over 150
articles and essays that were written on military leadership
since 1995. In reviewing this literature, he found that the
articles provided him the foundation to have a better
understanding of leadership in the military. He defines
leadership as a process of human interactions and behaviors
with an endless number of personalities and situations.

Regardless, of how much research is gathered, Taylor concludes
that there is not one right answer in defining leadership. There
is not one book or text that can provide a checklist of teachable
skills that will ensure that the individual will be effective as a
military leader.
Historically, the military is constantly changing based on
missions continuing to emerge in diverse parts of the world.
Because of this, there is a constant impact on the military and
this requires a need to search for a philosophy and to understand
how leadership increases. Taylor addresses several important
points that a leader should focus on to be effective and
successful. They are, develop and share your vision, skill in
communicating, motivating your subordinates (team and team-
building), take charge when needed and timing is imperative
(assess the situation) and trust (ensuring adequate training,
constant communication, and clearly defining goals).
Kellerman (2004), journal explores the dark side of leadership
in the human condition. She describes how leadership exercises
power, authority, and influences in ways that can harm
individuals or organizations. The harm is not necessarily
deliberate but the results consist of carelessness or neglect. In
some cases, these results can be disastrous. Leaders have a
tendency to project that they are all-powerful but in reality they
do not act alone and are not totally responsible for bad
leadership. Leadership can be so complex, that the process can
entangle other individuals to follow the same path the leader
intended to have them initially follow. It is almost compared to
a spider (bad leadership) stalking their prey (followers) and
influences them to get tangled into the web. Leaders cannot
survive alone; they need followers to either follow passively or
actively regardless of the consequences. Kellerman questions,
what does “bad leadership” mean? Do followers see bad
leadership in shades of gray or in black or do they see it in
another way that was approach from the past? Or does it have

underlining standards of immoral or unethical behaviors? Or
does incompetent and ineffective play a significant role?
Lastly, what about the word bad leader itself? These questions
do not have a definitive answer because of the complexity of
defining “bad leadership”. Kallerman quoted Harlan (2003) an
author of a dozen books on leadership and public policy.
Harlan refers “bad leadership as the “untidy” world of human
relations. Bad leadership may be even untidier than good
leadership”. Kellerman researched hundreds of contemporary
cases involving bad leaders and bad followers. She used a wide
spectrum in private, public, and nonprofit organizations that
were domestic and international, and found evidence that bad
leadership falls into seven groups. They are: being
incompetent; rigid, intemperate; callous; corrupt; insular and
evil. Leaders have a certain advantage because they have the
ability to distinguish some of these seven groups in an untidy
world where the idea of bad leadership is as confusing as it is
universal. The seven groups may serve a practical purpose
because it may make it easier to detect where the infection
points are and at which time an intervention might be able to
stop bad leadership or at least stop it short of spreading.
Finally, based on the research, we can at least have a clear
understanding of what bad leadership consists of and come to
the conclusion, it does not stand alone.
Zenger’s and Folkman’s (2002), research collected data from
over 200,000 individuals who evaluated over 25,000 leaders to
reveal how leaders can go from being good to being excellent;
from being average to being exceptional. In addition, the
researchers collected perceptual data with hard, quantitative
business results, including unit profitability, retention statistics,
customer satisfaction, and employee commitment measures.
Stakeholders have a valuable part in this research because these
leaders are the ones to set the standard to which others strive to
attain. Their intent is not to present quick fixes that do not last,

but to propose a leadership science that will offer values that
will continue and last a lifetime. Analysis revealed there is a
successful link between attributes and results, which are
required for leadership to be effective. The combination of
these two approaches identifies how the attributes make a
difference to subordinates and peers are exactly the ones that
produce better results for the shareholders. The author’s offer
extensive data to enhance your thinking about leadership based
on both research and experiences noted throughout the book.
The researcher suggested the following ideas will assist leaders
and help the organizations become more competitive: display
high personal character; start small; excel at something; connect
competencies and leverage combinations; use a nonlinear
approach to becoming a better leader; build on your strengths
and remedy fatal flaws. These ideas may have an impact on
future leaders so they can be in the top ten percent in a 360-
degree feedback environment.
Kolenda (2001), dedicated his book to the men and women of
the United States Armed Forces world-class warriors who
deserve world-class leadership. The purpose of his work is to
enhance the education of military leaders. He was very
fortunate to fill the pages of his book with the experiences
received from the finest Army’s soldiers; his leaders, peers, and
subordinates. You cannot erase their legacy; they will carry on
to the next generation of men and women in the armed forces.
According to Plato, “education is not the practice of putting
sight into blind eyes; it is the art of turning the soul from the
shadows of ignorance toward the light of truth”. Plato’s theory
of education offers profound wisdom on the study of leadership.
Aspiring new leaders do not take the time to assess the complex
leadership problems, instead the leaders turn to quick fix
formulas. They would rather use a template that was developed
for general situation and take them out when the need arises. It
sounds easy, but it is an inappropriate method for leadership

development or educating. The key to educating a military
leader requires an extensive view of the challenges of
leadership in the military. Experience is a valuable tool for
leaders but not all leaders reach that level of completeness.
They fail to find a meaning of their experiences and are unable
to draw a conclusion. The education of a leader requires the
leader to utilize unlimited resources and the experiences and
insights of others. The resources for education are endless and
are imbedded in military history books, philosophy, theory,
revealed from the past and contemporary to combat leaders.
Leaders have to search their inner core, which requires the
courage and humility to absorb oneself in the ideas and
experiences of others; that is the true art of leadership. Kolenda
expresses the fact that the art of leadership does not stand
alone, leaders need to comprehend the processes that provide
certain guidelines, fundamental skills, and principles or rules
that make it understandable as a concept for effective military
leaders.
Perkins (2000), book Leading at the Edge, compared Ernest
Shackleton’s experiences as the explorer, his expedition,
difficulties that he and his team endured, and remarkable
triumphant. Perkins stated Shackleton’s experiences as, “this is
the true essence of effective leadership”. Perkins journal also
serves to the fullest extent as a unique and inspiring example of
how great leaders can bring order to chaos and achieve success
when faced with the most horrifying misfortune and stretched to
the limits of human endurance. This story echoes in the world
of business today, ruthless competition, constant change, and
unrealistic demands for new innovations have forced even
thriving companies to the edge of survival. His journal is an
exceptional tool for exploring leadership and teamwork through
the lens of business. This literature also revealed ten lessons on
what it takes to be a great leader: vision and quick victories;
symbolism and personal example; optimism and reality;

stamina; the team message; core team values; conflict; lighten
up; risk and tenacious creativity. These powerful lessons are
closely interwoven and will help leaders achieve new
professional heights and the success of teams and organizations.
According to an article by DePree (2004), he centered on the art
of leadership: allowing individuals to do what is required of
them in the most effective and humane way possible. The art of
leadership can also contain mentoring as an important part of
any leader. But being a mentor is both challenging and
rewarding. DePree addresses three fundamental areas that are
important and connect to artful leadership as being integrity,
building and nurturing relationships, and community building.
Integrity is an essential principle that serves society, not simply
a concept to the whim of a single person; it involves all leaders.
Leaders have to learn the ability to create and develop human
connections with the individuals that they mentor or lead. It is
crucial for leaders to also involve themselves in their
community. Communities provide them with the independence
and opportunities to set meaningful goals and measure their
performance.
In a journal by Bossidy and Charan (2002), their main point was
to get to the heart of a new theory of leadership and
organization and provide crucial advice about how to improve
the links between people, strategy and operations. By offering
leaders ways with which they can improve individual processes,
the authors create a detailed process by which leaders can
master the discipline of execution. Without proper execution,
even the best strategies fail. Execution needs to be part of a
company’s strategy and its goals. It is the missing link between
objectives and results. To understand execution, you have to
keep three things in mind: execution is a discipline and integral
to strategy; execution is the major job of the business leader

and execution must be a core element of an organization’s
culture. The heart of execution lies in the three core processes:
the people process; the strategy process and the operations
process. Most efforts at cultural change fail because they are
not linked to improving the company’s outcomes. To change a
business’s culture, you need a set of processes; a social
operating mechanisms that will change the beliefs and behavior
of people in a way that is linked to bottom line results. The
people process is making the link with strategy and operations.
If you do not get the people process right, you cannot fulfill the
potential of your business. The strategy process is crating the
link with people and operations. The basic goal of any strategy
is simple enough: to win the customer’s preference and create a
sustainable competitive advantage, while leaving sufficient
money on the table for shareholders. It defines a business’s
direction and positions it to move in that direction. A good
strategic planning process also requires the utmost attention to
the “hows” of executing the strategy. The operations process is
creating the link with strategy and people. The strategy process
defines where a business wants to go, and the people process
defines who’s going to get it there. The operating plan provides
the path for those people. It breaks long-term output into short-
term targets. The assumptions on which the operating plan is
based are linked to reality and are debated among the finance
people and the line leaders who have to execute them.
Covey (1991), discusses the principle centered leadership
effectiveness and its realistic application for any organization.
According to the journal, it is realistic to believe that balance
among personal, family, and professional life is possible.
Principle-centered leadership is a long-term, inside-out-
approach to developing people and organizations. The key to
dealing with the challenges of individuals and organizations is
the recognition of a principle-centered core within both
ourselves and the organization. Covey understands the

particular challenges of business leaders by applying his natural
laws (security, guidance, wisdom, and power), or principles, of
life to organizations. He also offers insight and guidelines that
can assist the individuals and organizations in applying these
principles both at work and at home. Leaders should make a
mental note that leading is not just a new understanding of how
to increase quality and productivity, but also it is a new
applicaiton of importance of building personal and professional
relationships in order to enjoy a more balanced, more
rewarding, and more effective life.
An anonymous article (2008), emphasizes leadership is one of
the most freuently studies topic in the organizational sciences.
The author stressed that there has been thousands of leadership
studies that have been published and thousands of pages on
leadership have been written in academic books, journals,
business-oriented, and general-interest publications. Regardless
of all the studies and publications written, the exact nature of
leadership and its relationship to the crucial elements such as
subordinate satisfaction, commitment, and performance is still
uncertain, to the extent that leadership consistently stays in that
”black hole”, is an unexplainable or unpredictable concept.
Job Satisfaction Studies
In Meta-Analysis by Judge and Bono (2001), they studied the
four traits of self-esteem, generalized self-efficacy, locus of
control, emotional stability and the correlations with job
satisfaction and job performance. Their studies indicate that
self-esteem; generalized self-efficacy; locus of control and
emotional stability are significant predictors of both job
satisfaction and job performance. However, there are questions
that remain about the exact nature of the traits; whether or not
they are indicators of the core self-evaluations that are in place
and the processes by which they affect these outcomes. In

considering the traits with job satisfaction and job performance
that were observed in this study, and the high correlations
among the traits, they suggested when considering these traits
together it warrants further research.
Trevino and Nelson (2004) in their journal discussed why does
the corporate world need another business ethics text? The
reasons for writing this book came directly from complaints and
suggestions by students, employees, and corporate executives.
They questioned why ethics is so obscure and a mystery and
they wanted to be told how to effectively manage people. This
book started out with assumptions that ethics is all about human
behavior in organizations. These behaviors may be influenced
by managers and from the organization themselves. Another
point may involve managers pressuring their employees and in
turn they compromise their personal ethical standards on the
job. This behavior can cause a negative effect on employees’
job performance and satisfaction. There are managers at the
lower levels who compromise their ethical standards by blaming
the lack of reinforcement of ethical behaviors by their peers,
competition, the existence of accepted unethical practices and
not enforcing the organizations ethics codes. The Ethics
Resource Survey conducted a National Business Ethics Survey
in 2000; a nationally representative survey of 1,500 United
States employees. The results found that more than one in eight
employees felt pressured from supervisors and top management
to compromise ethical standards. The study recommended that
top management be more involved in ethics training programs.
In addition, local management conduct ethics training by using
real ethical issues that employees face every day in their own
work environment. In order for ethics training to be effective,
organizations must have training on a regular basis because
employees have a tendency to forget, changes in the ethic law,
technology, etc., and conduct frequent training sessions because
organizations want to send a message to their employees that

ethics awareness is important to all. The authors addressed the
eight steps to sound ethical decision making in business are to
gather the facts, define the ethical issues, identify the affected
parties (the stakeholders), identify the consequences, identify
the obligations, consider your character and integrity, think
creatively about potential actions, and check your gut. The fact
that ethical decision making does not have one dimension, these
tools are important for managers to help them make the best
possible ethical decision to include, how to respond to an
ethical dilemmas.
A study by Saari and Judge (2004), focused on the three major
knowledge gaps between Human Resource (HR) professionals
and managers in an organization regarding the causes of
employee attitudes, the results of positive and negative job
satisfaction, and how to measure and influence employee
attitudes. The researchers reviewed each gap and provided
recommendations to the related HR professionals and managers.
They also provided additional recommendations and suggestions
on how to enhance and implement their organizational practices
in the area of employee attitudes and job satisfaction. Further
research indicates that the HR professional’s and the
organization have to have an understanding and be educated on
what is the definition of employee attitudes and job satisfaction.
The answers to those questions are unlimited because of the
complexity of the human being because our cognitive,
psychological and biology are involved. The HR professionals
have to be more involved in the employee work situation
through organizational programs and management practices.
There is also research finding that there is a relationship
between personality and job satisfaction. Organizations do not
have an impact on employee’s personality but they can try to
match and place employees in positions that are appropriate for
them, and this will enhance their job satisfaction. There have
been debates and confusions on the results of positive or

negative job satisfaction whether satisfied employees are
productive employees. Researchers and studies conducted
found that the literature was weak and presented somewhat
inconsistent relationship between job satisfaction and job
performance. In addition, there have been various studies and
the conclusion was that some managers and HR professionals
indicated that the relationship between job satisfaction and
performance was a “management fad, illusory and trivial.
Apparently, the researchers were not satisfied and further
research did not agree with this conclusion. They suggested the
failure to find strong evidence in the relationship between job
satisfaction and performance is based on the limited scope on
defining job performance.
Kim (2002), studied the relationship between participatory
management in the context of the strategic planning and job
satisfaction was evaluated. The researchers distributed a survey
to 4,097 employees; 1,576 employees responded to the survey,
for a response rate of 38.5 percent. Response rates among
departments ranged from 30 percent to 80 percent. The
researchers found managers' use of a participatory management
style correlated positively with job satisfaction and a
participative strategic planning process. As expected, effective
communication with supervisors was positively correlated with
job satisfaction and a participative strategic planning process.
Accordingly, the authors stated when agencies implement
leadership development programs or other training for managers
and supervisors, they should consider including participative
management and employee empowerment techniques as key
components of the programs. In addition, the study's findings
demonstrate that a participative strategic planning process
positively affects employee job satisfaction. To the extent that
job satisfaction reduces absenteeism and turnover and the
study's findings suggest that employee participation in strategic
planning contributes to organizational effectiveness.

Payne and Cooper (2001), two main points of their article
described the processes of emotions in the work environment
and to do the same for emotional/affective occurrence in the
work environment. The authors stated that this book should
have read “Emotions, moods, and temperament at work”,
because many of the chapters that were written tried to shed
some light on the difficulty of maintaining the visual
distinctions that differentiate them, and the need to consider
them all in any serious forms to understand emotional
processes, or the outcomes of them in the work environment.
They also observed that there is a constant reference to the
complexity of understanding emotional life and its relationship
to cognitive experience and behavior. Another constant point
that was brought up is the importance of achieving better
understanding, both for improving people’s physical and
emotional health, and for improving the management of people
in the work environment. There are many references in this
book for the need to acknowledge that the health of the
workforce and the health of the work environment are
intimately connected.
Branham (2004), wrote an article on the hidden reasons
employees leave and how to recognize the subtle signs and acts
before it is too late to stop them from leaving. Managers
believe employees leave because they are persuaded by more
pay or better opportunity. The underlying factor related to poor
management practices or negative cultures that drove them to
leave. This inequity between belief and reality keeps
organizations from addressing the costly problems of employee
dissatisfaction and regrettably turnover with on-target solutions.
Managers need to face the facts as to why employee turnover is
not an event. Employee turnover is a process of disengagement
that has an unlimited scope of time when the employee actually

makes the decision to leave. In addition, managers must
discover how to re-engage employees who lose their motivation
and learn how to institute the best practices to make their
workplace a place where an employee has a choice to work
there. Managers must make the decision to create a positive
work environment where employees want to work, even though
they control the costs of attracting, hiring, and retaining
committed employees.
Perry and Mankin (2007), studied the relationships between
chief executive trusts, organizational trust and work satisfaction
were examined. There is an indication that trust and work
satisfaction was established by different criteria, and is not
necessarily related to one another. The study used five criteria
to assess trustworthiness of the chief executive: degree of
employee orientation, technical ability, fairness, honesty and
forthrightness. Furthermore, they compared government
organizations and the private sector. In government
organizations, trust in management was high, employee
orientation was considered important, and they trusted managers
that had the quality to lead and the ability to display fairness.
In the private sector, trust in executives was low, and the
criteria that dominated managerial trustworthiness were honesty
and forthrightness. Further studies indicate that there is a link
between organizational trust and executive trust, which seems to
lie in employee work satisfaction. The only time work
satisfaction reaches the highest levels is when managerial trust
is high. The connecting link to managerial trust, organizational
trust and work satisfaction is so complex that further study is
required and these three issues are related and have an effect on
each other.
Getahun, Sims, and Hummer (2008) case study derives from
prior research that was conducted on job satisfaction and

organizational commitment among probation and parole officers
from a state located in Northeast united states. The results
indicated that the employees are extremely satisfied when they
were able to exceed their job performance and had input and
ongoing feedback from their supervisors. The two important
factors in explaining employee satisfaction and possible
retention of the officers was organizational culture and
management style. Another interesting assessment was
analyzing employee low level job satisfaction that may stem
from on-the-job behavioral consequences. These undesirable
behaviors may involve using work time to perform personal
business, withdraw mentally from the job, higher rate of
turnover, early retirements, not being totally involved in their
job, and behavioral changes that impose a negative impact on
their work environment. The study suggests that it is extremely
important that criminal justice personnel require a supportive
relationship with their supervisors to remain satisfied with their
jobs. Another important point that is essential in improving the
working environment and to increase the overall job satisfaction
of employees is for supervisors to focus on establishing
continual training programs with the emphasis on effective
supervisory practices and effective communication. Finally, the
study indicated that there are many employees in the criminal
justice field who encounter many stressors in their work
environment. They can function better if the following factors
exist: effective training programs; reinforcing support from
their supervisors, decision–making factors (policies and
procedures) where their job is involved; and have flexibility in
performing their job.
Petter, Byrnes, Choi, Fegan and Miller (2002), article looked at
how important employee empowerment has grown in business
and public administration. This study questioned employee’s
value empowerment. They conducted inquiries through open-
ended interviews with 36 street-level bureaucrats (employees

who have direct interactions with citizen-consumers and who
have no supervisory authority) in a public human service
agency. The results of the interviews revealed that there were
six dimensions of empowerment which are reflected in the
views of these participants. Two of the dimensions showed
values by each participant: first, the participants perceive to be
adequately skilled and have the tools to perform their job;
second, that they are given sufficient independence and the
remaining four dimensions varied greatly on how participants
valued the dimensions or not. The dimension that showed
concern was decision making. Mixed results were identified.
However, some of the participants placed little if any value on
such involvement in decision making and some were openly
negative. The study suggests that the agency reevaluate their
empowerment programs by considering each employee
individually rather than as a group and to include employees in
the same office. To have an effective empowerment program,
the organization has to have an understanding of their
employees and tailor the program to accommodate all because it
cannot be one size fits all.
Sharbrough, Simmons, and Cantrill (2006) conducted a study on
employees of the southeast regional division of a Fortune 500
company that uses motivating language (ML). The definition of
ML is verbal expressions that can occur in leader-to-worker
talk. They also explored the relationship between the
supervisory staff that used the following: ML; communication
competence; communication; employees’ job satisfaction and
perceived supervisory effectiveness. The samples consist of
136 employees who participated in the survey out of 400 person
organization via an interactive Internet survey. The results
supported the reliability and validity of the two ML scales.
These results also measured perceived supervisory effectiveness
and perceived supervisory communication competence that can
be added to the ML toolbox. The results also provided

additional tools for evaluating supervisory ML effectiveness.
The study had an advantage by using the sample population
from an industry division that extended to five levels of
management, different levels of education, lengths of service,
both genders, various career fields, increased the possibility of
more widespread of ML application across the entire group and
entire organization. Leaders can become more effective by
using three types of communication: making communication
(explains the rules, structures, and values of the culture of an
organization); direction-giving or uncertainty-reducing
communication (clarifies instructions and clears up confusion);
and empathetic communication (expresses the emotions of a
leader through shared feelings, praise, and criticisms). The
study also addressed the need for future research concerning the
context of generalization of ML and the application of leader-
subordinate communications for group and organization level.
Nuff (2002), survey centered on lawyer job satisfaction, the
impact of stress on lawyers, and the public’s perception of
lawyers. After testing 35 lawyers and staff members, the study
revealed that perceptions were different when it came to overall
staff motivation and job satisfaction. The discrepancies existed
in the areas of respect, having an enjoyable work environment
and rapport with other employees. Another discrepancy was in
whether firm gatherings included support staff. Salaries and
medical benefits were most important to the lawyers that were
surveyed; staff members surveyed indicated what was most
important to them was respect and positive recognition from the
lawyers and salary and retirement benefits were almost as
important. An organization’s top priority is employee
motivation and job satisfaction. In addition, it is essential for
an organization to make changes on how to successfully
motivate employees and understand the psychology behind
employee motivation. The articles also examined the
importance of employee motivation and job satisfaction to

increased productivity and maintain stronger client relationships
with law firms. There are many pressures in the legal
profession and these can affect lawyers’ relationships with their
staff and members. Furthermore, there are several factors that
create occupational hazards that lawyers must contend with
which includes: maintaining focus on their analytical skills and
suppress any personal feelings; separate their feelings and
values in order to be an objective advocate for their clients; and
the negative public perception of lawyers. The combination of
these factors can definitely have an impact on lawyers’
relationship with others and certainly effect employee
satisfaction levels.
A journal by Hammer (2001), goal was to present a set of nine
emerging business concepts that underline how the best
companies around are mastering today’s turbulent environment.
The nine emerging business concepts stand largely on their own
merit and are the following: make it easy for your customers to
do business with you; add more value for your customers; create
a process enterprise; tame the beast of chaos with the power of
process; base managing on measuring; end the tyranny of the
organizational chart; distribute for, not to, the final customer;
redesign and streamline inter-enterprise process; and embrace
the radical vision of virtual integration. These tools are the new
ideas and new techniques to develop an action plan for the
twenty-first century. Hammer stated this phrase so eloquently
in a raw sense of form, “Just as you build on the work of your
predecessors, it is your responsibility to leave your successors a
better platform on which they can build”. Companies must be
prepared to respond and cope with tomorrow’s agenda for
change that never ends.
Authors Barrick and Ryan (2003), based their book on the
notion that every human being has personalities, and those

personalities affect our behavior at work. This notion is widely
accepted by psychologists, managers, and employees. Because
of this, there is a considerable interest in the field of
industrial/organizational (I/O) psychology on the topic of
personality and its influence in the work environment. Today,
you can pick up a current research journal in human resources,
organizational behavior, I/O psychology, or the in the general
area of management and find at least one article dealing with
personality at work. But while there is an overabundance of
information related to the narrow area of personality testing and
employee selection, there has been no definitive source offering
a broader perspective on the overall topic of personality in the
workplace. The authors researched a array of expert authors
that discussed the connection of personality to a wide range of
outcomes beyond performance, including counterproductive
behaviors, contextual performance, retaliatory behaviors,
retention, learning, knowledge creation, and the process of
sharing that knowledge. Throughout the book, the authors
present theoretical perspectives, introduce new models and
frameworks, and integrate and synthesize prior studies in ways
that will stimulate future research and practice.
Summary
This chapter presented a review of selected published studies,
journals, articles, and websites which appear to make some
singular or significant contribution to various aspects of
leadership effectiveness area which were useful for this
research project. The selected topics do not represent any
specific area of leadership activity, but rather cut across a
number of areas; business, education, military, explorers, “bad
leadership”, concepts and strategies and strengths and
weakness of an effective leader. The most striking thing about
defining leadership is it a term that identifies an increasingly
greater extent as one of the significant aspects of human
activity and is still in a state of flux and confusion. Trying to
define leadership is an endless process and ultimately will get

lost in infinity, but further investigation of leadership can be
beneficial for the next generation of researchers. Selected
published studies, journals, articles, and websites were review
on job satisfaction. The review found literature available on the
elements of the research topic, for example, Employees
Attitudes, Behaviors that Affect the Work Environment, Poor
Leadership, and Employee Empowerment. The analysis reveals,
regardless if the company is a Fortune 500 company or a law
firm, there will always be changes in organizations. These
changes do affect job satisfaction and employee performance.
Organizations have the ability to make the change process
smooth and more effective in order to gain the satisfaction from
their employees and customers. Job satisfaction is a product of
the events and conditions that people experience on their jobs.
References
Anonymous. (2008, August). Leadership Theories and Studies.
Reference for Business, 9.
Army Regulation 600-50. (1988, January). Standards of
Conduct for Department of the Army Personnel. Washington,
DC: Headquarters, Department of the Army.
Army Regulation 600-100. (2007, March). Army Leadership.
Washington, DC: Headquarters, Department of the Army.
Barrick, M. R., & Ryan, A. M. (2003). Personality and work:
Reconsidering the role of personality in organizations. San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 113-124, 262-270.
Bossy, L., & Charan, R. (2002). Execution: The discipline of
getting things done
(1st ed.). New York: Crown Publishing Group.
Branham, L. (2004). The hidden reasons employees leave:
How to recognize the subtle signs and act before it’s too late.

AMACOM, 87-99, 128-142.
Cleveland, H. (2003). Nobody in charge: Essays on the future
of leadership. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 123-130.
Covey, S. R. (1991). Principle centered leadership: Strategies
for personal and professional effectiveness (3rd ed.).
New York: Simon & Schuster.
Covey, S. R. (2001). The seven habits of highly effective
people. New York: Simon & Schuster, 70-78.
DePree, M. (2004). Leadership is an art. New York:
Doubleday, 11-15, 113-115.
Doty, J., & Gerdes, D. (2000). Humility as a leadership
attribute. Military Review, 80 (5), 89-90.
Doty, J., & Gelineau, J. (2008), Command climate. Army
Arlington, 58 (7), 22-24.
Getahun, S., Sims, B., & Hummer, D. Job satisfaction and
organizational commitment among probation and parole
officers: A case study. Retrieved August 19, 2008, from
http://www.libraryjournal.com/article/ca6483878.html
Hummer, M. (2001). The agenda: What every business must
do to dominate the decade (3rd ed.). New York: Crown
Business.
Judge, T. A., & Bono, J. E. (2001). Relationship of core self-
evaluations traits-self-esteem, generalized self-efficiency, locus
of control, and emotional stability with job satisfaction and job
performance: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology,
86(1), 80-92.

Kellerman, B. (2004). Bad leadership: What it is, how it
happens, why it matters. Boston, MA: Harvard Business
School Publishing, 15-25, 117-119.
Kim, S. (2002). Participative management and job satisfaction:
Lessons for management leadership. Public Administration
Review, 62 (2), 231-241.
Kolenda, C. (2001). Leadership: The warrior’s art. Carlisle,
PA: The Army War College Foundation Press, 65-72, 251-259.
Kouzes, J., & Posner, B. (2003). Leadership challenge. The
leadership practices inventory (Series, #53) (3rd ed., pp.1-496).
New York: Wiley, John & Sons, Inc.
Madlock, P. E. (2008). The link between leadership style,
communicator competence and employee satisfaction. The
Journal of Business Communication, 45 (1), 61-68.
Neff, T. M. (2002). What successful companies know that law
firms need to know: The importance of employee motivation
and job satisfaction to increased
productivity and stronger client relationships. Journal of Law
and Health, 17 (2), 385-425.
Payne, R. L., & Cooper, C. L. (Eds.). (2001). Emotions at
work: Theory, research and applications in management.
Chichester, England: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Perkins, D. (2000). Leading at the edge: Lessons from the
extraordinary saga of shackleton’s antartic expedition. New
York: AMACO.
Perry, R. W., & Mankin, L. D. (2007). Organizational trust,
trust in the chief executive and work satisfaction. Public

Personnel Management, 36 (2), 165-200.
Petter, J., & Byrnes, P., Choi, D. L., Fegan, F.,& Miller, R.
(2002). Dimensions and patterns in Employee empowerment:
Assessing what matters to street-level bureaucrats. Journal of
Public Administration Research and Theory, 12 (3), 377-425.
Saari, L. M., & Judge, T. A. (2004). Employee attitudes and
job satisfaction. Human Resource Management, 43 (4), 395-
407.
Sashkin, M., & Sashkin, M. G. (2003). Leadership that
matters: The critical factors for making a difference in people’s
lives and organizations’ success. San Francisco: Berrett-
Koehler.
Sasnett, B., & Ross, T. (2007). Leadership frames and
perceptions of effectiveness among health information
management program directors. Perspectives in Health
Information Management, 4 (8), 17-25.
Sharborough, W. C., Simmons, S. A., & Cantrill, D. A. (2006).
Motivating language in idustry: Its impact on job satisfaction
and perceived supervisor effectiveness. The Journal of
Business Communication, 43 (4), 322-363.
Taylor, R. L., & Rosenbach, W. E. (Eds.). (2000). Military
leadership: In pursuit of excellence. Boulder, CO: Westview
Press.
Trevino, L., & Nelson, K. (2004). Managing business ethics:
Straight talk about how to do it right. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley
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Zenger, J., & Folkman, J. (2002). The extraordinary leader:
Turning good manager into great leaders. New York: McGraw

_LitRevExample-OutsourcingIT.doc
Outsourcing IT
Title:
Submitted to:
Submitted by:
[Student’s Name]
[Street Address]
Work Phone:
[703-555-1234]
Home/Cell Phone:
[804-555-1111]
Email:

[Month, Day, Year]
LITERATURE REVIEW EXAMPLE
OUTSOURCING INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY WITHIN
THE DEPARTMENT OF THE NAVYRECOMMENDATIONS
FOR THE UNITED STATES MARINE CORPSCERTIFICATE
OF AUTHORSHIP:
OUTSOURCING INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY WITHIN
THE DEPARTMENT OF THE NAVY
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE UNITED STATES MARINE
CORPS
Submitted by:
James J. Richards
Project Instructor:

Table of Contents
Page Number
List of Tables
ii
List of Figures
ii
Chapter 1
Problem Definition
1
Chapter 2
Literature Review

7
Chapter 3
15
Chapter 4
Data Analysis
[Future]
Chapter 5
[Future]
Page 18
References
Pages 19-22
Appendix A

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