AlvarezBachman, Violence The Enduring Problem, 3rd Editi.docx

Alvarez/Bachman, Violence: The Enduring Problem, 3rd Edition
© 2017 SAGE Publications, Inc.
Chapter 1:
As American as apple pie
Origins of ViolenceViolence
Aggressive and/or harmful behaviorUnity of human aggression
All violence is connected by a web of actions and behaviors.
All violent acts share a number of essential characteristics.
By and large, perpetrators rely on similar justifications for their
violent acts.Aggression
Behavior that is physically and/or psychologically harmful
Justifications for Violence“Righteous slaughter”
Retaliation or defense of values or principlesSpillover theory
Values and justifications for violence in socially approved
settings “spill over” into other settings and result in illegitimate
forms of violence
Ex: DEATH PENALTYBrutalization hypothesis

Desensitized killings by the state devalue human life and lead to
increased collective tolerance of lethal behavior
Embracing Violence
Culture
Values, beliefs, and rules of behavior
Dictates what is expected and prohibited
Subcultures of violence
Members of particular groups are prone to violence because of
values and beliefs imbedded in their cultures
Example: gang violence, Ku Klux Klan activity
*
Embracing Violence
Ray Rice, who was indefinitely suspended by the NFL after a
video portrayed him punching and knocking out his then fiancé
(now wife),
Janay Rice, in an Atlantic City elevator.

*
Defining ViolenceComplexities of defining violence
Varied actions and contexts
Individual perceptions and understandings
Legitimacy of aggressionHighly situational, contingent, and
contextual
Victim
Offender
Nature of violence
Locational of violence
Rationale for violence
Social Distance
Defining Violence

Defining Aggression
Classifications of ViolenceExpressive vs. instrumental
Expressive: emotionally-motivated violent behavior
Instrumental: violence as a means to an endInterpersonal
Assaults, rapes, robberies, and murdersInstitutional
Violent behaviors perpetrated in an organizational
settingStructural
Discriminatory social arrangements that can be construed as
violent; social inequality
Measuring Violence
Reports to law enforcement
Uniform Crime Reporting Program (UCR)
Supplementary Homicide Reports (SHR)
National Incident Based Reporting System (NIBRS)
Victimization surveys
National Victimization Survey (NCVS)

National Youth Survey (NYS)
Varied strengths and weaknesses of each data source
Violence in U.S. SocietyData indicate that the impact of
violence on society is immense
Individual level avoidance strategies steer everyday behavior
“Get Tough” legislation
Centuries of warfare
Media replete with depictions of violence
Entertainment and gaming consoles
Everyone knows a victim
At least in part, our identities are often shaped by violence
Violent Crime Rates, 1993-2014, NCVS
Murder Rates per 100,000 by Country, 2004

Organization of the BookChapter 2 – Explaining
ViolenceChapter 3 – Aiding and Abetting ViolenceChapter 4 –
Assault and HomicideChapter 5 – Violence in the HomeChapter
6 – Stranger DangerChapter 7 – Rape and Sexual
AssaultChapter 8 – Mob ViolenceChapter 9 – TerrorismChapter
10 – GenocideChapter 11 – Toward Violence Protection
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Chapter 9:
Terrorism
Defining TerrorismDifficult to define for several reasons:Varied
behavior motivated by various agendasContinuously evolving
phenomenonDefinition depends on perspectiveInstead of
focusing on any particular definition, it might be helpful to
review some common themes and ideas that many definitions
share.
Common ThemesFirst, terrorism is a violent activity.It is about
destruction and harm, whether of people or property or
both.Terrorists have chosen violence as the preferred method of
accomplishing their goals.While various social, political,
economic, and cultural avenues are available to help bring about
change, terrorists have settled on violence.

Common ThemesSecond, the violence is instrumental.There is
purpose and reason to it.In this sense, at least, it is
rational.Terrorists engage in extreme acts of violence because
they perceive it will help them achieve some goal.
Common ThemesThird, terrorism usually targets defenseless
victims.Civilian and noncombatant targets are the most common
victims. They are soft targets.Their status as innocents
heightens the dramatic impact of the violence.
Terrorist Attacks by Type of Target, 2014
Source: Adapted from data from The Institute for economics
and Peace. Global Terrorism Index 2015: Measuring and
Understanding the Impact of Terrorism.
Chart1Private Citizens &
PropertyOtherMilitaryPoliceBusinessGovernmentReligious
Deaths by Type of Target
15380
3496

2530
6124
1983
2060
1111
Sheet1Deaths by Type of TargetPrivate Citizens &
Property15,380Other3496Military2530Police6124Business1983
Government2060Religious1111
Common ThemesFourth, the purpose of terrorism is to
terrorize.Terrorist groups aim to create a climate of fear within
a society.The indiscriminate nature of the attacks coupled with
civilian targets exacerbates the fear and perceived vulnerability
of a population.Creating a climate of fear throughout a society
is one way that these groups can project an image of strength
and pervasiveness that is not based on actual capabilities.
Common ThemesFifth, terrorism is systematic.An isolated
event, though it might be considered terrifying, is not
necessarily considered terrorism.Instead, terrorism is a
recurring phenomenon.

Terrorism and Guerilla WarfareGuerrilla means “little war,” and
this kind of conflict is often termedLow intensity
warfareInsurgency warfareTends to involve larger military style
forces that attack military forces and seek to hold and control
territoryTerrorist groups tend to be smaller, do not operate in
the open, target primarily noncombatants, and do not hold
territory
Terrorism and Guerilla WarfareGuerrilla forces sometimes use
terror tactics in their military campaigns.Terrorist groups may
organize in military style units.Individuals and groups can move
from one type to the other.A good example is Osama bin Laden
and Al-Qaeda,Some organizations encompass both. Hezbollah,
for example, includes a political arm, social services, a
paramilitary branch, and also engages in terrorism.
History of TerrorismTerrorism has been around a long time with
many examples from many different places.Zealots
(Sicarii)RomansAssassinsFrench RevolutionMolly Maguires

How Frequent Are Terrorist Acts?
Source: Adapted from the National Consortium for the Study of
Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism (START). (2013). Global
Terrorism Database [Data file]. Retrieved from
http://www.start.umd.edu/gtd
Chart119941995199619971998199920002001200220032004200
5200620072008200920102011201220132014
Terrorism Events in the United States, 1994-2014
56
62
36
40
30
53
33
40
33
32
9
23
6
9
19
11
17
9
13
16
19

Sheet1Terrorism Events in the United States, 1994-
20141994561995621996361997401998301999532000332001402
00233200332200492005232006620079200819200911201017201
19201213201316201419
Terrorism Acts by Region
http://www.start.umd.edu/gtd
Chart1Southeast AsiaCentral America, CaribbeanEast AsiaNorth
AmericaAustralasia, OceaniaSouth AmericaCentral AsiaMiddle
East, North AfricaSub-Saharan AfricaSouth AsiaEastern
EuropeWestern Europe
Terrorism Acts by Region
9313
10338
758
3195
239
18453
529
34462
11493
33273
4204
15709
Sheet1Terrorism Acts by RegionSoutheast Asia9313Central
America, Caribbean10338East Asia758North

America3195Australasia, Oceania239South
America18453Central Asia529Middle East, North
Africa34462Sub-Saharan Africa11493South Asia33273Eastern
Europe4204Western Europe15709
Typology of Terrorism
Source: Post, J. M. (2004). Leaders and their followers in a
dangerous world: The psychology of political behavior. Ithaca,
NY: Cornell University Press.
Who Becomes a Terrorist?Is there a typical profile of someone
who becomes a terrorist?Research indicates that the majority of
terrorists do not suffer from psychological problems such as
schizophrenia.This makes sense, for such a person would pose a
significant security risk for the organization.Some believe that
terrorists suffer from a narcissistic personality disorder that
renders them somewhat sociopathic, arrogant, and without care
or concern for others.
Tactics and WeaponsTerrorists employ a wide range of tactics
and weapons.Range from nonlethal assaults and campaigns of
intimidation, to massively deadly attacks using bombs and

firearmsTactics are largely dictated by the goals of the
organization.
Terrorism by Type of Attack, 2014
http://www.start.umd.edu/gtd.
Chart1Bombing/ExplosionUnarmed
AssaultUnknownAssassinationKidnapping/Hostage
TakingArmed AssaultFacility/InfrastructureHijackingOther
Attack Type
8802
47
817
1403
1449
4435
984
48
188
Sheet1Attack TypeBombing/Explosion8802Unarmed
Assault47Unknown817Assassination1403Kidnapping/Hostage
Taking1449Armed
Assault4435Facility/Infrastructure984Hijacking48Other188

Weapons of Mass DestructionMany terrorism experts fear
terrorist organizations will acquire and use WMD.These
includeNuclearBuild, steal, or buy; All difficultEasier to deploy
“dirty bomb”BiologicalLong pedigree, but hard to contain and
control ChemicalNerve=inhibits functioning of important
enzymes that regulates nerve activityBlood=affects blood after
being inhaled; prevents body form using oxygen in
bloodChoking=damages lungs and causes lungs to fill with
mucusBlistering=burns whatever parts of body they come in
contact with
What Are We Doing About Terrorism?Department of Homeland
Security (DHS)The mission of DHS includes preventing
terrorism and enhancing security, managing U.S. borders,
administering immigration laws, securing cyberspace, and
ensuring disaster resilience. Giving hope and security to
disenfranchised young people may do more to combat terrorism
in the first place by preventing these youth from being recruited
to groups like ISIS in the first place. Unfortunately, there is no
mention of strategies such as this on the DHS website.

ConclusionsTerrorism is likely to be a problem for the United
States and the world for some time to come.Islamic
fundamentalism is the most recent manifestation of international
terror but far from the only terrorist agenda.Manufacturing and
sale of weapons of mass destruction exponentially increases
potential lethality of terrorism.
Chapter 4:
Assault and Murder:
A Continuum of violence

Defining Assault and HomicideAssault covers a wide range of
actions ranging from a simple threat of harm to a near-fatal
attack. Aggravated assault“An attack or attempted attack with a
weapon, regardless of whether or not an injury occurred and
attack without a weapon when serious injury results.” Simple
assault“Attack without a weapon resulting either in no injury,
minor injury (for example, bruises, black eyes, cuts, scratches,
or swelling), or an undetermined injury requiring less than 2
days of hospitalization. Also include cases of attempted assault
without a weapon
HomicideHomicide is a general term for the killing of another
individual.Murder refers to the specific legal category of
criminal homicide. As with all crimes, the legal definitions of
murder vary from state to state, but there are typically three
types: Justifiable–in defense of life or propertyExcusable–
accidental (but not due to recklessness)Criminal–murder and
manslaughter
MurderFirst-degree murders Committed with premeditation and
deliberationPremeditation refers to the knowledge and intention
to kill.Deliberation means that the killing was planned and
thought about rather than committed on impulse. Second-degree

murders Do not involve premeditation and deliberationInstead,
they are more spontaneous in nature. Felony murder Occurs
during the commission of another felony such as a robbery.
ManslaughterManslaughters are criminal homicides in which the
degree of responsibility is considered much less than murderNo
premeditation or deliberation No maliceVoluntary Manslaughter
Someone killed while overwhelmed by emotion or
passionInvoluntary ManslaughterSomeone killed because of
another individual’s reckless behavior
Victim/Offender Relationship, 2014
Source: Adapted from NCVS Data
Chart1IntimatesIntimatesIntimatesIntimatesOther RelativeOther
RelativeOther RelativeOther
RelativeAcquaintanceAcquaintanceAcquaintanceAcquaintanceSt
rangerStrangerStrangerStrangerUnknownUnknownUnknownUnk
nown

Simple Assault Male
Aggravated Assault Male
Simple Assault Female
Aggravated Assault Female
1.9
2.5
9.2
8.9
4.3
3.5
6
4.4
13.4
14.5
20.9
8.2
26
35.1
11.2
15.1
1.9
4.3
1.6
2
Sheet1Simple Assault MaleAggravated Assault MaleSimple
Assault FemaleAggravated Assault
FemaleIntimates1.92.59.28.9Other
Relative4.33.564.4Acquaintance13.414.520.98.2Stranger2635.1
11.215.1Unknown1.94.31.62
When Assaults Become Lethal–HomicideIn 2014, there were
14,249 people murdered in the United States, which translates
into a rate of 4.5 per 100,000 U.S. inhabitants.
Beginning around 1993, murder rates began a decline that has

continued for 20 years.
The largest proportion of victims falls into the age bracket of 25
to 49, followed by 18 to 24. Importantly, this pattern also holds
for perpetration.
Homicide Victimization by Age, 1980-2013
Source: Puzzanchera, C., Chamberlin, G., and Kang, W. (2015).
"Easy Access to the FBI's Supplementary Homicide Reports:
1980-2013."
Online. Available: http://www.ojjdp.gov/ojstatbb/ezashr/
Chart119801980198019801980198019801981198119811981198
11981198119821982198219821982198219821983198319831983
19831983198319841984198419841984198419841985198519851
98519851985198519861986198619861986198619861987198719
87198719871987198719881988198819881988198819881989198
91989198919891989198919901990199019901990199019901991
19911991199119911991199119921992199219921992199219921
99319931993199319931993199319941994199419941994199419
94199519951995199519951995199519961996199619961996199
61996199719971997199719971997199719981998199819981998
19981998199919991999199919991999199920002000200020002
00020002000200120012001200120012001200120022002200220
02200220022002200320032003200320032003200320042004200
42004200420042004200520052005200520052005200520062006
20062006200620062006200720072007200720072007200720082

00820082008200820082008200920092009200920092009200920
10201020102010201020102010201120112011201120112011201
12012201220122012201220122012201320132013201320132013
2013
0 to 5
6 to 11
12 to 14
15 to 17
18 to 24
25 to 49
50 & older
Homicide Victims by Age
614
176
161
862
5146
11732
3957
595
199
181
715
4768
11635
4010
670
189
154
675
4439
10815
3740
629
145
151

612
4043
10117
3311
593
165
159
546
3842
9845
3112
597
175
182
619
3795
10108
3086
725
148
170
677
4335
10967
3105
643
160
175
735
4288
10663
3059
704
198
192
843

4437
11035
2933
711
203
220
1020
4834
11331
2889
716
162
247
1170
5650
12299
2829
810
169
271
1324
6305
12493
2902
731
160
310
1362
6055
12074
2741
815
205
341
1480
6363

12193
2798
802
156
290
1414
6098
11590
2570
760
133
297
1431
5454
10580
2585
813
144
211
1237
4884
9725
2350
689
166
175
1029
4720
8851
2231
704
165
192
866
4332
8329

2026
650
153
169
824
3901
7630
1936
624
126
156
675
3950
7779
1958
681
146
126
687
4172
7866
2027
620
151
127
674
4239
8034
2050
645
125
116
656
4415
8140
2129

609
114
138
704
4087
7953
2244
606
126
156
746
4326
8223
2259
625
131
177
851
4547
8292
2374
642
142
160
858
4391
8318
2313
677
117
136
799
3982
8056
2427
588

122
119
697
3769
7476
2410
610
85
102
648
3616
7139
2358
614
118
94
554
3653
7055
2428
512
122
106
538
3656
7239
2551
528
123
92
467
3389
6916
2531
Sheet1Count0 to 56 to 1112 to 1415 to 1718 to 2425 to 4950 &
older198061417616186251461173239571981595199181715476

81163540101982670189154675443910815374019836291451516
12404310117331119845931651595463842984531121985597175
18261937951010830861986725148170677433510967310519876
43160175735428810663305919887041981928434437110352933
19897112032201020483411331288919907161622471170565012
29928291991810169271132463051249329021992731160310136
26055120742741199381520534114806363121932798199480215
62901414609811590257019957601332971431545410580258519
96813144211123748849725235019976891661751029472088512
23119987041651928664332832920261999650153169824390176
30193620006241261566753950777919582001681146126687417
27866202720026201511276744239803420502003645125116656
44158140212920046091141387044087795322442005606126156
74643268223225920066251311778514547829223742007642142
16085843918318231320086771171367993982805624272009588
12211969737697476241020106108510264836167139235820116
14118945543653705524282012512122106538365672392551201
352812392467338969162531
HandgunsThe other factor that contributed to the high rates of
murder in the 1990s was handguns.
The majority of homicides during this time were committed
with firearms, which John Lofland termed “facilitating
hardware” for lethal violence.
The dynamics of a conflict or dispute change dramatically once
a firearm becomes involved.
Murder in the United States by Weapon, 1980-2013

Source: Puzzanchera, C., Chamberlin, G., and Kang, W. (2015).
"Easy Access to the FBI's Supplementary Homicide Reports:
1980-2013."
Online. Available: http://www.ojjdp.gov/ojstatbb/ezashr/
Chart119801980198019801980198119811981198119811982198
21982198219821983198319831983198319841984198419841984
19851985198519851985198619861986198619861987198719871
98719871988198819881988198819891989198919891989199019
90199019901990199119911991199119911992199219921992199
21993199319931993199319941994199419941994199519951995
19951995199619961996199619961997199719971997199719981
99819981998199819991999199919991999200020002000200020
00200120012001200120012002200220022002200220032003200
32003200320042004200420042004200520052005200520052006
20062006200620062007200720072007200720082008200820082
00820092009200920092009201020102010201020102011201120
11201120112012201220122012201220132013201320132013
Firearm
Knife
Blunt Object
Personal
Other/Unk
Murder by Weapon, 1980-2013
14383
4439
1152
1330
1739
14058

4361
1165
1261
1671
12641
4379
1032
1392
1568
11265
4215
1098
1315
1415
11017
3954
1088
1223
1410
11135
3988
1051
1275
1527
12181
4232
1177
1393
1629
11868
4076
1172
1300
1680
12533
3977

1294
1261
1610
13415
3921
1279
1188
1698
15058
4075
1253
1288
1763
16378
3907
1249
1368
1802
16199
3447
1087
1176
1851
17069
3137
1078
1216
2026
16325
2959
962
1223
1857
14727
2726
979

1277
1897
13261
2690
916
1190
1589
12334
2364
831
1151
1528
11012
2254
896
1140
1672
10113
2041
900
1050
1418
10193
2097
730
1086
1480
10112
2088
773
1099
1965
10832
2016
774
1085

1522
11010
2086
742
1094
1597
10657
2119
758
1071
1542
11353
2144
678
1009
1555
11716
2101
709
960
1824
11624
2085
742
998
1679
10994
2196
706
1009
1560
10302
2055
697
912
1432

9918
1938
612
859
1394
9910
1965
578
860
1348
10253
1851
602
809
1341
9755
1719
497
813
1412
Sheet1FirearmKnifeBlunt
ObjectPersonalOther/Unk19801438344391152133017391981140
58436111651261167119821264143791032139215681983112654
21510981315141519841101739541088122314101985111353988
10511275152719861218142321177139316291987118684076117
21300168019881253339771294126116101989134153921127911
88169819901505840751253128817631991163783907124913681
80219921619934471087117618511993170693137107812162026
19941632529599621223185719951472727269791277189719961
32612690916119015891997123342364831115115281998110122
25489611401672199910113204190010501418200010193209773
01086148020011011220887731099196520021083220167741085
15222003110102086742109415972004106572119758107115422
00511353214467810091555200611716210170996018242007116
24208574299816792008109942196706100915602009103022055
69791214322010991819386128591394201199101965578860134

8201210253185160280913412013975517194978131412
Violent InteractionsSymbolic interactionism Human behavior—
including assaults and homicides—occurs in social
situations.The meaning people attach to their behavior is an
important element in understanding what takes place in a given
circumstance.
This means that the outcome of the encounter depends on the
perceptions and behaviors of the actors involved. Because of
this, violent events tend to be evolutionary and sequential in
nature, with a beginning and an end. In other words, violence is
often patterned behavior.
Classifying HomicideResearchers have classified homicide
situations into what are termed instrumental and expressive
events. Instrumental murders are those conducted for explicit,
future goals such as acquiring money or property. Robbery
murders are usually classified as instrumental. Expressive
murders are often unplanned acts of anger, rage, or
frustration.They are typically precipitated by a conflict situation
such as an argument or fight.

Luckenbill’s 6 Homicide Transactions
1. The eventual victim says or does something that is offensive
to the eventual murderer.
2. The murderer interprets the previous interaction as offensive.
3. A variety of response options are available to the eventual
murderer, including walking away from the event; however, if
retaliation is chosen, violence becomes almost inevitable.
4. Interaction between the parties escalates, and both perceive
the situation as a confrontation to which the only appropriate
response involves aggression and violence.
5. Violence is used to resolve the conflict. The offender may
procure a weapon that is at hand or briefly leave the scene to
get one.
6. The final stage involves the murderer either fleeing,
remaining, or being held by bystanders; the choice is
determined by the social context, including the relationship
between the victim and offender
MulticideMurders involving multiple victimsPretty uncommon
and account for only 5% of all murdersGlean lots of media
attention3 broad typesMass murderSpree murderSerial murder

Mass MurderFour or more victims at one general point in
timeOften followed by perpetrator suicideMass murder in the
workplacePerpetrator: White, middle-aged, frustrated,
retaliation agendaMass murder in schoolPerpetrator: angry,
hostile, retaliation agenda
Serial MurderMultiple victims Murders take place on at least
three separate occasions, with an emotional cooling-off period
between incidentsEgger’s 5 characteristics of serial murderNo
prior relationship between victim and attackerSubsequent
murders have no apparent connection to initial
murderSubsequent murders committed in different
locationsMotive is power/dominance over victimVictims may
possess symbolic value and are usually defenseless
Characteristics of Serial MurderersMajority are White, middle-
aged, maleTend to target vulnerable strangers Most act
aloneTend to have prior criminal recordsHomicidal triadHolmes
and Holmes’s 6 serial killer typologiesHedonistic lust
ThrillComfortPower/controlMissionVisionary

Spree MurderLeast common of the three multicide typesShort-
lived, where killings take place over a shorter period of timeNo
direction or planningVictims are unlucky strangersRampage
ends once killer(s) captured or killed
Capital PunishmentGregg v. Georgia (1976) reaffirmed the use
of the death penaltyDoes capital punishment prevent
violence?General deterrenceDoes fear of death deter homicidal
behavior?Data indicates otherwiseIncapacitationKeep murderers
from killing againRetribution“Eye for an eye” moral
justification Death penalty moratorium movement
ConclusionsViolent interactions fall on a continuum.Higher
violent crime rates of the 1990s are attributed to killings by
young men armed with handguns.Young racial/ethnic minority

group men in particularMulticide is more often committed by
White men.The United States has the highest homicide rates of
all industrialized nations.Unlike other industrialized nations,
the United States relies on the death penalty.
Chapter 6:
Rape and Sexual Assault
A Crime of ViolenceFew crimes evoke such a visceral reaction
as rape.It is because it is a violation of the most intimate

kind.Rape is also a crime that is subject to more
misunderstandings than many other types of violence.We tend
to perceive it, for example, as a crime only against women.We
tend to think of it, for example, only in terms of forced
intercourse.
How Many Victims Are There?One of the more accurate surveys
is the National Violence Against Women & Men Survey that
suggests Over 900,000 men and women over the age of 18
become the victims of rape annually.Unfortunately, the only
estimates of rape and sexual assault available at most levels,
including state and city, are from the less reliable police
reports.
Non-ReportingMost victims, less than 3 out of 10, report being
victimized. They are reluctant becauseOf the intimate nature of
the assaultFear of retaliation from the offenderFear of not being
believedShame, embarrassment, and social stigmaFear of being
victimized by justice system (2nd rape)

Demographic Factors from the NCVSYounger people had the
highest rates of rape, with those 16 to 19 years of age being at
the greatest risk of rape. By the age of 35, the risk of rape
decreases significantly and remains at low levels throughout the
remainder of the life course. Income also appears to be related
to rape victimization. Individuals living in families with lower
incomes have an increased risk of victimization compared to
individuals residing in families with higher incomes.
Rape and Molestation of ChildrenChild protection services
divisions are mandated to remove victims from abusive
situations.All states have mandatory reporting laws, requiring
action from school and healthcare personnel. Child Abuse
Prevention and Treatment Act defines sexual abuse and
exploitationEmployment, use, inducement, or coercion of any
child to engage in sexually explicit conduct . . . Rape,
molestation, prostitution, or other form of sexual exploitation of
children or incest with children . . . Estimates range from
114,000 to 300,000 cases per yearDeflated due to
underreporting1 in 5 girls and 1 in 20 boys are
victimizedOffenders are overwhelmingly male and known to
their victims

College Women and RapeResearch suggests that women
attending college are at greater risk for rape and sexual assault
compared to other women of the same age in the general
population. Data suggest that nearly 5% of college women are
victimized in any given calendar year.For every 1,000 women
attending these types of institutions there may be 35 incidents
of rape in a given academic year.One study sampled 6,000
students from 32 colleges and found that 53% reported some
sort of unwanted sexual contact. Of those, 15% had been
victimized by rape, and 12% had experienced an attempted rape.
College RapeContrary to popular mythology, most victims know
their assailants. 9 out of 10 offenders were known to the victim
in the NCWSV study, while Koss found that 83% of the victims
knew their assailant. The majority of the offenders were other
classmates, friends, boyfriends, and ex-boyfriends. Similarly,
the majority of rapes, regardless of whether they occurred on or
off campus, took place in residences. Often these rapes are
facilitated by a variety of drugs.
Responses to College RapeStudent Right-to-Know and Campus
Security Act of 1990Institutions participating in federal aid
programs must prepare, produce, and distribute an annual

security report.Jeanne Clery Disclosure of Campus Security
Policy and Campus Crime Statistics ActInstitutions must
publish more specific policies regarding awareness and
prevention of sexual assault.National College Women Sexual
Assault Victimization Study (NCWSV)Department of Justice
funded survey that closely explores the phenomenon
Prison RapeRape and sexual assaults against inmates that occur
in correctional facilities Perpetrated by other inmates and/or
correctional staffConvict culture prohibits snitching and
precludes victims’ reporting.Human Rights Watch obtained
testimony from over 200 prisoners in 37 states and published
“No Escape: Male Rape in Prison.”Prison Rape Elimination Act
of 2003Requires BJS to develop data collection on sexual
assault in correctional facilities
Rape and the U.S. MilitaryIn a survey of active-duty men and
women conducted by the Rand Corporation for the DOD, the
percentage of women who had experienced unwanted sexual
contact in the past year declined from 6.1% 2012 to 4.3% in
2014.Just over half (53%) of female victims who reported their
attacks to a military authority told interviewers that they
perceived social retaliation, while about one third perceived
adverse administrative action (35%) or professional retaliation

(32%).
Source: Department of Defense Annual Report on Sexual
Assault in the Military, Fiscal Year 2014
Genocide and RapeRape as a byproduct of war, population
annihilation, and ethnic cleansingWomen are just one of the
many “spoils of war.”Widespread brutal rape of Tutsi women in
RwandaInternational Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda convicted
Jean Paul Akayesu in 1998Serbian “ethnic cleansing” efforts
RapistsRape is a very varied phenomenon, and consequently,
rapists are a heterogeneous group. This means that no single
theory is going to explain all rape. Furthermore, studies based
on interviews with convicted rapists in prison can not be
generalized to all rapists because so few rapes are ever reported
to police, much less end in conviction and incarceration of the
offender.

Reasons for RapeRapists commit their crimes for a variety of
reasons, but three themes seem to run through all of them:
PowerAngerSexuality
Rape TypologiesOne such classification scheme divides rapists
into four broad types: Power reassurance: suffers from low self-
esteem, feelings of being inadequate and, in the act of rape,
tries to achieve a sense of personal empowermentAnger
retaliation: feels a tremendous amount of hostility toward
women and consequently uses rape as a vehicle of
revengePower assertive: individuals achieve a powerful feeling
of being in control and of having the power of life or death over
their victimsSadistic: displays extreme violence and cruelty;
revels in the pain and humiliation that inflicted on their victims
Power and DominanceViolence against women is an expression
of a patriarchal social structure.Subjugation of women is built

into the organization of society.Socialization encourages males
to associate aggression and virility with masculinity and women
to adopt submissive/passive roles.Belief in traditional sex roles
is related to attitudes endorsing violence against women.
Response to Rape Victims and OffendersRape law
reformsReplaced single crime code of rape with gender- and
relationship-neutral series of offenses graded by
severityChanged consent standardsEliminated corroboration
requirementsEnacting rape shield laws Sexual assault response
team (SART)Coordinated response team includes victim
assistance workers and trained investigative personnelSexual
assault nurse examiners (SANE)Provide expert testimony for
prosecution in sexual assault cases
Criminal Justice System and Sexual Assault OffendersNational
Corrections Reporting Program (NCRP)Data collection for the
purpose of evaluating what happens when rape offenders are
adjudicatedPam Lyncher Sexual Offender Tracking and
Identification Act of 1996Mandated creation of national
database of convicted sex offenders designed to track them as
they move from state to stateAdam Walsh Child Protection and
Safety ActJurisdiction now includes federally recognized
American Indian TribesExpanded number of sex offenses

captured by registrationsEstablished Office of Sex Offender
Sentencing, Monitoring, Apprehending, Registering and
Tracking to administer standards of notification and registration
ConclusionsRape is not a rare event.Sexual assault is used a
tool of violence, power, and dominance.As the law stands, the
vast majority of assailants will never be punished.
Chapter 5:
Violence in the home

Family ViolenceRange of destructive behaviorsPhysical, sexual,
financial, verbal, and/or emotional abuse between a number of
dyadic relationshipsIntimatesParents and
childrenSiblingsElderly and their caregivers
Intimate Partner ViolenceIntentional use of physical force
against an intimate partnerRecognized as a social and health
problem in the last few decadesPreviously viewed as a private
matterGender stereotypes and assumptions contributed to lack
of attentionAttitudes have changed largely as a result of
activism
Estimating Rates of Violence Against WomenUnderreporting
has always been an issueVictims’ avoidance of stigmaFear of
perpetrator retaliationOfficial record data sources Uniform
Crime Reports50% of IPV assaults are actually reported to
policeNo information on victim-offender relationshipNational

Incident Based Crime Reporting SystemThree large nationally
representative surveysNational Family Violence Survey
(NFVS)National Crime and Victimization Survey
(NCVS)National Violence Against Women and Men Survey
(NVAWMS)
National Crime Victimization SurveyInterviews all household
members aged 12 or olderEstimates for 2014 indicateIntimate
partner violence (IPV) for males and females combined was 2.5
per 1,000 persons age 12 and older, IPV against men–1.1 per
1,000635,000 people aged 12 and over being violently attacked
by their intimate partners, which does not include homicides
Rate of Intimate Partner Violence by Victim’s Gender, NCVS
1994-2011
Source: Shannan Catalano, Intimate Partner Violence:
Attributes of Victimization, 1993-2011. Bureau of Justice
Statistics.

National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence SurveySurvey
conducted by Centers for Disease Control and
PreventionRespondents specifically asked about all intimate
partners including same-sex couplesNISVS 2010 estimates4% of
women experienced a physical attack by an intimate
partner4.7% of men experienced a physical attack by an
intimate partner
Gender and Race/Ethnicity that Reported Experiencing IPV,
NISVS, 2010
Chart1HispanicHispanicBlackBlackWhiteWhiteAsian/Pacific
IslanderAsian/Pacific IslanderAmerican Indian/Alaskan
NativeAmerican Indian/Alaskan NativeMultiracialMultiracial
Female
Male
37.1
26.6
43.3
38.6
34.6
28.2
19.6
0
46

45.3
53.8
39.3
Sheet1HispanicBlackWhiteAsian/Pacific IslanderAmerican
Indian/Alaskan
NativeMultiracialFemale37.143.334.619.64653.8Male26.638.62
8.2*45.339.3
Risk Factors for Intimate Partner ViolencePower and
dominancePatriarchy: inequity of power held by males over
femalesCulturally sanctioned beliefs about the rights and
privileges of husbands Cycle of ViolenceThose who
experience/witness violence as child are more likely to resort to
it as an adultPovertyLack of economic opportunities, fewer
resources, stressHelps to explain higher IPV rates among
minority groups Alcohol useMen’s binge drinking is
particularly dangerous
Societal Responses to Intimate Partner ViolenceViolence
Against Women Act of 1994 (VAWA)Intended to improve
criminal justice and community-based responses to IPV, dating
violence, sexual assault, and stalkingMandatory arrestRequires
detention of perpetrator when there is probable cause that
battery or assault occurred, regardless of victim’s consent or
protestationsCivil protection orderTemporary injunction that
directs assailant to stop battering, threatening, or harming his or
her victimCoordinated community responseResponse to IPV
across criminal justice, social services, and victim advocacy

groups
Violence in GLBT RelationshipsIPV among
Gay/Lesbian/Bisexual/Transgender couplesIPV unfolding
among same-sex unions has not been directly measured.NISVS
one of the only national surveys that directly asks about IPV
and asks about respondents’ sexual orientation.Victims of IPV
in GLBT relationships do not have equal access to social
services.Criminal justice system does not respond to IPV
occurrences with parity.Problematic definitions of “family”
StalkingConduct involving repeated visual or physical
proximity, nonconsensual communication, threats, or a
combination thereof, causing fear, with repeated meaning on
two or more occasionsNISVS measures contact through calls,
texts, e-mails, unwanted gifts, unwanted following, etc.In 2010,
16% of women had been stalked at some point in their
lives.Societal responsesHowever broad or narrow, all states and
the District of Columbia have some form of protective
antistalking legislation.

StalkingSeven specific tactics commonly employed by stalkers
that includeHyperintimacyMediated contactInteractional
contactSurveillanceInvasionHarassment and
intimidationCoercion and threat
Cupach, W. R., & Spitzberg, B. H. (2004). The dark side of
relationship pursuit: From attraction to obsession to stalking.
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlebaum.
Child AbuseTypesSexual abusePhysical abuseNeglect Physical
abuseNFVS definition: pushed, grabbed, spanked, shoved,
slapped, kicked, bit, burned, or assaulted with a gun or a
knife51% of boys and 49% of girls surveyed experienced
physical punishmentRisk FactorsPostpartum psychosisYounger
childrenInadequate bonding with parentChildren w/ mental
disabilities
Percentage of Children Killed From Abuse or Neglect by their
Parents or Primary Caregivers, 2013

Source: Children’s Bureau, U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services.
Societal Responses to Child AbuseBattered child
syndromeCollection of injuries sustained by a child as a result
of repeated mistreatment or beatingPrompted Child Abuse
Prevention and Treatment ActAdoption Assistance and Child
Welfare Act of 1980Intended to prevent unwarranted removal of
children from their familiesFamily Preservation and Support
Services Act of 1993Mandated to expand services to strengthen
families and provide additional supports for children placed
outside of the home
Societal Responses to Child AbuseChild Protection Services
DivisionState agency mandated to protect and remove children
from abusive situations
SEEK, Safe Environment for Every KidThis intervention
requires pediatricians to conduct a risk assessment during
routine primary care services and requires physician training to
better help them identify and address the risk factors for abuse
and neglect. SEEK also provides informational resources for
parents and physicians and social work services for families
who desire them

Elder AbusePhysical/psychological abuse, financial
exploitation, and neglect
Risk FactorsShared living arrangementsDementiaSocial
isolationFinancial dependence
Societal Responses to Elder AbuseOlder Americans ActThe first
piece of national legislation that expressed society’s
commitment to protect vulnerable older Americans at
riskVulnerable Elder Rights Protection ActExpanded the
original legislation to include mandates for the prevention of
elder abuse, neglect, and exploitation.Elder Justice Act
(EJA)The first comprehensive federal legislation to address
elder abuseAdult protective servicesAPS laws establish a
system for the reporting and investigation of elder abuse and for
the provision of social services to help the victim and
ameliorate the abuse.
ConclusionsFor too many, the home is the most dangerous
environment they will ever confront.Acknowledgement of
family abuse is a recent undertaking.Family violence

(experienced and witnessed) imposes profound and lasting
effects on the lives of victims.
Chapter 8:
CROWD violence
IntroductionLike all violence, mob violence is not something
unique to our nation or the modern era.From ancient times to
the present, many societies have confronted the problem of
group violence.Ancient Greek society experienced it so often

that Euripides suggested that, “mobs in their emotions are much
like children, subject to the same tantrums and fits of
fury.”Rome had so many riots that the emperors resorted to
games to keep the mob happy.
Mobs and CrowdsWhat is the difference between a mob and a
crowd? A crowd is nothing more than a collection of individuals
who may or may not share a common purpose, for example, a
group waiting in line for a bus, standing in line, or listening to a
concert.Crowds are usually temporary in nature and do not
usually act in a unified and singular manner.
Mobs and Crowds
The word mob comes from the Latin mobile vulgus, which
literally means “the movable common people” and was meant to
refer to the fickleness or inconstancy of the crowd.Generally
speaking, there are three main types of mob
violence:RiotsLynch mobsVigilante groupsAll three forms of
collective behavior are relatively spontaneous and unplanned
(although there are exceptions), and the groups are relatively
unorganized.Riots are the least planned and most spontaneous.
Vigilante groups are the most planned and least spontaneous.

Social CreaturesBecause we are social creatures who need to
live and work in groups, there is something fundamentally
frightening about large groups of people engaging in what is
perceived as mindless and excessive brutality.We need to trust
and rely on friends, neighbors, and fellow citizens; we want to
feel safe.Mob violence calls into question our security in these
groups.How can we function within groups when they are
potentially so dangerous?
FearsBy their very nature, riots target anybody and anything
unlucky enough to be in the wrong place at the wrong time.In
these situations, no one is safe.Seemingly rational and
reasonable people appear to act irrationally and
unreasonably.But is this an accurate picture?Do crowds simply
“erupt” into violence, or is there something more to it?Why do
some crowds explode into violent behavior while others do not?
Reasons for ViolenceSid Heal has suggested that there are eight
specific psychological factors that serve to lower or remove our

prohibitions against violent behavior and thus facilitate
individual participation in mob violence:
© 2017 SAGE Publications, Inc.Novelty
Suggestibility
Release
Stimulation
Justification
Conformity
Power
Deindividuation
Typology of Crowds and Mobs
Mob MentalityWhy do people often behave differently in
crowds than they do when they are on their own?Solon, the
ancient Greek lawgiver, suggested that Athenians were clever as

foxes when minding their own affairs, but as soon as they
congregated, they lost their wits.The playwright Aristophanes
also described his fellow Athenians as reasonable old men at
home and as fools at the assemblies.
RiotsFederal Criminal Code describes riots as a public
disturbance involving:An act or acts of violence by one or more
persons part of an assemblage of three or more persons, which
constitutes a clear present danger of damage or injuryThreats of
the commission of an act of violence by one or more persons
part of an assemblage of three or more persons having the
ability to execute such threats
Race RiotsDiscontent perceived by some minority groups
expressed through rioting and accompanying violenceExploded
in the U.S. consciousness during the 1960s and again in the
1990sUltimately about class, tooTulsa Riot Act of 1921Los
Angeles City Riot of 1992

LynchingExtralegal execution by a mob Form of popular
justicePerpetrated against groups that are perceived as
threatening some established social orderBlacks weren’t
targeted until after the Civil WarWhy were Blacks lynched en
masse following the start of the Reconstruction Era?Extralegal
social control buttressed by Black codes Legislative initiatives
in the Southern states intended to limit the rights of African
AmericansKu Klux KlanEstablished in 1866 to fight
Reconstruction efforts
VigilantismOrganized extralegal movement in which
participants take the law into their own handsProtect the status
quoApplying their own brand of law and justice to outlaws
threatening established social orderEfforts made to establish
law in an often lawless setting (New Frontier)Not the same as
lynching, which seeks to get around established law
Typologies of Vigilante GroupsCrime-controlFocused on the
elimination of crime and devianceSocial group-controlGoal is to
keep some population in its place, within the lower levels of
class structureExample: lynch mobsRegime-controlEffort to
control the government if it strays from an acceptable course of

action or policyContemporary vigilantismGuardian angelsSex
offender registrant regulationIndividuals who take it upon
themselves to deliver their own brand of justice
ConclusionsMob violence has a long history in the United
States.Lynching of the past takes on new forms in hate-
motivated killings to instill a climate of fear and terror among
minority groups.
Chapter 10:

Genocide
Defining GenocideMost lethal form of collective political
violenceGENO–CIDE is derived fromGreek “GENOS” (race or
tribe)Latin “CIDE” (killingDefining genocide is difficultMisuse
of the wordOverlap between genocide and related human rights
violations and war crimesSelective application of the
termVague terminology (in whole or in part)Variation in intent,
scale, method, and context)
United Nations Definition of GenocideOn April 9, 1948, the
general assembly of the United Nations approved the Genocide
Convention which defined genocide as a crime under
international law.
U.N. DefinitionAny of the following acts committed with intent
to destroy in whole or in part, a national, ethnic, racial, or
religious groupKilling members of the groupCausing serious

bodily or mental harm to members of the groupDeliberately
inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring
about its physical destruction in whole or in partImposing
measures to prevent births within the groupForcibly transferring
children of the group to another group
Common Characteristics of GenocidePerpetrated by the
STATEPlanned, systematic, and ongoing attempts to destroy a
populationVictims are chosen because of their identity as
members of a targeted groupVulnerability of the targeted
groupOccur for varied reasons:Eliminate real or imagined
threatSpread terror among enemiesAcquire economic
wealthImplement belief, theory, or ideology
20th Century GenocideArmenian
GenocideHolocaustCambodiaBosniaRwanda

Selected 20th Century Examples of
GenocideLocationYearsPerpetratorsVictim GroupDeath
CountSouth West Africa1904–1905German
militaryHereros60,000Turkey1915–1923Turkish military and
policeArmenians1 millionSoviet Union1932–1933Soviet
policeUkrainians3–7 millionNazi-occupied Europe1941–
1945Nazis and collaboratorsJews, Gypsies, Slavs,
homosexuals21 millionIndonesia1965–1966Indonesian military
and policeIndonesian Communists500,000Guatemala1968–
1993Guatemalan military and
policeMayans200,000Bangladesh1971Pakistani
militaryBengalis1–3 millionBurundi1972Tutsi military, police,
and paramilitariesHutu100,000–150,000East Timor1975–
1999Indonesian militaryEast Timorese200,000Cambodia1975–
1979Khmer RougeEthnic Chinese, Ethnic Vietnamese, Ethnic
Chams, Buddhist Monks, Educated Classes1–2
millionIraq1988Iraqi militaryKurds500,000–
100,000Bosnia1992–1995Bosnian SerbsBosnian
Muslims250,000Rwanda1994Hutu military, police, and
paramilitariesTutsis800,000

Why Do Genocides Happen?Genocide does NOT simply unfold
as a sudden and unexpected catastrophe.Four Motivators for
Genocide:Developmental: targeted groups seen as an
impediment to the colonization and/or exploitation of a given
geographic areaDespotic: government wields genocide as a
weapon against rivals for political power Ideological: attempted
destruction of a population because of a belief system; seeking
utopiaRetributive: one group wages war against another in the
struggle for political and social power
Society Types from Genocidal to Permissive
Source: Horowitz, I. L. (1997). Taking lives: Genocide and state
power (fourth ed., expanded and Revised. New Brunswick, NJ:
Transaction.

Precursors to GenocidePerpetrated almost exclusively by
totalitarian statesLeaders of these governments are
megamurderersStalin’s Soviet UnionMao’s ChinaHitler’s
GermanyGovernment leadership based on fear and coercionWar
enables genocideUniverse of obligation and heightened feelings
of marginalization experienced by targeted scapegoat groups
during a war
Perpetrators of GenocideMost genocide participants are
ordinary people who believe in the necessity of their
action“Banality of evil” 9 primary motivations for
participationsIdeologicalBigotedViolentFearfulCareeristMateria
listDisciplinedComradelyBureaucratic
Victims of GenocideSelected for extermination because they
fall into stigmatized social categoryRelatively powerless due to
political and social marginalizationOften immigrant
“middleman minority groups” breed resentment and hostility
Typically have long histories of persecution and stigma

When People Do NothingGenocide depends on bystanders who
defer to powerful government authority.Stanley Milgram
experimentMost people believe that nothing can be done and
that they are too powerless to stop the violence.Many also agree
with the policies of destruction that result in
genocide.International community also stands by without taking
action.
International Law and GenocideThere is hope that the next
century will not be as dreadful as the lastNetherlands Institute
of War DocumentationInternational Criminal Tribunal at the
HagueInternational Criminal Tribunal for the Former
YugoslaviaInternational Criminal Tribunal for
RwandaInternational Criminal CourtIncreasing strength if
International Human Rights Law and weakening of National
Sovereignty
ConclusionsInternational law has gained a new potency and
preeminence in recent years.We are continually (re)defining the

nature of international relations and justice.
Chapter 3:
Aiding and Abetting Violence
Guns and ViolenceThe majority of all homicides in the United
States are committed with a firearm, especially handguns.
In fact, the jump in homicide rates witnessed in the late 1980s
through the mid-1990s was primarily attributable to an increase
in handgun homicides.

The rate of homicides committed with other types of weapons,
including other guns, remained relatively stable during this
time.
Homicides by Weapon Type, 1980-2008
Guns and ViolenceThe availability of a gun increases the
likelihood of death by three times.Semiautomatic weapons raise
alarm.Ammunition has become more lethal.The presence of a
firearm increases the likelihood that a violent interaction will
result in death.
Guns, Culture, and ViolenceFascination and fetishizing of guns
in development and expansion of the United StatesU.S. citizens
have more guns per capita than any other nation:47% own a
firearmAverage number of guns among private households that
own at least one is 4.4Rationale for gun ownership:Target
shooting or huntingSelf-protection argumentDefensive gun use

Gun Control LegislationSecond Amendment interpretation
debates continueFederal legislation aimed at controlling 3 main
aspects of gun use and sale:Supply and overall
availabilityRegulations designed to limit availability to high-
risk groupsfelonsRegulations calculated to affect how guns are
usedAntitheft measureslocks
Gun Control LegislationArmed Career Criminal Act of 1984
Imposed a mandatory minimum 15-year prison term on a
convicted felon who had three previous convictions for robbery
or burglary and who possessed or received a firearmBrady
Handgun Violence Prevention Act (Brady Bill) of
1993Mandated criminal history background checks on persons
applying to purchase firearms from federally licensed firearm
dealers
Gun Control LegislationNational Instant Criminal Background

Check System (NICS) Required a background check by the FBI
or a state point of contact on all persons applying to receive
firearms from a registered firearms dealerTheoretically, before
anyone can obtain a gun through a dealer, they must wait 5 days
after purchase, so this check can be completed. This waiting
period and subsequent check are to make sure high-risk
applicants are prevented from obtaining a firearm
High Risk Groups
Such high-risk groups, as detailed by the law, include fugitives
from justice, those dishonorably discharged from the U.S.
Armed Forces, those convicted of a crime punishable by
imprisonment for more than one year, those convicted in any
court of domestic violence, those under restraining orders to
protect intimate partners or children, those who have renounced
U.S. citizenship, unlawful users of controlled substances or
those addicted to controlled substances, and those adjudicated
to be mentally defective or committed to a mental institution, to
name just a few.
Gun Control LegislationAssault Weapons Ban (AWB)Assault
weapons are difficult to define but are generally considered to
be semiautomatic rifles that look like military weapons, such as
AK-47s and Uzis. In September 2004, for example, the new

Congress let the 10-year federal ban on assault weapons expire,
making the banned weapons once again legal to buy
AlcoholA great deal of research finds a widespread link
between alcohol and violence.Marvin Wolfgang studied murder
in Philadelphia in 1955.He found that 55% of the offenders in
his sample had been drinking alcohol prior to their
murder.During the same time period, approximately the same
proportion of homicides were found to involve alcohol in
Chicago.
Illicit DrugsIt is important to point out that it is somewhat
difficult to talk about a general relationship between illicit
drugs and violence because there are so many different kinds of
illegal substances.Self-report information from offenders on
whether they were under the influence of drugs at the time of
their offense is available.

Self-Report Survey
Illicit Drugs and ViolenceThree primary means of
connection:Violence that results from the psychoactive effect of
drugsStudies linking drug use and subsequent violence are
correlational and not experimental, which means that no causal
relationship has been establishedMedia distortionViolence that
results from efforts to support a drug addictionRobberyViolence
resulting from illegal sale of drugsHigh stakesLawless terrain
Alcohol and Drug LegislationHarrison Act of 1914Criminalized
nonmedical use of morphine and cocaineNational
Prohibition/Volstead Act of 1919Gave federal agencies the
power to enforce the 18th amendmentEighteenth
AmendmentOutlawed the manufacture, sale, and distribution of
alcoholMarijuana Tax Act of 1937Taxed the sale of marijuana
Alcohol and Drug LegislationCommunity Mental Health Centers

Act of 1963Provides states with funding for treatment
programmingControlled Substance Act of 1970Consolidated all
previous drug laws into one Five schedules or classifications of
drugsAnti-Drug Abuse Act of 1988Called for mandatory
minimum sentences for possession and distribution of drugs by
type and weightWar on DrugsAmplified legal penalties for
trafficking and possession of illicit drugsFair Sentencing Act of
2010Reduced disparity in sentencing between crack and cocaine
offenses
The Media and ViolenceMedia violence and images affect those
who view them.A recent review of the effects of playing violent
video games also confirms that exposure to video game violence
increases the risk of aggressive behavior both in the short and
long term, both for girls and boys, andboth for children growing
up in Eastern and Western cultures. Increasing the risk of
aggression does not mean “causes” aggression. Theoretical
rationales explaining connection between media exposure and
violent behaviorSocial learning theoryEmotional desensitization
Attitudes and ValuesScriptsguide our behavior, help us solve
social problems, and are typically linked with specific roles and
plans of action.Television and movies are powerful sources for
many of our attitudes and values.Watching violent media

images provides us with the vocabulary of motives and
situations that serves to increase the likelihood that we will also
engage in violence. Interpretation of and reaction to conflict
makes us more prone to violence.
Bushman Experimental Design
ConclusionsThree factors implicated as causes of violence in
the United States:Availability of firearmsAlcohol and drug
consumption and their prohibitionMedia violenceViolence
reduction strategiesParental discretion and
educationMultipartner general deterrence effortsBoston Gun
Project

Chapter 2:
Explaining Violence
What prompted the Boston Bombers to Attack?National
Identity?Ideology?Religion ?Personality?Assimilation?
Types of theories that explain violent behavior:
Ethological/biological
Psychological
Sociological
Ethological and Biological ExplanationsAnimalistic Aggression
Intermale
Territorial
Status

DominanceAtavism
Violent criminals as evolutionary throwbacksEugenics
movement
Justified sterilization and discrimination
Ethological and Biological ExplanationsSerotonin
People with low levels of serotonin appear more likely to
engage in violence because their ability to control their
aggressive behavior is diminished.
Testosterone
Given that most violence is perpetrated by males, some have
suggested that male aggression is linked with levels of
testosterone.
Ethological and Biological ExplanationsBrain injury
Work has focused on brain function by looking at things such as
lesions on the brain caused by injuries, tumors, and other kinds
of head trauma.Antisocial personality disorder
Often characterized as being very narcissistic, reckless, and
emotionally shallow, they are also unable to empathize or feel
compassion for others.

Ethological and Biological ExplanationsFrustration-aggression
hypothesis
Violence is one possible response for individuals who feel
frustrated and thwarted in achieving something. Stress and
violence
Many minority populations live in more impoverished and more
difficult life situations, and these situations are largely
responsible for their higher levels of violent crime.
Sociological ExplanationsFocus is largely on certain kinds of
structural and cultural life situations that affect the behavior of
individuals and groups.Some focus is on large macro-units such
as society, while others focus on smaller units like the
family.But all address themselves to determining what
environmental conditions or situations help bring about violent
behavior.
Sociological ExplanationsEconomic deprivation
A great deal of research has found that income inequality is
strongly connected with violent crime, especially homicide and

assault.
Strain theories
One of the first theories in this perspective was developed by
Robert K. Merton who suggested that people living in poverty
are under strain because their options are very limited.
Focuses on the societal factors that contribute to frustration
Violent Victimization Rates
Chart1White NonHispanicWhite NonHispanicWhite
NonHispanicAfrican American NonHispanicAfrican American
NonHispanicAfrican American NonHispanicHispanic/ Any
RaceHispanic/ Any RaceHispanic/ Any
RaceOther*Other*Other*
2005
2013
2014
Violent Victimization Rate
27.7
22.2
20.3
32.7
25.1
22.5
25.9

24.8
16.2
34.3
25.2
23
Sheet1200520132014White NonHispanic27.722.220.3African
American NonHispanic32.725.122.5Hispanic/ Any
Race25.924.816.2Other*34.325.223
Anomie and AdaptationIndividuals may choose from a variety
of adaptations, some of which may more often result in an
increased risk of
violenceConformityInnovationRetreatismRebellionRitualism
Sociological ExplanationsCultural adaptations
Elijah Anderson suggests that some poor young African-
American men develop what he calls a “Code of the Street.”
This involves a strong sense of personal honor combined with a
corresponding emphasis on guarding against personal affronts
and insults.
These young men take respect very seriously and are apt to
respond violently to that which is perceived as
disrespectful.

Sociological ExplanationsSocial learning theory
Research has shown that individuals learn to respond
aggressively and violently whenthey are rewarded for it,they
observe it,they are victimized by it, orthey don’t develop strong
positive connections with others.
People learn throughconditioning,reinforcement, andimitation
and modeling.
Sociological ExplanationsDifferential association
Edwin Sutherland suggested that people learn not only the
techniques of criminality but also the motives and attitudes
supporting that behavior.
In other words, people also learn the attitudes, rationalizations,
justifications, and vocabulary of violence.
Gangs, for example, illustrate this theory in action as they are
very good at inculcating proviolent attitudes and ideas among
their membership.
Sociological ExplanationsSocial learning, media, and violence
Exposure to media violence and images affect those who view
them.Script theoryTelevision & moviesVideo games

Sociological ExplanationsThe cycle of violence
Intergenerational transmission of violence theoryParents are
children’s strongest role models.Violence is
normalized.Violence is learned.Future violence is correlated
with (rather than caused by) early exposure to it.
Sociological ExplanationsSelf-control and violence
Michael Gottfredson and Travis Hirschi articulated their
General Theory of Crime that is based on the idea of individual
criminality being the result of low self-control.
Importantly, they argue that, even though this appears
psychological, they believe that low self-control is a product of
early socialization and is not an innate trait.
Sociological ExplanationsInformal social control
Robert Sampson and John Laub contend that criminality and
violence are the result of both structural factors such as poverty

and weak social controls, especially from the family.
As a result, people develop poor social bonds with peers and
have low attachments to conventional activities such as school.
Explaining Collective Violence
Groups possess legitimacy and authority
Example: Milgram experiment
Theory of moral disengagement
Selective disengagement with moral prohibitions against
negative or destructive behavior in order to avoid seeing
themselves as bad people
Example: martyrdom
Dehumanization
Perception that victims are less than us or even less than human
Increased social distance
DeindividuationLost of sense of self and individuality when in a
groupWhere “collective mind takes possession of the
individual” – Le BonBehavioral characteristics
Lessening of conscious individual personality
Convergence of thoughts and emotions in a common direction
Emotions and unconscious drive displace reason and rationality
Propensity to immediately carry out intentions as they develop

ConclusionsMotivations and structural conditions that prompt
and enable violent behavior are vast.
Individuals act within specific contexts that bring perpetrators
and victims together.
Context is connected to participants; historical, cultural,
structural, psychological, and biological backgrounds.
Chapter 7:

STRANGER DANGER AND VIOLENCE IN THE STREETS
Stranger DangerEven though the odds are that perpetrators of
interpersonal violence are most likely to be familiar
acquaintances, friends, and family, the fact is that we usually
don’t fear them the way we fear strangers. Stranger crime still
instills the most fearRobberyWorkplace violence including bank
robberyViolent hate crimeStreet gang violence
RobberyUse or threat of force AND the theft of property (with
or without injury)A burglary, in which an offender(s) breaks
into a residence and steals a homeowner’s belongings, is also
considered a property crime because there is no force or threat
of force to a person.A burglary can become a robbery if an
offender finds someone in the house and uses or threatens to use
force against that person during the commission of the crime.

NCVS Data on robberyRates of robbery have declined since the
highs witnessed in the early 1990s.Since 2002, they have
remained relatively stable.The robbery rate per 1,000
individuals aged 12 and over in 2002 was 2.7 compared to a rate
of 2.5 in 2014.This translates into almost 664,200 robbery
victimizations every year.
Risk FactorsLike all violent crime, young adults are more likely
to experience a robbery compared to their older counterparts.
According to the NCVS, those between the ages of 18 and 24
have the highest rates of robbery. Minority populations,
especially African Americans and American Indians or Alaskan
Natives, are also more vulnerable to robbery. The poor are more
vulnerable to robbery victimizations compared to those with
higher family incomesMinorities who live under the poverty
level are extremely vulnerable to robbery. African Americans
whose family incomes are less than $15,000 are almost 10 times
more likely than others to become robbery victims. Why?
Risk Factors
Younger males are at a higher risk of experiencing a robbery
compared with their younger female counterparts; however, this
is not the case for the elderly.
In fact, elderly males and females are equally vulnerable to

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